Title Author(s) Citation Issue Date Japanese Court Jurisdiction in Transnational Litigation Nomura, Yoshiaki Osaka University Law Review. 31 P.21-P.37 1984 Text Version publisher URL http://hdl.handle.net/11094/5398 DOI Rights Osaka University 2 1 JAP ANESECOURTJURISDIC ' I 宝ONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION Yo s h i a k i NO1 ¥ 在URA 勢 INTRODUCTION Int h i sc o u n t r ywhichh a sa d o p t e dac o d el a ws y s t e m,i ft h e r ei sonea r e a wherej u d g e s do make l a w undert h es t r o n gi n 丑u enceo fs c h o l a s t i co p i n i o n, i ti st h ea r e ao fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . S i n c eJ a p a nh a s“ no s t a t u t 田 e x p r e s s l yp r e s c r i b i n gi n t e r n a t i o n a la 司 j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n ,not r e a t i e s t obeobeyedandnow e l l d e 五nedr u l e so fi n t e r n a t i o n a llawwhicha r eg e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d , ' 九 i th a sbeeno fg r e a tp r a c t i c a la sw e l la st h e o r e t i c a li m p o r t a n c e t od e t e r m i n ewhenac o u r tc a ne n t e r t a i nac a s ewhichh a saf o r e i g ne l e m e n t . TheJ a p a n e s eSupremeC o u r th a sl o n gbeens i l e n ta b o u tt h eproblemo f wheret os e e kg u i d a n c ef o rt h ej u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e t e r m i n a t i o n ,andotherthana r a t h e re x c e p t i o n a la r e ao fmibun-ho( f a m i l yl a wands t a t u s ), 2t h e r eh a v en o tbeen manyc a s e sd e c i d e di nt h el o w e rc o u r t s . Int h el o n ga w a i t e dc a s eo f1 9 8 1, t h e Court五n a l l ya d d r e s s e di t s e l ft ot h i sp r o b l e m .3 J u d g i n gfromt h eamounto f commenti tg e n e r a t e d ,i tmustbeac r u c i a lc a s e . Yeti tl e f ts e v e r a li m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n su n r e s o l v e dandt h e r ei ss t i l ldoubta st ot h es c o p eo ft h eh o l d i n g . ,t h i sa r t i c l ee x a m i n e s,i n two p h a s e s,t h e Mter r e c o u n t i n gt h ed e c i s i o n Cour t 'sd o c t r i n ev i s a v i sp r e v a i l i n ga c a d e m i co p i n i o n s . A g a i n s tt h i st h e o r e t i c a lbackground,someo ft h eb a s e sf o ri n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n a r ed i s c u s s e di no r d e rt oh i g h l i g h tt h el i m i t so ft h ec u r r e n ta p p r o a c h e st a k e nby c o u r t sandw r i t e r s . .I ti ss u g g e s t e dt h a tf u t u r ej u r i s d i c t i o n a lr u l e so rt h e o r i e s x i b i l i t ya st ot a k ea c c o u n to fv a r i o u sf a c t o r swhichmakei n t musthaves u c h丑e e r n a t i o n a lc a s e sd i f f e r e n t from.p u r e l yl o c a lo n e s . *A s s i s t a n t ,O s a k aU n i v e r s i t yF a c u l t yo fL a w .L L .B . , 1976,O s a k aU n i v e r s i t yF a c u l t y s a k aU n i v e r s i t yG r a d u a t eS c h o o lo fL a w . o fL a w ;L L .M.,1979,O 1 . G o t ov .M a l a y s i a nA ir 1 i n eS y s t e mB e r h a d ,S u p r e m eC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t ,O c t o b e r16, 1 9 8 1,3 5M i n s h u1224,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n ,26J A P .ANN. INT'L. LAW122(1983). 2 . SeeE g a w a , I n t e r n a 抑 制lD i v o r c eJ u r i s d i c t i o n, 5J A P .ANNINT'L LAW1(1961);Seealso M i u r a , Jud 化i a lJ u r i ' s d i c t i o ni nJ a p a n e s eC o n f i i c to fLaws:S t a t 叫 2 1A M .U .L.R E v .522(1972). ・ 3 . ~ote 1s u p r a . 22 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .31 1 . THEMALAYSIANA I R L I N E S CASE 9 7 7,ap l a n eo p e r a t e d by a p p e l l a n tM a l a y s i a n Ai r 1 i n e On December4,1 System Berhad“ (MalaysianAir 1 i n e s " )c r a s h e di nJ o h o r e Bahrn i nM a l a y s i a d u r i n ga d o m e s t i cf l i g h tfrom Penangt o Kuala Lumpu r . S u b s e q u e n t l yt h e w i f eandtwoc h i l d r e no foneo ft h ed e c e a s e dp a s s e n g e r sb r o u g h tas u i ta g a i n s t M a l a y s i a nAi r 1 i n e si nt h eNa g o y aD i s t r i c tCourti nJ apan, s e e k i n gc o m p e n s a t i o n f o rdamagesc a u s e dbyt h ea p p e l l a n t 'sb r e a c ho ft h ea i rt r a n s p o r tc o n t r a c twhich hadbeenmadei nM a l a y s i abetweent h ed e c e a s e dandt h ea p p e l l a n tcompany. Thed e c e a s e dTomioGotδwasaJ a p a n e s en a t i o n a lands oweret h ea p p e l l e e s, h i sh e i r s . Thea p p e l l a n ta i r 1 i n ewasaM a l a y s i a nc o r p o r a t i o ni n c o r p o r a t e dunder t h elawo ft h eF e d e r a t i o no fM a l a y s i aand hadi t shead0 伍c et h e r e . I thad a p p o i n t e dar e p r e s e n t a t i v ei nJ apanandhade s t a b l i s h e dap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si n Tokyo. TheNagoyaD i s t r i c tCourtd i s m i s s e dt h ec a s es t a t i n gt h a twheret h ep l a c eo f c o n t r a c t i n g , p l a c eo fp e r f o r m a n c e , andt h es i t eo fc r a s hwerea 1 l1 0 c a t e di nMalay s i a ,aMalaysianr a t h e rt h a naJ a p a n e s ec o u r thada d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n .4 The c o u r tfoundt h a tt h ef a c tt h ep l a i n t i f f s 'p l a c eo fr e s i d e n c eandt h ed e f e n d a n t ' s p l a c eo fb u s i n e s swerei nJ apand i dn o tamountt ot h es p e c i a lc i r c u m s t a n c e s whichwouldo t h e r w i s eo v e r t u r nt h e五n d i n gi nf a v o ro ft h eforumo ft h ed e f e n d a n t ' sd o m i c i l e .5 Ona p p e a lt h eNagoyaHighCourtr e v e r s e dand remandedt ot h ed i s t r i c t 6 c o u r t . Thed e f e n d a n t sa p p e a l e d . The SupremeCourtd i s m i s s e dt h ea p p e a l andh e l dt h a tMa 1 a y s i a nAi r 1 i n e ss h o u l dber e a s o n a b l ys u b j e c tt ot h ej u r i s d i c t i o n ,eventhoughi twasaf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nw i t hi t shead0 茸i c ea b r o a d . o fJ apan Theo p i n i o no ft h eC o u r tc a nbes e e nt oc o m p r i s eo ff o u rs e t so fp r o p o s i t i o n s . F i r s t, t h eCourts p o k ei nt e r m so fi n t e r n a t i o n a l l a wands e to u tag e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e : 四 G e n e r a l l ys p e a k i n g ,adjudicatory j u r i s d i c t i o ns h a l l be e x e r c i s e da s ane f f e c to fn a t i o n a ls o v e r e i g n t yandt h es c o p eo fa d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ns h a l li np r i n c i p l e be t a n t a m o u n tt ot h a to fn a t i o n a ls o v e r e i g n 勺T. 4 . G o t δ v .M a l a y s i a nA ir 1 i n eS y s t e mB e r h 註d ,N a g o y aD i s t r i c tC o u r t ,U n r e p o r t e d ,M a r c h 1 5,1 9 7 9,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n,25 J A P .A N N .I N T ' LLAW167 (1982). 5 . Seet e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s44-55 i n f r a . 6 . G o t δ v .M a l a y s i a nA i r l i n eS y s t e mB e r h a d ,N a g o y aH i g hC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t ,N o v e m b e r 1 2,1 9 7 9,402 H a n r e iT a i m u z u102. 1 9 8 4 ] jAPANESECOURTjURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 2 3 T h e r e f o r e ,i fad e f e n d a n ti s af o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nw i t hi t shead 0鼠c e a b r o a d,i ti sg e n e r a l 1 y beyond t h ea d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fJ a p a n, u n l e s si tv o l u n t a r i l ys u b m i t t e di t s e l ft ot h ej u r i s d i c t i o n .7 Thes e c o n ds e to fp r o p o s i t i o n sbeganw i t htwoe x c e p t i o n st h el a s to fwhich i sr e l e v a n tt oo u rp r e s e n tc a s e : I fac a s ei sc o n c e r n e dw i t ht h el a n do fJ apano ri fad e f e n d a n th a sa l e g a lc o n n e c t i o nw i t hJ 丘p an,hec a nbee x c e p t i o n a l l ys u b j e c tt ot h ead j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fJ a p a n ,whateverh i sn a t i o n a l i t yi sandw h e t h e r he i s .8 他 Howc a nonea s c e r t a i nt h el i m i t so fsuche x c e p t i o n s ? A c c o r d i n gt ot h e Court , t h i si st h eproblemo fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . Thet h i r d s e to fp r o p o s i t i o n sr e f e r r e dt ot h i sq u e s t i o n . a v e no s t a t u t e s With r e g a r dt ot h el i m i t so fs u c he x c e p t i o n s,we h p r e s c r i b i n gi n t e r n a t i o n a la 司 j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n, not r e a t i e st obeobey “ edandnow e l l d e 五nedr u l e so fi n t e r n a t i o n a ll a wwhicha r eg e n e r a l l yr e c o g n i z e d . Under t h e s ec i r c u m s t a n s e s,i ti sr e a s o n a b l et od e c i d e on i n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ni na c c o r d a n c ew i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e s o fj u s t i c e and r e a s o n( j o r i ),whichwould r e q u i r ef a i r n e s sbetweent h e p a r t i e s andf a i r and s p e e d ya d m i n i s t r a t i o no fj u s t i c e .9 sat r a d i t i o n a lJ a p a n e s ec o n c e p twhichmeansp r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c e δ Jri"i “ andr e a s o no rp r i n c i p l eo fn a t u r a lr e a s o n,andmaybeemployedbyc o u r t si n ti sa svaguea so rp e r h a p s t h ea b s e n c eo fp r o p e rs t a t u e so rc u s t o m s .10 Yeti morev a g u et h a nt h eAmericanc o u n t e r p a r t“ t r a d i t i o n a ln o t i o n so ff a i rp l a yand and s u b s t a n t i a lj u s t i c e . " l l TheCourt t h u swentont os u b s t a n t i a t et h ei d e a off δr ii nt h el a s ts e to fp r o p o s i t i o n sbyu t i l i z i n gt h et e r r i t o r i a lcompetencep r o v i s i o n si nt h e Code o fC i v i lP r o c e d u r e .12 帽 7 . N o t e1supra. 8 . I bi d . 9 . I bi d . 1 0 . See H. TANAKA,JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM 1 7 5 7 7 . . I n t e r n a t i o n a lS h o eC o .v .W a s h i n g t o n,326U.S .310,316(1945)( q u o t i n gM i l l i k e nv . 11 h在eyer,3 1 1 U.S . 457,463 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ) . 1 2 . M injiSoshoho ( L a wN o .29,1890,a sa m e n d e d ) . 24 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .31 I tshoulda c c o r dw i t ht h e s ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o nt os u b j e c t ad e f e n d a n tt ot h ej u r i s d i c t i o no fJapani fJapanh a soneo fs u c hc o n t a c t s w i t ht h ec a s ea sa r es e to u ti nt h eCodeo fC i v i lP r o c e d u ea st e r r i t o r i a l c o m p e t e n c e . Forexample , whent h ed e f e n d a n t 'sr e s i d e n c e( A r t i c l e2 ), t h e o 缶c eo rp l a c eo fb u s i n e s so faj u r i d i c a lp e r s o no ranyo t h e ra s s o c i a t i o n ( A r t i c l e4 ), t h ep l a c eo fp e r f o r m a n c e( A r t i c l e5 ), t h el o c a t i o no fthed e f e n d a n t ' sp r o p e r t y( A r t i c l e8 )o rt h ep l a c eo ft o r t( A r t i d e1 5 ),e t c .,a r e 13 i nJ a p a n . Applyingt h ea b o v ep r i n c i p l e st ot h ef a c t so ft h ec a s e, t h eo p i n i o nc o n c l u d e d t h a tt h ea p p e l l a n t d e f e n d a n tf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o ns h o u l d ber e a s o n a b l ys u b j e c t 回 e n t a t i v ei nJ apan t ot h ej u r i s d i c t i o no fJ a p a nwherei thada p p o i n t e dar e p r and had e s t a b l i s h e d ap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si n Tokyo. I I . ADJUDICATORYJ U R I S D I C T I O NAND INTERNATIONALLAW A d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fa s t a t ei s an a s p e c to fi t ss o v e r e i g n t y ,and f o r e i g ns o v e r e i g n sandc e r t a i no ft h e i rr e p r e s e n t a t i v e sa r eimmunefroms u i t .14 Therea r ea l s ob i l a t e r a landm u l t i l a t e r a lt r e a t i e swhichl i m i ta d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s 1 5 d i c t i o no fas t a t e . Withint h i sg e n e r a lframeworko fi n t e r n a t i o n a ll a w ,eachs t a t ed e t e r m i n e s whethero rn o ti t sc o u r t ss h o u l de x e r c i s ej u r i s d i c t i o no v e rac a s ewhichh a sa c e r t a i nf o r e i g ne l e m e n t . This i st h e problem o fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r y j u r i s d i c t i o n . In s of a ra st h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r y ,i ti st h e o r e t i c a l l yp l a u s i b l et ot r e a t j u r i s d i c t i o ni ss t i l ld e p e n d e n tone a c hs t a t e t h e problem s o l e l y from an a t i o n a lp o i n to fv i e w . Undert h i s“ n a t i o n a l i s m a p p r o a c h ",t h e r ei snop r a c t i c a landt h e o r e t i c a ls i g n i f i c a n c ei nd i s c u s s i n gi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o nandac o u r tc a nbec o n 五d e n tt ot a k eanyc a s e b r o u g h tb e f o r ei tr e g a r d l e s so ft h ec a s e ' si n t e r n a t i o n a lc h a r a c t e randi r r e s p e c t i v e 16 o fi n t e r e s t swhicho t h e rs t a t e s might havei na d j u d i c a t i n gi t . Eveni fone ,internationaladjudicatoryjurisdiction,a tt h e d o e sn o tt a k et h i se x t r e m ev i e w 噌 1 3 . N o t e1supra. 1 4 . I nr eM a t s u y a m a ,G r e a tC o u r to fJ u d i c a t u r eD e c r e e ,D e c .28,1928,7M i n s h u1128. 1 5 . See ,e .g ., A g r e e m e n tu n d e rA r t i c l eVI o ft h eT r e a t yo fM u t u a lCか o p e r a t i o na n d r i c a , r e g a r d i n gF a c i l i t i e sa n dA r e a sa n d S e c u r i t yB e t w e e nJ a p a na n dt h eU n i t e dS t a t e so fA me , 1960,3 7 3U .N .T .S .207;V i e n n aC o n t h eS t a t u so fU n i t e dS t a t e sA r m e dF o r c e si nJ a p a n p r i l18,1961,500U .N .T .S .9 5 . v e n t i o no nD i p l o m a t i cR e l a t i o n s,adoptedA 1 6 . See,e .g .,F r e n c hC i v i lC o d e ,a r t s .14& 1 5 . 1 9 8 4 ] JAPANESECOURTJURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 2 5 p r e s e n ts t a t eo fi n t e r n a t i o n a llaw , i sam a t t e ro fs e l f l i m i t a t i o nont h ep a r to fa i fwea r et oa c h i e v ead e c e n t and w o r k a b l e g i v e n forum s t a t e . T h e o r e f o r e, ,weshoulde s t a b l i s hd e c e n tandw o r k a b l ed o m e s t i cr u l e sf o r i n t e r n a t i o n a lo r d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . I nt h ea b s e n c eo fs t a t u t o r yr u l e swhichd i r e c t l yr e g u l a t et h eproblemo f ,Japaneses c h o l a r sandc o u r t sh a v ec o n i n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n s t r u c t e ds e v e r a lt h e o r i e st od e a lw i t hi t . Anyo ft h e s et h e o r i e sc a nu s u a l l ybe ,thef i r s tp h a s eo fd i s c u s s i o n sb e i n g s e e nt oc o n s i s to ftwop h a s e so fd i s c u s s i o n s d e v o t e dt ot h en a t u r eo ft h es u b j e c ti t s e l fandt h es e c o n dp h a s et ot h ea c t u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o no fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . s tp h a s ea r ep r i m a r i l ye x p l a n a t o r y . The p r o b l e m s which a r i s ei nt h e五r Onev i e wthatwasp r e d o m i n a n tsomed e c a d e sa g oseemedt ob e l i e v et h a ti n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o nc a ng e n e r a l l ybe e X p l a i n e di nt e r m so ft e r r i t o r i a l and p e r s o n a lp r i n c i p l e so fs o v e r e i g n t y Y This viewi sc r i t i c i z e d on t h egroundt h a tt h ec o n c e p t so ft e r r i t o r i a landp e r s o n a ls o v e r e i g n t ydon o to f f e r s t a t i s f a c t o r ye x p l a n a t i o nf o rv a r i o u ss i t u a t i o n sp r e s e n t e dbyi n t e r n a t i o n a lt r a n s a c t i o n s . For c o n v e n i e n c e ,we s h a l lc a l 1t h i st y p eo fview t h e“ s o v e r e i g n t y a swes h a l ls e el a t e r ,thatsince a p p r o a c h . " Thea p p r o a c ht a k e st h ep o s i t i o n, 1 i m i ta d j u d i t h e r ea r enor u l e si nb o t hi n t e r n a t i o n a landm u n i c i p a ll a w st ode ,the sum oft e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c e so fJ a p a n e s ec o u r t si s c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n 1 8 ,a si nt h e n o t h i n gb u tt h ee x t e n to fa d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fJ a p a n . Here h ec o n c e p to fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n n a t i o n a l i s ma p p r o a c h,t 五n dsnom e a n i n g f u lp l a c e . ns e t t i n go u ti t s五r s ts e to fp r i n c i p l e s,r e 1 i e d on The Supreme C o u r t,i t 'sa d o p s o v e r e i g n t y . 1 9 Onecommentatori n t e r p r e t e di ta se v i d e n c i n gt h eCour 2 0 t i o no ft h es e v e r e i g n t ya p p r o a c h . Howeveri nt h et h i r ds e to fp r o p o s i t i o n s t h eC o u r te x p l i c i t l ya d m i t t e dt h a ti n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ni san , . a n d e x c e p t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o nwhichi sana s p e c to fs o v e r e i g n t y h e l dt h a tt h eb o u n d a r i e so fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ns h o u l d be 1 A d e l i m i t e di na c c o r d a n c ew i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eand r e a s o n .2 d j u d i ,andthesovereigntyapproachcan c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ni sana s p e c to fs o v e r e i g n t y nodoubt e x p l a i no r d i n a r yc a s e so fp u r e l yl o c a ln a t u r e . But t h et e r r i t o r i a l andp e r s 帽 幽 福 1 7 . S e e H. KANEKO,MINJI SOSHOHo TAIKEI 6 6-67 ( 1 9 5 7 ) . 1 8 . 'Seet e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s28-29 i 1 7 f r a ・ 1 9 . Seet e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e7supra. 2 0 . See Goto,Case C017l17le n t,7 68 JURISUTO 2 7 8,279 ( 1 9 8 2 ) . 21 . S e et e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e9 supra. 26 OSAKA UNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .3 1 g u i d a n c et oc o p ew i t hb o r d e r l i n es I t u a t i o n swhichmaybemorep r o p e r l yr e g u l a t 2 2 twould, t h e r e f o r e, bemorea p p r o p r i a t et os a yt h a t edbyo t h e rp r i n c i p l e s . I o r i t h eCourtr e c o g n i z e dt h el i m i to ft h es o v e r e i g n t ya p p r o a c handt u r n e dt oj t or e s o l v et h eb o r d e r l i n ec a s e swhicha r ei n c r e a s i n gi nnumbera smoret r a n s a c t i o n sa r ec a r r i e do u ta c r o s sn a t i o n a lb o r d e r s . P e r h a p st h eC o u r ti st obecom mendedf o rr e c o g n i z i n gf a c t so fl i f ei nt h emodern w o r l d,b u ti t sf a i l u r et o δr ii sn o t . TheCour t 'sp o s i t i o na st ot h en a t u r eo f expoundt h en o t i o n so fj l 1 e d, t h e“ e x c e p t i o na p p r o a c h . " i n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o nmaybec a l 1 y unanimous s u p p o r t from There i s one v i e w which now h a sv i r t u a s p e c i a l 1 yt h o s ei nt h e五e l do fi n t e r n a t i o n a lp r i v a t el a w . A c c o r d i n g s c h o l a r s,e ,thep r i n c i p l e so fj o r iwhicha r et o五1t h e“ l e g a lvacuum , " t ot h i smodernview a si t were,o fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ns h o u l dd e r i v e from t h e 2 3 b a s i cv a l u e so fi n t e r n a t i o n a lc i v i lp r o c e d u r e . Thei d e ao fi n t e r n a t i o n a lc i v i l i n t e r n a t i o n a lc o o p e r a t i o n amongj u d i c i a lo r g a n i p r o c e d u r ei su n d e r s t o o da s“ z a t i o n so ft h ew o r l dt os h a r ej u d i c i a lf u n c t i o n si nc i v i landc o m m e r c i a lm a t t e r s whicha r i s efromi n t e r n a t i o n a lp r i v a t et r a n s a c t i o n sbetweenp r i v a t ep e r s o n s . " 2 4 ,t h eproblemo fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ni st o Undert h i sview l 1 0 c a t ej u d i c i a lf u n c t i o n st oj u d i c i a lo r g a n i z a t i o n so fv a r i o u s d e c i d e howt oa s t a t e s . Thust h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o nc a n l 1 ybecomparedt ot h a to fd o m e s t i ct e r r i t o r i a lcompetencewhosep u r p o s e l o g i c a l 1 0 c a t ej u d i c i a lc o m p e t e n c et e r r i t o r i a l 1 y . I fs o,t h esamer e q u i r e i sa l s ot oa mentso ff a i r, j u s tande 伍c i e n ta d m i n i s t r a t i o no fj u s t i c emustbef u l 五l l e di n 2 5 l 1i tt h e“ i n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c h . " both p r o c e s s e s . We may c a I ti st r u et h a tt h i sa p p r o a c hmustbep u r s u e di nt h ep r o c e s so ff r a m i n g“ h a r d I l. 2 6 I ti sc e r t a i n l y a n d f a s tr u l e s "o fi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o t e m p t i n gt oi m a g i n et h a tan a t i o n a lc o u r tc o u l db e h a v ea si fi twereani n t e r n a t i o n a lt r i b u n a li na l l o c a t i n gi n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yc o m p e t e n c et oaforum 缶c u l tf o rac o u r to re v e nf o rt h ep r o o fa n o t h e rs t a t e . Yeti ti sp r a c t i c a l l yd i p o n e n to ft h ea p p r o a c ht oa s c e r t a i nt h ee x t e n to fj u r i s d i c t i o no n l yr e l y i n gon t h eb a s i cv a l u e so fi n t e r n a t i o n a lc i v i lp r o c e d u r e . Thusmosta d h e r e n t so ft h e i n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c ha l s ol o o kt ot h ed o m e s t i 幽 岨 2 2 . SeeS a w a k i,Aφ i u d i c a t o r yJ u r i s d i c t i o nR e v i s i t e d ,9K O K U S A IS H O J IHOMU611 (1981). 2 3 . S e eI k e h a r a ,I n t e r n a t i o n a lAφ ' u d i c a t o r yJ u r i s d i c t i o n,78HIN J I T S U M UM I N J I S O S H OK δ Z A 3( 1 9 8 2 ) . 2 4 . I d .a t1 6 . 2 5 . S e ei d .a t16-19. 2 6 . S e eR e e s e,GeneralCourseonPrivateLηternationalLazv,1976R E C U E I LDES C O U R S1,33 ( 1 9 7 7 ) . 1 9 8 4 ] jAPANESECOURTjURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 27 t e n c ep r o v i s i o n sf o rp r a c t i c a lg u i d e l i n e s .27 III. TERRITORIAL COMPETENCE AND INTERNATIONAL ADJUDICATORY JURISDICTION I twouldnodoubtbed e s i r a b l ei fa d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fv a r i o u ss t a t e s c o u l dber e g u l a t e dbyi n t e r n a t i o n a l 1 a w . Buta tp r e s e n ti ti sn o tv e r ya p p e a l i n g t ol i n kt h es o v e r e i g n t ya p p r o a c hw i t ht h eviewt h a tt h esumt o t a lo fd o m e s t i c t e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c e s amounts t ot h ea d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o no fJ a p a n .28 Undert h i sview ,i faJ a p a n e s ec o u r th a st e r r i t o r i a lcompetenceo v e rap a r t i c u l a r a p a nh a sj u r i s c a s ei na c c o r d a n c ew i t ht h eCodeo fC i v i lP r o c e d u r e(CCP),J d i c t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t et h ec a s e,r e g a r d l e s so fi t sn a t u r e .29 Ont h eo t h e rhand,Japanh a snoj u r i s d i c t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t eac a s ew i t ha f o r e i g ne l e m e n ti fnob a s e so ft e r r i t o r i a lcompetenceundert h eCCPa r el o c a t e d p p r o a c h, i fa p p l i e dw i t h o u tm o d i f i c a t i o n , l e a d st om e c h a n i c a l i nJ a p a n .30 Thisa a p p l i c a t i o n. o ft h ed o m e s t i c competence r u l e st oi n t e r n a t i o n a lc a s e s . When b a s e dont h eCCPp r o v i s i o n s, i tmaybec a l l e dt h e“ d i r e c ta p p r o a c h , "whereas l 1 yi tmaybec a l 1 edt h e“ s i n g l ef a c t o r b a s i sa p p r o a c h .川 1 TheJormer moreg e n e r a name w i l ls e r v eo u rp r e s e n tp u r p o s e . The d i r e c ta p p r o a c hi sv u l n e r a b l et o t h ec r i t i c i s mt h a tt h ea p p l i c a t i o no ft h e competence p r o v i s i o n si r r e s p e c t i v e 32 o ft h ec a s e ' si n t e r n a t i o n a ln a t u r ewouldg i v er i s et osomeu n r e a s o n a b l er e s u l t s . U n l i k et h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h ,theSupremeCourtinterposedthenotionsof j o r io rt h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o nb e f o r ei tl o o k e dt ot h eCCP. How,theCourtseemedt od e v e l o panargument e v e ri nt h el a s ts e to fp r o p o s i t i o n s whichwouldi ne f f e c tp r o d u c et h esamer e s u l t sa st h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h .33 The t 'sl a n g u a g emaybei n t e r p r e t e dt omeant h a te x e r c i s eo fj u r i s d i c t i o nby Cour aJ a p a n e s ec o u r ti sc o n s i s t e n tw i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eand r e a s o ni ns o f a ra si tc o m p l i e sw i t had o m e s t i ccompetencer u l e .34 Asam a t t e ro ff a c tt h e o p i n i o nc o n c l u d e dt h a tt h ed e f e n d a n tf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nwass u b j e c tt oJ a p a n e s ej u r i s d i c t i o nb e c a u s ei thadap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ apan,whichi soneo ft h e 聞 2 7 . Seet e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s35-36 i n f r a . 2 8 . S e e KANEKO,s . u ρran o t e17,a t6 6 . 2 9 . l b i d . 3 0 . I b i d . 31 . S e et e x 士a c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s62~66 かげ'ra. 3 2 . S e el k e h a r a ,supran o t e23,a t17-18. Seea l s ot e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s57-58i n f r a . 3 3 . S e et e x ta c c o n p a n y i n gn o t e13 supra. 3 4 . T a k e s h i t a ,CaseAnalysis,637KINYU SHOJI HAN田 1 49(1982). Seea l s oG o t δ,supra n o t e20 a t279. 2 8 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .3 1 b a s e sf o rt e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c e . Thuswea r ef a c e dw i t htwoq u e s t i o n sa st o i dt h eCO l I r ta d o p tad i r e c tapproach? S e t h es c o p eo ft h eh o l d i n g . F i r s t,d h o u l dt h er a t i o n a l eo fMalaysianA i r l i n e sbel i m i t e dt ot h ef a c t so ft h e cond,s c a s eo rc o u l di tbeg e n e r a l l ya p p l i e dt ot h es i t u a t i o nwhereaf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o n apan? h a sap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ P e r h a p st h eu l t i m a t ea n s w e r ss h o u l dw a i tu n t i lt h eC o u r to rl o w e rc o u r t s e l a b o r a t eont h e s ep o i n t s . Int h emeantimet h eq u e s t i o n sneedt obee x p l o r e d l 1bed i s c u s s e di nt h en e x ts e c t i o n . a sam a t t e ro ft h e o r y . Thel a s tq u e s t i o nwi i ti sp l a u s i b l et oc o n c l u d et h a tt h er a t i o n a l eo ft h eC o u r t Ast ot h e五r s tq u e s t i o n, wouldn o tamountt om e c h a n i c a la p p l i c a t i o no ft h e CCPp r o v i s i o n sb e c a u s e ip r i n c 争l e s ,nota ss t a t u t o r yr u l e s . t h o s ep r o v i s i o n sa r es e e nt of u n c t i o na s戸r Evenwhent h e r ei soneo ft h eb a s e sf o rt e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c ei nJ a p a n, i ti s 1 yprimaf a c i ea c c o r dw i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so ff δr it oc o n c l u d et h a tJ apanh a s on fac o u r t五ndse x e r c i s eo fj u r i s d i c t i o no v e rap a r j u r i s d i c t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t e . I t i c u l a rc a s ei n c o n s i s t e n tw i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o n ,i tmayn o t “ a p p l y " acompetencer u l e . I funderstoodi nt h i sway ,the Supreme Court i n d i r e c ta p p r o a c h . " Thiso b s e r v a a p p r o a c hmaybec a t e g o r i z e da sak i n do f“ t i o ni ss u p p o r t e dbyamorep r a c t i c a lr e a s o n . Undert h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h,a d sany d i s t r i c tc o u r tc a nandmustt a k et h ec a s ew i t haf o r e i g ne l e m e n ti fi t白l b a s i sf o rt e r r i t o r i a lcompetencei nJ a p a n . S i n c et h ed o c t r i n eo fforumnonc o n su n a v a i l a b l ei nJ apan, t h ec o u r tc o u l dn o td i s m i s st h ec a s ee v e nwhen v e n i e n si e 1 yt r i e di nsomeo t h e rs t a t e . Thisr e s u l ti sc e r i twouldbemorea p p r o p r i a t t a i n l yc o n t r a r yt ot h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eand r e a s o n . Thei n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c hi sl i n k e dw i t ht h eviewt h a ti n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o no fa d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o ns h o u l dber e g u l a t e dbyt h esame o r ia si n t r a n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o nf o rt e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c e ,namely p r i n c i p l e so fj 3 5 ,j u s t and e 伍c i e n ta d m i n i s t r a t i o no fj u s t i c e . 五回c e t h ep r i n c i p l e so ff a i r t h i sviewc o n c l u d e st h a ti n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o no fj u r i d i c t i o ni sd e t e r m i n e dby e s s e n t i a l l yt h esamer u l e sa si n t r a n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o no fc o m p e t e n c e . However i tc a l l sa t t e n t i o nt ot h eneedf o ri n t e r n a t i o n a lc o n s i d e r a t i o n swhenonei n f e r s 36 v a l u a t i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n a lr u l e s from t e r r i t o r i a l competence p r o v i s i o n s . In e b o t ht h i smethodandt h eCour t 'S a p p r o a c h ap a r t i c u l a ra s s e r t i o no fj u r i s d i c t i o n, 目 3 5 . S e el k e h a r a ,s u p r an o t e23,a t1 6 . 3 6 . Seei d .a t1 9 . jAPANESECOURTjURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 1 9 8 4 ] 2 9 i n f e r sj u r i s d i c t i o n a lr u l e sfromt h eCCPp r o v i s i o n sw h e r e a st h el a t t e rpresumes, fromt h ee x i s t e n c eo ft e r r i t o r i a l competence, t h a t aJ a p a n e s ec o u r th a sj u r i s d i c t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t e . However ,i ti su n c e r t a i nwhethert h e r ei sap r a c t i c a ld i f f e r e n c ebetweent h e m . Atl e a s ti nt h e o r y,i ts h o u l dben o t e dt h a tw h i l et h e “ i n f e r e n t i a lmethod"i smoref l . e x i b l eandmaybemorea p p r o p r i a t ef o rc r e a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l ya c c e p t a b l er u l e so fj u r i s d i c t i o n , t h eC o u r t ' s“ p r e s u m p t i v emethod" seemsmores t a b l eandp r e d i c t a b l e . Atanyr a t e, bothmethodsmaybec a t e g o r i z edundert h enameo fi n d i r e c ta p p r o a c hs i n c et h e ys e e kj u r i s d i c t i o n a lr u l e sfrom t h e CCPbywayo fj o r i . Thei n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c hi sa l s oa d o p t e dbyt h o田 w r i t e r swho employt h eb a l a n c i n go fi n t e r e s t sa p p r o a c hi nt h ej u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e t e r m i n a t i o n . Someo fthemr e j e c te i t h e rformo ft h ei n d i r e c ta p p r o a c h, whichmoreo rl e s s r e s o r tt ot h eCCPp r o v i s i o n s .37 Thep r o p o n e n t so ft h eb a l a n c i n ga p p r o a c hs t r e s s 妊e r e n c e sbetweeni n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o no fj u r i s d i c t i o nandi n t r a n a t i o n a l t h ed i 3 a l l o c a t i o no ft e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c e .8 Theyp r o p o s et o make aj u r i s d i c t i o n a l d e c i s i o nbyc o n s i d e r i n gandcοmparingv a r i o u sf a c t o r ss u c ha st h eburdenont h e d e f e n d a n tt od e f e n di nad i s t a n tforum ,theburdenonthep l a i n t i 旺t oh a v et h e forumo fh i sc h o i c ed e n i e d andt h eforums t a t e ' si n t e r e s t si na d j u d i c a t i n gt h e 3 9 d i s p u t e . A commentatorwhof o l l o w st h ei n f e r e n t i a lmethodc r i t i c i z e st h eb a l a n c i n g a p p r o a c hont h egroundt h a ti twouldmakep r e d i c t i o no fj u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e c i s i o n s andwouldt h u sd i s c o u r a g et h ep a r t i e sfromp u r s u i n g u n c e r t a i nandu n s t a b l e, 疋r e s t s ,andf e t t e rt h ed e v e l o p m e n to fi n t e r n a t i o n a lt r a n s a 心t i o n s .40 But t h e i ri n t a r et h etwoa p p r o a c h e sm u t u a l l ye x c l u s i v e ? P e r h a p swhati sneededi sac h a n g e i ne m p h a s i s . Theb a l a n c i n ga p p r o a c hi sc e r t a i n l yv u l n e r a b l eωthea b o v ec r i t i c i z mi fa p p l i e dbyandi ni t s e l f . Buti tc a nbei n t e g r a t e di n t ot h ei n d i r e c t 4 1 a p p r o a c hw i t hs u c c e s s . Thei n d i r e c ta p p r o a c hb e a r san u n d e s i r a b l ea s p e c t, 闇 3 7 . See,e . g K o s u g i& T a t s u n o juris・ ゐc t i 開 ,a lR e q u i r 抑 , 制仇 R e c o g n i ・ ' t i o π 01 Foreign judg 捌 , 叫ん K O K U S A IS H I H ONOS O T E N162,162-63 (1980). TheN a g o y aD i 由 i c tC o u r ti n MalaysianA i r l i n e sa d o p t e dt h es a m ep o s i t i o na n dh e l d, “ …l n 鈴r n a t i o n a lj u r i s d i c t i o na n dd o・ リ m e s t i cc o m p e t e n c eh a v ed i s t i n c tc o n t e n t s .T h i sc o u r tt h i n k st h a tt h ep r o v i s i o n sf o rd o m e s t i c 泡r n a t i o n a lj u r i s d c t c o m p e t e n c ec a n n o ta p p l yb ya n a l o g yt oi n t 30 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .3 1 t ot h epureb a l a n c i n g a p p r o a c ha d v o c a t e, wheni ta p p e a r st of o c u ss o l e l yont h e 42 CCP p r o v i s i o n s . The i n f e r e n t i a l method i sn o tv e r yc l e a ra b o u t how one c a n“ i n f e r "r e a s o n a b l er u l e so fj u r i s d i c t i o nfromt h et e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c ep r o v i s i o n s . Theb a l a n c i n ga p p r o a c hmaymaket h ep r o c e s so fi n f e r r i n gmorec o n c r e t e and e a s i e rt ou n d e r s t a n d by a r t i c u l a t i n gr e l e v a n tf a c t o r st o be w e i g h e d . P a r t i c u l a r 1 y, t h ei n t e r n a t i o n a lc o n s i d e r a t i o n si tc a l l sf o rwi 1 1r e q u i r ei n q u i r yi n t o “ p r i v a t ei n t e r e s tf a c t o r s "p e r t a i n i n gt ot h ec o n v e n i e n c eo ft h el i t i g a n t s and “ p u b l i ci n t e r e s tf a c t o r s "p e r t a i n i n gt ot h ec o n v e n i e n c eo ft h e forum,which a r emucha m p l i f i e di nt h ei n t e r n a t i o n a la r e n a .日 And s u r e l yt h ep r e s u m p t i v e methodn e e d sab a l a n c i n gp r o c e s swherei n t e r n a t i o n a lc o n s i d e r a t i o n sa r ed u l y g i v e n ,i ns of a ra si tr e f e r st ot h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o n . 1 V . THE DEFENDANT'S FORUM? J a p a n e s ec o u r t sf o l l o wt h eg e n e r a lp r i n c i p l ea c 伽 s e q u i t u rf o r u m reip l a i n t i f fmusts u ea td e f e n d a n t ' sd o m i c i l e . Thisp r i n c i p l ewas l a i d downby A r t i c l e1andp a r a g r a p h1o fA r t i c l e2o ft h eCodeo fC i v i lP r o c e d u r e . AJ a p a n e s e t 'sd o m i c i l ec a ne x e r c i s ej u r i s d i c t i o no v e ranya c t c o u r ts i t t i n ga tt h ed e f e n d a n i o na g a i n s t him s i n c ei ti sh i s“ g e n e r a lf o r u m . " Theg e n e r a lforumo fac o r p o r a t i o ni so r d i n a l i l yd e t e r m i n e d, a sA r t i c l e4, p a r a g r a p h 1p r o v i d e s , “ bythel o c a t i o no fi t sp r i n c i p a lp l a c eo fb u s i n e s s,by t h ed o m i c i l eo ft h ep r i n c i p a lp e r s o ni nc h a r g eo fi t sa f f a i r s . " However ,parag r a p h3p r o v i d e s : ,theprovisionso fp a r a g r a p h1s h a l l w i t hr e g a r dt oaf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o n a p p l yt ot h e0伍 c e,p l a c eo fb u s i n e s so rp e r s o ni nc h a r g eo ft h ea f f a i r s o fsuch c o n c e r ni nJ a p a n . R e l y i n gont h i sr u l e, t h eM a l a y s i a nA i r l i n e sCourts u s t a i n e dt h ej u r i s d i c t i o n o fJ a p a n . I st h i sr e s u l tj u s t i f i e d ? Most commentators who d i s a g r e ew i t h t 'sc o n c l u s i o nt u r nt oA r t i c l e9r a t h e rthanA r t i c l e4t oc r e a t ear u l ef o r t h eCour ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T hef a c t o r sh ep r o p o s e st oc o n s i d e ra r et h ei n t e r e s t so ft h ep l 均l t i f f ,i n t e r e s t so ft h e ,c o n v i n i e n c eo fc o l l e c t i n ge v i d e n c e ,f o r s e e a b i l i t yo ft h ef o r u m, a n de n f o r c e a b i l i t yo f d e f e n d a n t i dn o t t h ej u d g e m e n t . Hef o u n dt h a tb a l a n c i n go ft h e s ef a c t o r si nt h eMalaysianAirlinesd p o r a t i o nw i t hap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ a p a ns h o u l db e o v e r r i d et h eg e n e r a lr u l et h a taf o r e i g n∞r s u e do n l yi nc o n n e c t i o nw i t ht h eo p e r a t i o no ft h a tp l a c eo fb u s i n e s s . 4 2 . See K o s u g i& T a t s u n o ,supran o t e37 a t162-63. 4 3 . G u l fO i lC o r p o r a t i o nv .G i l b e r t ,330U.S .5 0 1,508-9 ( 1 9 4 7 ) . SeeP i p e rAir c r a f t ,_ U.S . -~ 1 0 2S .C t .252 (1981). C o .v .R e y n o 1 9 8 4 ] JAPANESECOURTJURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 3 1 i n t e r n a t i o n a la 司 j u d i c a t o r yj u i s d i c t i o n .44 They p r o p o s ear u l et ot h ee f f e c t t h a tas u i ta g a i n s taf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nm a i n t a i n i n gan0伍 c eo rp l a c eo fb u s i n e s s i nJapanmay ,onlyi ns of a ra si tc o n c e r n st h ea 古i u r so fs u c han0伍 c eo rp l a c e r o u g h tb e f o r e aJ a p a n e s ec o u r t .45 S i n c et h ev i c t i m made o fb u s i n e s s,be b g h twhichendedi nac r a s h t h ea i rt r a n s p o r tc o n t r a c ti nM a l a y s i af o rad o m e s t i c丑i t h e r e ,thes u i tc o u l dn o tbes a i dt oc o n c e r nt h ea f f a i r so ft h ed e f e n d a n t 'sp l a c e o fb u s i n e s si n Tokyo. O p i n i o n so ft h ecommentatorswhos u p p o r tt h er e s u l tv a r y . Onecommentat o rs u g g e s t st h a ti nas u i tb a s e donana i rc a r r i e r ' sl i a b i l i t i e se n s u i n gfromana i r ,theforumo ft h ep l a i n t i f f ' sd o m i c i l es h o u l dh a v ej u r i s d i c t i o ns of a r a c c i d e n t a st h ed e f e n d a n ta i rc a r r i e rd o e sb u s i n e s si n t e r n a t i o n a l l yandh a sap l a c eo fb u s i o n s i d e r st h ef a c tt h a tt h ed e f e n n e s si nt h eforums t a t e .46 Anothercommentatorc d a n twasd o i n gb u s i n e s si nJapana sc o n t r o l l i n g YD e s p i t et h ee m p h a s i sb e i n g d i 古' e r e n ti ti sn o t e w o r t h yt l 蹴 ma 町 o fthemseemt or e ぢonabalancingapproach a lj u s t i f i . c a t i o no ft h eCour t 'sr u l i n g .48 P e r h a p st h emostu n d e s i r a b l ec o n i nt h e五n s e q u e n c eo ft a k i n ganyapproachf o c u s i n gont h et e r r i t o r i a lb a s e so ft h eCCP , w i t h o rw i t h o u tt h eb u f f e ro fjari, wouldbet h a tt h e yo f t e ns t o ps h o r to fa r t i c u l a t i n g t h ec o m p e l l i n gr e a s o n sf o rt h e i rj u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e t e r m i n a t i o n . Though n o t a r t i c u l a t e di nt h eCour t 'sr u l i n g ,i twouldbeu n r e a l i s t i ct os u p p o s et h a tt h ef a c t 古sw eret h eb e r e a v e df a m i l yo ft h ev i c t i mandt h ed e f e n d a n t, an t h a tt h ep l a i n t i i n t e r n a t i o n a la i r l i n ed o i n gc o n t i n u o u sands u b s t a n t i a lb u s i n e s si nJ apan, d i dn o t 49 i n f l u e n c et h eCour t 'sd e c i s i o n . The r e s u l to fMalaysian Airlines c o u l d and 五e dbyanumbero ff a c t o r si na d d i t i o nt ot h ed e f e n d a n t 's s h o u l dh a v ebeenj u s t i p l a c eo fb u s i n e s s . Wemustnowt u r nt ot h eq u e s t i o nwhichwasr a i s e dp r e v i o u s l y . Shouldt h e MalysianA i r l i n e sr a t i o n a l ebel i m i t e dt ot h ef a c t so ft h ec a s eo rs h o u l di t be s e e nt oe x t e n dt o anys t i u a t i o nwheret h ed e f e n d a n tf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nh a s 4 4 . S e e,e .g .,I k e h a r asupran o t e23 a t2 5 . 4 5 . S e ei d .a t2 5 . 4 6 . S e eO s u g a ,CaseComment,729J U R I S T O143,144(1980). 4 7 . S e eM a t s u o k a , J u r i s d i c t i o n a lP r o b l e m si nI n t e r n a t i o 叩 1 T r a n s a c t i o n s1 2 4廷 A N D A IHOGA 即 1,6 7( 1 9 8 2 ) . 4 8 . S e e, e .g., G o t osupran o t e17a t280;A o y a m a ,CaseComment,76 B E S S A T S UJ U R I S T O20, 2 1( 1 9 8 2 ) ;T a k e s h i t a ,supran o t e34a t53-55;五在a t s u o k a ,supran o t e47a t7;O h a r a , C a s eComment, 2 9 6H A N R E IHYORON201,204(1983). A f t e rw e i g h i n gaf e wf a c t o r s, t h e i rb a l a n c i n gs e e m e d c 1e28 t op o i n tt o w a r dt h ep r o t e c t i o no ft h ep l a i n t i f f s .S o m eo ft h ec o m m e n t a t o r sr e f e rt oA r t i o ft h eW a r s a wC o n v e n t i o no f1929 a m e n d e db yt h e1971 P r o t o c o lo fG u a t e m a l aC i t ya sa n i n d i c a t i o no ft h er e c e n t 't r e n dt o w a r dt h ep r o t e c t i o no ft h ep l a i n t i 任 i nt h ef i e l do fi n t e r n a t i o n a l .g ., O s u g asupran o t e46a t144. a i rt r a n s p o r t a t i o n . See,e 4 9 . S e eS h i o z a k i ,A Commentont h eM a l a y s i a nA i r l i n e sC a s e,10 K O K U S A IS H O J I HOMU 14,22 ( 1 9 8 2 ) . [ N o .31 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW 3 2 ap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ a p a n ? I no t h e rwords , i saCourtj u s t i 五edi ncon c 1 u d i n g t h a tJ apanh a sj u r i s d i c t i o no v e rt h ec o r p o r a t i o ns i m p l yb e c a u s et h eC o u r t五nds as i n g l ef a c t o r ,t h a ti s,i t sp l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ a p a n ? When af o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nh a san0伍 c eo rp l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJ apan, i ti su s u a l l yt h ec a s et h a ti t 5 0 I fs o,i td o e sn o tseem i sd o i n gc o n t i n u o u sand s u b s t a n t i a lb u s i n e s st h e r e . t obei n c o n s i s t e n tw i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o nt or e q u i r et h ec o r p o r a t ed e f e n d a n tt od e f e n danyk i n do fs u i tt h e r e . A f t e rM a l a y s i α nA i r l i n e s , t h e r e wasonec a s ewhicha p p a r e n t l yb a s e di t sd e c i s i o nont h ed e f e n d a n t ' sp l a c eo f 51 b u s i n e s s . Thisc a s ei sn o t a b l ef o rtwor e a s o n s .F i r s t ,i ti n d i c a t e sad i r e c t i o n i nwhicht h ei n d i r e c ta p p r o a c hmaybed e v e l o p e d . Second, i tt e s t e dt h er e a c h o ft h eM a l a y s i a nA介助z e si nad i f f e r e n tf a c tp a t t e r n . InTokyoMarine& F i r eI n s u r a n c eK .K .v .K .L .M.RoyalDutchA i r l i n e s, s2 t h eJ a p a n e s eu n d e r w r i t e r ,standingi nt h ec o n s i g n e e ' sp l a c ebywayo f s u b r o g a t i o n ,broughtanactionf o rdamages,a l l e g i n gb r e a c ho fa i rt r a n s p o r t a t i o nc o n t r a c to rt o r t ,beforethe Tokyo District Court. The d i s t r i c tc o u r t r e s t a t e dt h eb a s i cp r i n c i p l e so fc i v i lp r o c e d u r es e tf o r t hi nM a l a y s i a nA i r l i n e s andr e f o r m u l a t e dt h e Supreme C o u r t ' sp r e s u m t i v em e t h o d . I ts t a t e dt h a ti f oneo ft h eCCPb a s e sf o rt e r r i t o r i a lcompetencei sl o c a t e di nJ a p a n,i twould a c c o r dwitht h en o t i o n so ff δ r it os u s t a i nt h ej u r i s d i c t i o no fJ apan“ p r o v i d e dt h a t t h e r ea r enos p e c i a lc i r c u m s t a n c e st h a twouldp r o d u c eu n r e a s o n a b l er e s u l t sa st o f r u s t r a t et h eabovementionedb a s i cv a l u e so fc i v i lp r o c e d u r e . " 5 3 Thea d v a n t a g eo ft h i sr e f o r m u l a t i o ni st h a ti tc o m p e l sac o u r tt oe x p l a i n andj u s t i f ywhyas i n g l eb a s i so fd o m e s t i ct e r r i t o r i a lcompetencemaybeused a sab a s i sf o ri n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . Inf a c tt h ed i s t r i c tc o u r t r e a s o n e d : 四 , 蝿 …i twast h eo b v i o u sf a c tt h a tt h ed e f e n d a n twasani n t e r n a t i o n a la i r l 1o v e rt h ewo r 1d . Withi t si n t e r n a t i o n a lb u s i n e s s c a r r i e rd o i n gb u s i n e s sa , wedon o tt h i n ki twas networkandw i t ht h ep l a c eo fb u s s i n e s si nJ apan i m p o s s i b l eo rc o n s i d e r a b l yd i 伍c u l tf o rt h ed e f e n d a n tt oc o n d u c tn e c e s s a r yd e f e n s ea c t i v i t i e sh e r e . Furthermore, t h ed e s t i n a t i o no ft h et r a n s p o r 5 0 . Art i c l e479o ft h eC o m m e r c i a lC o d e(Shoho. LawN o .48,1899)p r o v i d e st h a ta n y f o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o ni n t e n d i n gt od ob u s i n e s sc o n t i n u o u s l yi nJ a p a ns h a l lr e g i s t e ri t so f f i c ea n da r e p r e s e n t a t i v ei nJ a p a n .H o w e v e raf o r e i g n“c o r p o r a t i o n "c a nb es u e de v e nw i t h o u tt h er e g i s r t i c l e46 o ft h eC C P . t r a t i o n . See A 51 . T o k y oM a r i n e& F i r eI n s u r a n c eK.K.v .K.L .M.R o y a lD u t c hA i r l i n e s,T o k y o ,S e p t e m b e r27,1982,1075H a n r e iJ i h o1 3 7 . D i s t r i c tC o u r tI n t e r l o c u t o r yJ u d g m e n t 5 2 . l b i d . 5 3 . I b i d . jAPANESECOURTjURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 1 9 8 4 ] 3 3 t a t i o nc o n t r a c t between Shenker [ t h ec o n t r a c t i n gc a r r i e r ] andt h ed e f e n d a n t … wasan a i r p o r ti nJ a p a n . The i n c o n v e n i e n c ei n c u r r e d by 五t si tr e c e i v e sfrom t h ed e f e n d a n ti st h ec o s ti ts h o u l db e a rf o rt h ebene h i swo r 1 dwidea c t i v i t i e s . Ofc o u r s ei ti st h eo b v i o u sf a c t, t o o, t h a tt h e p l a i n t i 百i sal a r g ei n s u r a n c ecompany. Yetwedon o tb e l i e v et h a ta s s e r t i n gJ a p a n e s ec o u r tj u r i s d i c t i o ni nt h ei n s t a n tc a s ewouldbei n c o n s i s t e n t w i t hf a i r n e s st op a r t i e so n l yona c c o u n to ft h i sf a c t . Inl i g h to ft h eabovementioneda b i l i t yo ft h ep a r t i e s,c o l l e c t i n go fe v i 伍c u l ta st oo b s t r u c taf a i rands p e e d yt r i a l .o4 d e n c ei sn o ts od i 噌 Thust h ed i s t r i c tc o u r tj u s t i 五edi t se x e r c i s eo fj u r i s d i c t i o no v e rt h eDutchc o r p o r a t i o n . Int h ep r o c e s so fe x a m i n i n gw h e t h e ro rn o tt h e r ea r eany“s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s "t oo v e r t u r nt h eg e n e r a lp a t t e r n, i ti st obee x p e c t e dt h a tt h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c e and r e a s o nwi 1 lbe g i v e nc o n t e n t,n o t mere l i ps e r v i c e ; A d e v e l o p m e n to fp r a c t i c ei nt h i sd i r e c t i o nwi 1 le n s u r e ,t oa c e r t a i nd e g r e e ,a f a i randj u s td e t e r m i n a t i o no fj u r i s d i c t i o nwhichg i v e s duer e g a r dt ot h ei n t e r n a t i o n a lc h a r a c t e ro ft h ec a s e . .M.c a s ed e m o n s t r a t e dt h a tt h ep l a c eo fb u s i n e s sr u l eo fj u r i s d i c TheK.L t i o ni sa p p l i c a b l et on o n a i ト c r a s hc a s e s . Suchf a c t o r sa st h er e l a t i v eeconomic h es i t u so fe v i d e n t i a r ys o u r c e s,o rt h ed e s t i n a t i o no f p o s t u r e so ft h el i t i g a n t s,t at r a n s p o r t a t i o nc o n t r a c tmayn o tbec o n t r o l l i n gbyandi nt h e m s e l v e s,b u tr e g e n e r a lforum"i ss u r e l y q u i r i n gaf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nt od e f e n das u i ti nh i s“ j u s t i f i e di ft h o s ef a c t o r sp o i n tt o w a r d st r i a li nt h a tf o r u m . Atanye v e n t, t ot h e e x t e n tt h a tt h ep l a c eo fb u s i n e s sr u l e( a n dh e n c et h e0伍 c eo rt h ep e r s o ni n c h a r g e ) 5 5i sa p p l i c a b l et oat r a n s n a t i o n a lc a s e, t h ep r i n c i p l ea c t o rs e q u i t u rforumr e i i ss u b s t a n t i a l l y modi 五edi nf a v o ro ft h ep l a i n t i f f . v . A PROSPECT FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT Whenaf o r e i g nd e f e n d a n th a sno“ g e n e r a lforum"i nJ a p a n ,adjudicatory j u r i s d i c t i o nmaybeb a s e dont h e“ s p e c i a lforum"p r o v i s i o n so ft h eCodeo fC i v i l P r o c e d u r e . F r e q u e n t l yu t i l i z e db a s e si nt r a n s n a t i o n a ll i t i g a t i o na r ep l a c eo f p e r f o r m a n c e( A r t i c 1e5 ),p l a c eo ft o r t( A r t i c 1 e1 5 ),s i t u so fa t t a c h a b l ep r o p e r t y ( A r t i c 1 e8 )andc o n s e n t( A r t i c 1 e2 2 ) . 5 6 Therei ss t i 1 ldoubta st owhatc o n s t i t u 5 4 . I b i d . 5 5 . SeeA r t i c l e4,p a r a g r a p h3o ft h eCCPt h ep e r t i n e n tp a r to fw h i c hw a sq u o t 疋de a r l i e r . 5 6 . Seeg e n e r a l l yF吋i t a,忽抑制 nationalLitigation- ConflictofLaws,i n7Z.KrTAGAWAe d ., DOING BUSINESS IN JAPAN c h .5(1981). 3 4 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [ N o .3 1 t e st h ep l a c eo fperformance ,o rp l a c eo ft o r t . Suppose,f o rexample ,onet a k e s t h eviewt h a tt h eformerr e f e r st ot h ep l a c eofperformanceo ft h eo b l i g a t i o n t opaydamagesi nbreacho fc o n t r a c ta sw e l la st h ep l a c eo fperformingano r i g i nal 1 yc o n t r a c t e dduty , i ti sh i g h l yd i 伍c u l tt odeterminet h ep l a c eo fperformance u n i f o r m l y . The c r i t i c i z mh a sbeenmadet h a ti fsuchambiguousc o n c e p t sa s “ t h ep l a c eo fperformanceo rp l a c eo ft o r ta r et obea p p l i e di nt r a n s n a t i o n a ll i t i g a t i o n ,adefendantmightbeforcedtodefendinanunforseeableforumwhich hassometimesnothingt od6witht r i a lc o n v e n i e n c e .57 Alsoq u e s t i o n a b l ei st h e g e n e r a la p p l i c a b i l i t yo fA r t i c 1e8t oac a s ewheret h ed e f e n d a n th a snoo t h e rc o n n e c t i o nwithJ apanthant h ep r e s e n c eo fh i sp r o p e r t yt h e r e . Manyw r i t e r sa r e w i l l i n gt ol i m i tnarrowlyt h eJ a p a n e s er u l eo fattachmentj u r i s d i c t i o nt oac a s e t 'sp r o p e r t yi snottemporaryandi t sv a l u e wheret h ep r e s e n c eo ft h edefendan 5S 伍c i e n tt os a t i s f yt h ec 1 a i m . I S su Genera l 1 ys p e a k i n g, J a p a n e s ej u d g e shavet a k e nac a u t i o u sa t t i t u d ei na p p l y 5 9 i n gt h eCCPp r o v i s i o n st ot r a n s n a t i o n a lc a s e s . Mosto ft h ec a s e swhereJ a p a n e s e j u r i s d i c t i o nwass u s t a i n e dhadsomeo t h e ra 伍l i a t i n gc i r c u m s t a n c e sthant h es t a t u t o r yb a s e s, onwhichj u r i s d i c t i o nc o u l dhaveo t h e r w i s ebeengrounded , andv a r i o u s 幽 f a c t o r swhich c o u l d havej u s t i 五ed ther e s u l t .60 No doubtt h es i g n i 五canceo f a l a y s i a nA i r l i n e sshouldultimately t h eSupremeCourtd o c t r i n eannouncedi nM bet e s t e dbylowerc o u r t si nt h ec o n t e x to ft h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o n . d e s p i t et h eSupremeCourt 'Sf l e e t i n gr e f e r e n c et ot h eCCPp r o v i s i o n s, i t 'However, mightber e a s o n a b l et os a yt h a ti fp a s te x p e r i e n c ei sanyg u i d e , J a p a n e s ec o u r t sw i l l 5 7 . See,e .g .,I k e h a r a ,supran o t e2 3a t2 6 2 7& 3 1 . 5 8 . S e ei d .a t2 9 . 5 9 . S e e, e . g ., L o u s t a l o tv .A d m i r a lS a l e sC o ., I n c ., T o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t , J u n e1 1, 1 9 5 9,1 0K a m i n s h u1 2 0 4( A r t i c l e5n o ta p p l i c a b l e ;s i n c et h eb u r d e no nt h ep a r t i e si sc o n s i d e r a b l y h e a v i e ra n dt r a n s f e ri sn o ta v a i l a b l ei nt h ei n t e r n a t i o n a ls e t t i n g , i ti sn o tr e a s o n a b l et or e g a r da l l t h et e r r i t o r i a lc o m p e t e n c ep r o v i s i o n sa st h es t a n d a r df o rj u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e t e r m i n a t i o n ) ;S .A . o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t ,May2 ,1 9 7 2,6 6 7H a n r e i Rougemexv .H o e iT r a d i n gK .K .,T J i h δ 4 7,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n,1 8J A P ..ANN .I N T ' LLAW2 0 9( 1 9 7 4 )( e n f o r c e m e n to faF r e n c h j u d g e m e n td e n i e d ;t h ep l a c eo fp e r f o r m a n c ep r o v i d e di nt h eCCPi sn o tr e g a r d e da sas u f f i c i e n t c o n n e c t i o nt op e r m i ta d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n ) . 6 0 . See ,e .g寸 K .K .Y a m a s h ov .T r a n s a s i a t i cI n c .,T o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r tI n t er 1 o c u t o r y ,November1 1,1 9 8 1,4 6 0H a n r e iT a i m u z u1 1 8( A r t i c l e5p l u sp l a c eo fc o n t r a c t i n g ) ; J u d g e m e n t S o g oK o e k iK .K.v .A .D .S v e n d b o r g,T o k y oD i s t r I c tC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t ,O c t o b e r1 7 ,1 9 6 7 ,1 8 K a m i n s h u1 0 0 2 ,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n ,1 1J A P .A N N .I N T ' LLAW1 3 6( 1 9 6 7 )( A r t i c l e s 5& 9 ) ; 1a n d sN a v i g a t i o nC o .,YokohamaD i s t r i c tC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t ,S e p Y a s u t o m iv .U n i t e dN e t h er t e m b e r2 9 ,1 9 6 6,1 7K a m i n s h u8 7 4 ,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n ,1 1J A P .A N N .I N T ' LLAW1 5 9( 1 9 6 7 ) ( A r t i c l e8 ,s h i pc o l l i s i o ni nJ a p a n e s ew a t e r s ,d o m i c i l eo ft h ei n j u r e dp l a i n t i 任" l o c a t i o na n dr e g i s , T o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r tI r ト t r a t i o no ft h ev i c t i m i z e ds h i p ) ;Y a b u t a n iv .TheB o e i n gCompany t e r 1 o c u t o r yJ u d g e m e n t ,J u l y2 4 ,1 9 7 4 ,7 5 4H a n r e iJ i h o5 8,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n ,1 9J A P .A N N . a i ra c c i d e n ti nJ a p a n, f o r u mf o r s e e a bi 1 i 勺r ,c o n v e n i e n c eo fc o l I N T ' LLAW2 2 5( 1 9 7 5 )( A r t i c l e1 5, ,p r o t e c t i o no ft h ep l a i n t i f f s ) . l e c t i n ge v i d e n c e 幽 1 9 8 4 ] jAPANESECOURTjURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 3 5 n o ta d o p tt h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h . 1nt h i sr e s p e c t,av e r s i o no ft h ep r e s u m p t i v e method r e f o r m u l a t e di nK.L .M.may beac o r r e c tr e s t a t e m e n to fwhat t h e lawi sandhaveu t i l i t ya sar u l eo fthumbf o rt h eimmediatej u r i s d i c t i o n a ld e t e r m i n a t i o n .61 Ar e l a t e d, b u to f t e nn e g l e c t e dproblemi sw h e t h e rana 伍l i a t i n gc i r c u m s t a n c e whichi sn o tp r o v i d e di nt h e CCP i sa c c e p t e da st h eb a s i sf o ra d j u d i c a t o r y j u r i s d i c t i o n . A p p a r e n t l y most J a p a n e s el e g a ll i t e r a t u r ef a i l st oe x p l o r et h i s p r o b l e m . Thisi sp r o b a b l y due t ot h ef a c tt h a ti t s main c o n c e r nh a s been t omodify( u s u a l l yt ol i m i tn a r r o w l y )t h eCCPp r o v i s i o n st oa v o i dt h eu n r e a s o n a b l er e s u l t so fa d o p t i n gt h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h, whichf o c u s e ss o l e l yont h eCCP. f o c u sont h es t a t u t o r y 1 ti st h eweakp o i n to ft h ei n d i r e c ta p p r o a c ht h a tt h e yt o o, b a s e sf o rd o m e s t i cc o m p e t e n c e . N o n e t h e l e s st h e r ei snor e a s o nwhyt h eq u e s t i o ns h o u l d be e x c l u d e d from t h et h e o r e t i c a lh o r i z o n . The Supreme Court o n c er e c o g n i z e d ,thoughi n an i n t e r n a t i o n a ld i v o r c ec a s e,t h a tt h ep l a i n t i f f ' s d o m o i c i l ec o u l de x c e p t i o n a l l ybeab a s i sf o ra d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n .62 TheC o u r t r e a s o n e dt h a tt h em e c h a n i c a l, r i g i da p p l i c a t i o no ft h ed e f e n d a n t ' sd o m i c i l ep r i r ト c i p l e“wi 1 1produceharshr e s u l t si n c o m p a t i b l ew i t ht h edemandso fj u s t i c eand e q u i t yi ni n t e r n a t i o n a lp r i v a t er e l a t i o n sandt r a n s a c t i o n s . "63 Althought h i swasan e x t r a o r d i n a r yc a s ewheret h ewhereabouto ft h ed e f e n d a n thusbandwasn o tknown, i ti st h e o r e t i c a l l yn e c e s s a r yt oexamine,a sag e n e r a lm a t t e r ,whatcircumstances c o u l dj u s t i f yt h eo v e r t u r n i n go ft h et r a d i t i o n a lb i a si nf a v o ro ft h ed e f e n d a n t . Anotheri l l u s t r a t i o no ft h ei n a d e q u a c yo fb o t ha p p r o a c h e si sp r e s e n t e dby Ya mazakiv .TakenakaKδ , m u t e nL t d .64 Thep l a i n t i f fwasi n j u r e di nat r a 伍 ca C C l d e n ti nT h a i l a n dc a u s e dbyoneo ft h ed e f e n d a n t s,aJ a p a n e s en a t i o n a l ,who wasd r i v i n gt h ea u t o m o b i l ea tt h et i m eo ft h ea c c i d e n t . Thep l a i n t i f f五l e dt h e s u i ta g a i n s tt h ed e f e n d a n ts t i l 11 i v i n gi nT h a i l a n d, andh i se m p l o y e r s, aJ a p a n e s e company ,whichwastheownero ft h eautomob i 1 e ,i nad i s t r i c tc o u r to fJ a p a n s e e k i n gdamagesb a s e dont o r t s . Thec o u r t ,a f t e rb a l a n c i n gsuchf a c t o r sa st h e i n c o n v e n i e n c et ot h ed e f e n d a n t s, t h eburdenont h ep l a i n t i f fandt h ec o n v e n i e n c e o fg a t h e r i n ge v i d e n d c e, c o n c l u d e dt h a tt h ei n c o n v e n i e n c et ot h ed e f e n d a n temp l o y e ewasn o ts og r e a ta st h ep l a i n t i , 百 whowasi nh o s p i t a li nJ apan , wouldS u 妊e r, andt h a tl i t i g a t i o nwasmorea p p r o p r i a t e l yande 伍C l 同 61 . Seet e x ta c c o m p a n y i n gn o t e s53-54supra. 62・ C h u n gv .C h u n g , S u p r e m eC o u r tJ u d g e m e n t , M a r c h25,1964,18M i n s h u486, E n g l i s h ,5J A P .A N N .I N T ' LLAW175(1961). SeeE g a w a ,Slφran o t e2 . T r a n s l a t i o n 6 3 . N o t e62supra. 6 4 . T o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r tI n t er 1 o c u t o r yJ u d g e m e n t ,M a r c h20,1979,925 H a n r e iJ i h o 7 8,E n g l i s hT r a n s l a t i o n ,24J A P .A N N .I N T ' LLAW127(1981). 36 OSAKAUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW [No. 3 1 Thed i s t r i c tc o u r td i dn o tmakeanya t t e m p tt or e f e rt oanyo ft h et e r r i t o r i a l competencer u l e s, andr e s o l v e dt h eq u e s t i o nbyt h epureb a l a n c i n ga p p r o a c h . Nos a t i s f a c t o r ye x p l a n a t i o nh a sy e tbeenmadebyt h ecommentatorswhoa g r e e witht h er e s u l tbuts e e kt od e r i v eana p p r o p r i a t ej u r i s d i c t i o n a lr u l ebym o d i f i n g 6 5 t h ecompetencer u l e s . Furthermoret h eq u e s t i o nh a sp r a c t i c a ls i g n i 五c a n c ewhen wet h i n ko ft h ep o s s i b i l i t yt h a tf u t u r el e g i s l a t i o nmayexpanda swe l 1a sl i m i tt h e p e r m i s s i b l eb a s i sf o rj u r i s d i c t i o n . An o t h e rp o s s i b i l i t yi st h a tJapanmayr a t i f ya t r e a t ywhichwould deman < ; lachangei n ourj u r i s d i c t i o n a lp r a c t i c ei n ap a r 6 6 t i c u l a r五e l d . 欄 I fl e g a ls c h o l a r sa r et oc o n t r i b u t et ot h edevelopmento fj u r i s d i c t i o n a l 1 a w , t ot h ee s t a b l i s h m e n to fr e a s o n a b l eandmanageabler u l e sf o ri n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n ,t h e i rt a s ki st oe v a l u a t et h ee x i s t i n ga sw e l la sp r o b a b l e b a s e sf o rj u r i s d i c t i o n . An a t t e m p ts h o u l da l s o bemadet op r o v i d ea l i s to f f a c t o r swhichwouldj u s t i f yap a r t i c u l a re x e r c i s eo fj u r i s d i c t i o ni ntermso ft h e p r i n c i p l e so fj u s f i c eandr e a s o n . I ti si nt h i sp r o c e s st h a tt h eb a l a n c i n gapproach s h o u l dcomei n t op l a yandbei n t e g r a t e di n t ot h ei n d i r e c tapproachi nt h econ 6 7 t o u r drawn byt h ei n t e r n a t i o n a la l 1 o c a t i o na p p r o a c h . 幽 CONCLUSION Ther a t i o n a l eo fM a l a y s i a nAかl i n e scana tl e a s tbee x t e n d e dt oas i t u a t i o n o 伍c e, p l a c eo fb u s i n e s so rp e r s o ni . nc h a r g e whereaf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o nh a san“ o ft h ea f f a i r so fsuchc o n c e r n si nJ a p a n . " 6 8 Thef a c tt h a taf o r e i g nc o r p o r a t i o n h a s, f o rexample, ap l a c eo fb u s i n e s si nJapan, u s u a l l yi n d i c a t e st h a ti ti sd o i n g c o n t i n u o u sands u b s t a n t i a lb u s i n e s st h e r e . Thesamef a c ta l s os u g g e s t st h a tt h e 6 5 . W a t a n a b e , s u p r an o t e40v i e w sYamazakiv .TakenakaKomutena sac a s eo fm u l t i p l ed e f e n d a n t s . Art i c l e21o ft h eCCPs t i p u l a t e st h a tw h e r ej o i n d e ro fs e v e r a ld e f e n d a n t si sp r o p e r a n dp e r m i s s i b l e ,t h ep l a i n t i f fc a ns u ea l lt h ec od e f e n d a n t si nt h es a m ec o u r ti na c c o r d a n c e w i t ht h ep r o v i s i o n so fArti c l e s1t o2 0 .H o w e v e rm o s tw r i t e r sa r er e l u c t a n tt ou t i l i z eA r t i c l e 2 1w i t h o u tq u a l i f i c a t i o ni nt h et r a n s n a t i o n a ls e t t i n g . 6 6 . S e e, e .g ., A r t i c l e10o ft h eH a g u eC o n v e n t i o no nt h eR e c o g n i t i o na n dE n f o r c e m e n to f F o r e i g nJ u d g e m e n t si nC i v i la n dC o m m e r c i a lM a t t e r s . 6 7 . Y a b u t a n iv . TheB o e i n gC o ., s u p r an o t e60,i san o t a b l ee x a m p l eo ft h i s“ i n t e g r a t e d " a p p r o a c h . TheT o k y oD i s t r i c tC o u r te v a l u a t e dt h ep l a c eo fi n j u r yr u l eo b t a i n e df r o mA r t i c l e 1 5o ft h eCCPb yas t a n d a r ds i m i l a rt ot h ei n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c h .I ta s k e dw h i c h ,f a i ra n d s t a t ei st h em o s ta p p r o p r i a t ef o r u mt or e s o l v et h ec o n t r o v e r s yf r o mav i e wp o i n to fj u s t e f f i c i e n ta d m i n i s t r a t i o no fj u s t i c e .A f t e rs t a t i n gt h a tJ a p a nc a n n o tb ead i s t a n ta n du n f o r s e e a b l e f o r u mf o rt h ea i r p l a n em a n u f a c t u r e r ,t h ec o u r tf u r t h e rj u s t i f i e dt h ea p p l i c a t i o no ft h ep l a c eo f i n j u r yr u l et ot h ei n s t a n tc a s eb yb a l a n c i n gs u c hf a c t o r sa st h ec o n v e n i e n c eo fc o l l e c t i n ge v i d e n c e , t h ei n t e r e s to ft h ep l a i n t i f f ,a n dt h ei n t e r e s to ft h ed e f e n d a n t . 6 8 . C o d eo fC i v i lP r o c e d u r e ,a r t .4 ,p a r a .3 . 幽 1 9 8 4 ] JAPANESECOURTJURISDICTIONIN TRANSNATIONALLITIGATION 37 c o r p o r a t i o nh a ssomeo t h e rc o n n e c t i o n sw i t hJ a p a n . Undert h e s ec i r c u m s t a n c e s, i t. would n o t be c o n t r a r yt ot h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c e and r e a s o nt or e q u i r e i tt od e f e n danyt y p e so fa c t i o nt h e r e . Howevert h eCour t 'sl a c o n i cl a n g u a g e s h o u l dn o tbei n t e r p r e t e dt omeant h a tt h emeree x i s t e n c eo fap l a c eo fb u s i n e s s i nJ a p a nc o n f e r sj u r i s d i c t i o n on aJ a p a n e s ec o u r t . N e i t h e rs h o u l di t be i n t e r p r e t e da st h eCour t 'sa cknowlegemento ft h ed i r e c ta p p r o a c h .U n l e s smodiι ed, o rj u s t i f i e dbyo t h e rf a c t o r s , as i n g l e f a c t o r b a s i sf o rd o m e s t i ct e r r i t o r i a lcomp e t e n c ec a nh a r d l ybear e a s o n a s b l eb a s i sf o ri n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . Ab e t t e rr e f o r m u l a t i o no ft h eM a l a y s i a nA i r l i n e sr a t i o n a l e mayb e :A J a p a n e s ec o u r tmaypresumefromt h ee x i s t e n c eo ft e r r i t o r i a lcompetencet h a t i th a sj u r i s d i c t i o nt oa d j u d i c a t eac a s ew i t haf o r e i g ne l e m e n t , u n l e s si t五ndssome s p e c i a lc i r c u m s t a n c e swhichwouldb r i n ga b o u ts u c hanu n r e a s o n a b l er e s u l ta s t of r u s t r a t et h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c eandr e a s o n . Yetl e g a lt h e o r i s t s may n o tc o n t e n tt h e m s e l v e sw i t ht h er u l eo fthumb. I ft h e ya r et ol o o kbeyondt h eh o r i z o no ft h el a wa si ti s,t h e i re f f o r t ss h o u l d a l s obed i r e c t e dt o w a r d st h ee s t a b l i s h m e n to fr e a s o n a b l eandw o r k a b l er u l e sf o r i n t e r n a t i o n a la d j u d i c a t o r yj u r i s d i c t i o n . T h e i r immediate t a s ki st o examine h ew i d e rp e r s p e c t i v eo f e x i s t i n ga sw e l la sp o s s i b l eb a s e sf o rj u r i s d i c t i o n,fromt t h ei n t e r n a t i o n a la l l o c a t i o na p p r o a c h . Att h esamet i m eana t t e m p ts h o u l dbe made t oe n u m e r a t et h o s ef a c t o r swhich would make ap a r t i c u l a re x e r c i s eo f j u r i s d i c t i o nc o n s i s t e n tw i t ht h ep r i n c i p l e so fj u s t i c e and r e a s o n .
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