Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013 Owe Stråhlman Johan

Rapporter
IDROTTSVETENSKAP
2014
Nr.1
GÖTEBORGS UNIVERSITET
Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap
Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013
Volunteering Experiences
at a Sporting Event
Owe Stråhlman
Johan Pålshammar
EVINN-project
Abstract
Title:
Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013: Volunteering Experiences at a Sporting
Event
Authors:
Owe Stråhlman and Johan Pålshammar
Departments: Gothenburg University and GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon.
Pages:
26
Date:
March 1, 2014
Keywords:
Volunteer, event, motivation, half marathon, Gothenburg
Background: GöteborgsVarvet half marathon in Sweden is the largest running event in the
world, and the race has undergone major developments. In May 2012, there were 44,093
participants who started the race. To accomplish the event about 4,000 volunteers1 are needed
annually to organise all the necessary aspects and functions. In order to continue to develop
the event, the organisers in 2013 carried out an investigation in order to gain experience and
increase knowledge about informing and educating volunteers. A sample of volunteers was
asked to take part in an evaluation study that was launched in May-June 2013.
Aims: The aims of the study are to describe (1) the kind of individual benefits provided by
volunteering at GöteborgsVarvet and (2) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of
the event.
Method: A questionnaire was sent out to the volunteers. The survey contained questions
about two major areas of interest; (1) the respondent’s opinions about the organisation of the
event and (2) the kind of individual benefits volunteering provides. In all, 607 respondents
(39%) answered the questionnaire. Of those, 286 were women and 320 were men (one
respondent did not answer the question about gender).
Results: The results from the sample in this study confirm that volunteering is an emotional
experience and offers an emotional reward. There are important motivational factors such as
enrichment, prestige and career enhancement, and the volunteers found these opportunities
more or less useful in their careers. The respondents in this study felt a degree of altruism as
part of their work as volunteers. Knowledge about developing and rewarding factors is
essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers.
1
In the Swedish language, persons who work as volunteers in an event are usually called functionaries
(officials). In this text, we will use the word volunteer in the sense of a person who performs unpaid
work in an organisation.
2
Content
Abstract 2 Foreword 4 1. Background 5 2. Earlier research 6 3. Theory 8 4. Method 9 Validity and reliability 9 Ethics 10 Opinions about the organisation of the event 13 Individual benefits of volunteering 16 Motivation and volunteering 17 5. Discussion 23 Method discussion 23 Result discussion 23 Some final words 24 3
Foreword
The Event Based Innovation Project (EVINN) started in the year 2011 and is funded by the
European Union, together with participating partners in Denmark (Aarhus), Norway (Oslo),
and Sweden (Gothenburg). The idea of the project is to develop sporting events as a generator
for economic growth with an emphasis on the importance of building, developing and
disseminating technological solutions that will ensure the region's current leadership position
as an event organiser.2 The goal of the project is to attract major events to the region by
linking technology development projects and major events.
The EVINN project contains the following six thematic projects:
1. Tourist information
2. Sports gear
3. Public gaming
4. Sport casting
5. Event organisation
6. Impact and innovation process analysis
The overall target of the project is to create a new competence cluster within the region for
the event industry and sports events. Utilising transnational cooperation, the EVINN project
will contribute to the development and growth in the region through knowledge transfer,
innovation, and product development. The project is expected to result in improved conditions
for knowledge transfer and matchmaking between researchers and research clusters.
This report is carried out in Area 5 – event organisation. It is a report from a survey with the
volunteer officials at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013 about their opinions and experiences of being
a volunteer. A previous report has been published with results from an evaluation with
volunteers at the European Indoor Athletics Championships in Gothenburg (iEM) 2014. Both
the iEM report and this report were conducted with the same questionnaire, and therefore,
some of the text sections are the same.
We will like to take the opportunity to thank Hedvig Adolfsson and Elina Söderberg for their
work in the project and Bo Nielsén at the Faculty of Education, Gothenburg University for his
work with the data collection.
Gothenburg 2014-03-01
The authors
2
http://www.interregoks.eu/en/Menu/Projects/Project+List+Kattegat/EVINN+Eventbased+Innovation.
4
1. Background
GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon in Sweden is the largest running event in the world, and the
race has undergone major developments. In 1980, the first GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon
started in the city centre of Gothenburg at the Heden exercise field and finished at the Ullevi
Stadium. Approximately 1,800 runners started in this first race. In May 2012, there were
45,015 participants who started the race (which began and finished at the Slottskogsvallen
Stadium in Gothenburg). Important athletes who participated in the early 1980s and
popularized GöteborgsVarvet include the former world heavyweight champion in
professional boxing, Ingemar Johansson (born in Gothenburg), and the famous Norwegian
runner, Grete Waitz.3
The Gothenburg Athletic Association, which is a federation of sports clubs in the Gothenburg
area, organises the event. To accomplish this task, about 4,000 volunteers 4 are needed
annually to organise all the necessary aspects and functions. The officials in the event are
mainly volunteers from the participating clubs who receive no personal payment. Instead, part
of the economic profit from the event is transferred to the participating sports clubs and their
activities for children and youth. Other beneficiaries include charity organisations on local,
national and international levels. In order to continue to develop the event for the future, the
organisers carried out an investigation in 2013 to gain experience and increase knowledge
about informing and educating volunteers. A sample of volunteers were asked to take part in
an evaluation study that was launched in May-June 2013. The main results are presented in
this paper.
Aims
The aims of the study are to describe (1) what kind of individual benefits are provided by
volunteering at GöteborgsVarvet and (2) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of
the event.
The results are foremost addressed to the organisers of the GöteborgsVarvet event to use in
their work to develop the event’s organisation, especially in the area of volunteering. The
main questions in the study that focuses on the aims are what kinds of backgrounds the
respondents have, and if there are patterns related to the backgrounds and experiences of
being a volunteer and questions related to the management of the event and the respondents’
degree of satisfaction with the organisation. These questions are related to aspects of gender.
3
www.goteborgsvarvet.se.
In the Swedish language, persons who work as volunteers in an event are usually called functionary
(official). In this text, we will use the word volunteer in the sense of a person who does voluntary
work in an organisation without pay.
4
5
2. Earlier research
Lockstone and Baum (2009) stated in an article that volunteers play a major role in mega and
major events, both cultural and sporting, contributing invaluable human resources. In their
study, they focus on media coverage and the perceptions related to volunteering at the 2006
Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The findings highlight various positive and negative
aspects of the media’s coverage of volunteering, and Lockstone and Baum note the
importance of focusing attention on volunteerism. Likewise Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura
(2013) underline the importance of volunteer work in events. In a longitudinal study (n = 711
volunteers) with data collection both before and after the event, they concluded that
volunteering is a highly emotional experience. They refer to volunteering as a give-and-take
experience. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004) have
conducted research on volunteers through the Volunteer Functions Inventory to find the
motivating factors that are most abundant to understand the reasons behind the choice to
volunteer. The results show that individuals who have chosen to participate as volunteers have
a higher motivation to do a good job. Solberg (2003) concluded in his study that a large
number of people enjoy volunteering and receive psychological rewards from their
participation. People also volunteer because of their own intrinsic values (Clary & Snyder,
1999; Papadakis, et al. 2004), through the conception that it is important to help others
(Grassman, 1994), for their own career development (Papadakis, 2004), to be part of a social
context (Clary, et al., 1996), to gain new skills and experiences (Jarvis & Blank, 2011;
Solberg, 2003), and to engage in sports (Clary et al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al.,
2006).
In an article by Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse (2011), the authors discuss the relationship
between volunteer motivation and volunteer satisfaction at a major golf tour event. They
stress the importance of an adjusted organisation of volunteers for successful management in
sports events. In the study, they extracted latent motivational factors that made it important
for volunteers to participate; these were personal enrichment, prestige, and career
enhancement. Surujlal (2010) points out the understanding of the underlying motives for
volunteers to participate. He investigated three major sports events for people with disabilities
in South Africa and conducted a principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA produced a
four-factor model: external influence and free time, interaction and achievement, altruism,
and diversion (change). The respondents’ main reasons for volunteering were to make a
contribution to the community and to help make the event a success. May, Zhang, and
Connaughton (2010) also emphasise that volunteers are important agents in the sports
industry. Understanding the factors that explain sports volunteerism is, according to May et
al., essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers. They examined motivation among
volunteers (n = 1099) at different youth sports events, and a factor analysis revealed six latent
factors: values, understanding, social, career, enhancement (improvement), and protective. A
factorial MANOVA analysis revealed that volunteers working with large international and
6
special-needs sports events displayed higher motivations in all six factor areas than volunteers
at smaller national and local events. Female volunteers displayed higher motivations in values
and understanding factors.
To summarise, it seems that the same behavioural factors appear as motivational lure for
volunteer work regardless of age, gender, and participation level. Grassman (1994) interprets
this as demonstrating that it is people’s own interest in the sport and being part of a social
context that motivates most. Mega events rely on volunteer workers to cope with the financial
burden that a large affair requires. Therefore, it is important to develop the voluntary work by
continuously improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996; Solberg, 2003).
Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004) demonstrate that
there are personal reasons for participation, but task-motivation is the most important
motivating factor. To retain volunteers for further jobs requires coordination between duty
and personal motivation. In conclusion, (1) people who do not feel that they are given the
choice to volunteer feel less motivated and (2) to retain volunteers the work has to be
voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for the task (Clary & Snyder,
1999).
7
3. Theory
Earlier research in the area of voluntarism shows that motivational aspects play a significant
role in the decision to serve as a volunteer in an event (Grassman, 1994; Clary, et al., 1996;
Clary & Snyder, 1999; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Solberg, 2003; Papadakis, et al. 2004; Costa et
al., 2006; Jarvis & Blank, 2011; Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse, 2011). This fact also
emphasises motivation theory as an important foundation to explain and understand processes
in preferred behaviour (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Generally
speaking, Mannell and Kleiber (1997) define motivation as factors that impel a person to
action, and these factors occur in two stages. They describe the starting point as a person’s
desire to correct a conscious imbalance. The first step is the detection of absent needs that
cause a stated imbalance, and the second is the preferred action to correct this disequilibrium.
Only when the individual finds it possible to fulfil his or her beliefs, is it possible for a person
to take action towards unsatisfied needs. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also underpin a twofactor definition of motivation, and stress two aspects as explanatory: the direction and the
intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013).
The origin of motivational behaviour is also twofold, the personal factors and the situational
factors (or interior and exterior motivation). The personal factors include fulfilling different
goals, needs or interests that create motivation to perform a specific task. The situational
factors occur specific to each person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees
as motivating in a specific situation. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also write that an analysis of
motivation has to consider both situational factors and personal factors. Gagné and Deci
(2005) highlight the motivation from a similar governing perspective, and they also
emphasise internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) motivation (or no motivation at all).
These motivators strive for mindfulness and balance to guide decision-making and behaviour.
This concept is known as self-determination theory (SDT). The internal motivation has its
origin in an autonomous concept (or self-concept) and gives an opportunity to individuals to
express their own will to perform work for their own interests (as volunteers or voluntary
workers). The extrinsic (controlling) motivation is defined as controlled and guided by
someone or something else and is performed as a “must”, which is linked to the external
motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Self-sustainment, governed by internal motivation, is a
way for volunteers to feel part of the work being done. Their perceived feeling of being a part
of a sport event could be linked to their motivation. Is there a possibility for officials to
improve the direction and intensity of the volunteers’ motivation? And can the organisation
acquire a better overall perspective on preferred work-tasks and volunteers keeping in mind
that they do not receive any financial compensation for the work they perform?
8
4. Method
The questionnaire in the study of the volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon was
developed by Hanstad et al. (2011). The language of the original questionnaire was
Norwegian, as it was used in Norwegian volunteer surveys at the Holmenkollen Ski World
Cup (Oslo 2010–2011), the World Ski Flying Championships in Vikersund, and the
Birkebeiner-rittet (cycling). The questions and response alternatives have since been
translated to Swedish and have been slightly changed. The Swedish and Norwegian languages
have similarities since they are in the same language family, so there were no major
translation obstacles to overcome. The questionnaire was also used at the European Indoor
Athletics Championships (iEM) 2013.
The questions in the survey began with demographic questions (for example, gender, age,
education, residence) and questions about the respondent’s own athletic background, earlier
experiences of being a volunteer, his or her assignments, and time spent in connection with
the event. Two other major areas of interest were (1) the respondent’s opinions about the
organisation of the event (information, work assignments, feedback, relations with persons
responsible for the event, and also views about the individual’s attention to his or her work),
and (2) the kind of individual benefits volunteering provides.
In early June of 2013, the questionnaire was sent to the volunteers. The survey was online,
and the respondents provided their answers on a web page. The e-mail addresses used for the
respondents were provided by the GöteborgsVarvet organisation. There was 1560 e-mail
addresses captured. Of those, a total of 607 (39%) respondents answered the questionnaire.5
Concerning the high decline in the survey, we could crosscheck for age and gender. There
was a slight overrepresentation of women and elderly people in the sample. Concerned over
the high decline rate of the survey, we conducted a crosscheck for age and gender and no
distortion was found in control items.
Validity and reliability
In order to justify the arguments presented in this methodological discussion, it is necessary to
provide a discussion on validity and reliability, and accurately conveyed, the discussion about
measurement theory outcomes gives the chosen methods a certain degree of legitimacy. A
measurement theory approach is important in order to improve both validity and reliability
and is fundamental in this respect.
5
A few answered only one question, but submitted the response. Additionally, 292 or 20% looked at
the survey but did not respond; 42% never opened the survey.
9
In this study a nomothetic 6 approach is used, which distinguishes specially adapted
methodology to be used, providing appropriate tools from the methodological toolbox.
According to Cohen and Manion (2011), challenging data by means of different methods and
instruments of analysis also challenges the researcher to move away from his/her favourite
methods. Nevertheless, different methodological equations are best solved with specially
adapted methods. The validity in this study is strengthened by the fact that Hanstad et al.
(2011) used the questionnaire with good results. Additionally, the Swedish version has been
tested in events similar to the GöteborgsVarvet and has been discussed with responsible
employees in the current event.
Ethics
Concerning the ethical considerations, the necessary requirements have been fulfilled,
including those for dissemination (the obligation to inform the respondents about the aims of
the study), request for approval (agreement to participate in the study), confidentiality (the
information gathered will be handled in confidence), and professional security (the collected
data will be used only for scientific purposes).
6
Nomothetic and idiographic are terms coined by the Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband to
describe two distinct approaches to knowledge, each corresponding to a different intellectual tendency.
Nomothetic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalise and find expression in the
natural sciences. It describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena. Idiographic is
based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify and find expression in the humanities. It
describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, accidental, and often subjective
phenomena (Stråhlman, 2006).
10
4. Results
In all, 607 respondents (39%) answered the questionnaire. Of those, 286 were women and 320
were men (one respondent did not answer the question about gender). The mean age for
women was 50 years (SD = 16) and for men 43 years (SD = 14). The oldest person who
responded was 91 years old and the youngest was 14 years old.
The respondents’ educational levels were relatively high; slightly more than 55% of women
noted university studies as their highest educational level (men – 45%). Most of the
respondents had full-time occupations (women - 44% full-time and men - 54% full-time).
Women were overrepresented in part-time jobs and studying, while men were overrepresented
in the group retired people.
Table 1: Respondents’ present work situation (several response alternatives possible).
Sex
Men
How do you look upon your
present work situation?
Women
Count
%
Count
%
Full-time job
167
47,3
186
52,7
Part-time job
19
23,2
63
76,8
Looking for job
11
52,4
10
47,6
Studies
28
34,6
53
65,4
Retired
67
73,6
24
26,4
Sick-listed
2
50,0
2
50,0
Other
2 100,0
0
,0
The distribution of income shows that the respondents are relatively well paid in their daily
work. About 59% of the full-time working men and 33% of the full-time working women
earned more than 400.000 SEK (about 50.000 EURO) per year. Among part-time workers
24% of men and 6% of the woman earned more than 400.000 SEK per year.
The majority of the respondents had their residences close to the event. Only 33 out of 607
respondents had their residences more than 50 kilometres from Gothenburg (most often in
cities like Trollhättan, Uddevalla, Varberg and Borås). No person had his/her residence in a
country other than Sweden.
Gothenburg is the second largest city in Sweden, and is, as many other major cities, divided
into minor districts (Swedish: stadsdelar). It is a well-known fact that geographic housing has
socio- and economically influenced incentives. People with high incomes often live in areas
where houses are more expensive.
11
Table 2: The respondents’ residences divided into districts in greater Gothenburg area by sex (N =
273)
Sex
Men
Angered
Askim-Frölunda-Högsbo
Centrum
Lundby
If you live in the city of Majorna-Linné
Gothenburg, what is the
Norra Hisingen
name of the local district?
Västra Göteborg
Västra Hisingen
Örgryte Härlanda
Östra Göteborg
Count
12
20
15
10
12
21
18
8
8
9
Women
Total
% Count % Count %
9,0
9
6,4
21
7,7
15,0 19 13,6 39 14,3
11,3 13
9,3
28 10,3
7,5
9
6,4
19
7,0
9,0
12
8,6
24
8,8
15,8 19 13,6 40 14,7
13,5 11
7,9
29 10,6
6,0
18 12,9 26
9,5
6,0
23 16,4 31 11,4
6,8
7
5,0
16
5,9
The table above shows that there is a certain proportion of socioeconomic influence in the
recruitment of volunteers. The districts with over 10% recruited respondents are areas with a
somewhat higher socioeconomic index and status, in comparison with those having a low
proportion of volunteers. The differences cannot be explained by variations in inhabitant
numbers. Earlier research by Patriksson (1995) and Stråhlman (2006) shows that athletes in
track and field recruit from higher socioeconomic groups, as compared, for example, to
representatives from different team sports. The respondents’ proportions of memberships in
sport clubs and especially in track and field clubs clearly show that memberships are an
important agent in volunteer socialisation. About 38% of the men were members in track and
field clubs and 31% of the women. A total of 39% of the men and 39% of the women were
members in some kind of other sports club, and 11% of the men and 13% of women had
previously been members in a sports club. This explains a considerable portion of the
residence distribution and the fundaments of recruitment. Socioeconomic distribution and
residence areas are a well-known correlation, and when we add the knowledge about
socioeconomic patterns in sport recruitment, we capture a lot of the explained variance, as in
the study about the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) 2014 (Stråhlman, et al.
(2013). The covariance of these three factors is an important key to understand recruitment
patterns and knowledge about future recruitment strategies. The respondents also, in a
relatively large proportion, participate in (leisure time) sport activities (particularly the
younger respondents). Many of the respondents have also been volunteers in other sporting
events.
Sports and sporting events are often discussed in relation to internationalisation and also to
aspects of integration, especially how sports can contribute to extended socialisation.
Attention has been given to these questions, especially by the Swedish government. They
12
have launched a mega project (the Sports Lift) and the idea is that sport clubs can apply for
funding to launch projects that make sports and the sports movement more attractive for
different groups in Swedish society. Implementing sports on a large scale can be an important
catalyst for integration matters, in order to open up society for people with immigrant
backgrounds to join the sports movements and use it to gain socialisation. Together these
governmental projects, so far, have been funded with about 5 billion crowns (520 million
Euro) over a period of 12 years.
A total of 488 of the 607 respondents had earlier been volunteers at the GöteborgsVarvet (no
gender differences). Several had also been engaged in their own club activities, but not in as
large an event as Världsungdomsspelen or Way Out West in Gothenburg.
Volunteering in large sports events is also an aspect of integration, so how are people with an
immigration background represented among the volunteers in GöteborgsVarvet?
Table 3: The respondents’ country of origin and parents’ country of origin by sex.
Sex
Men
Respondents born in a
country other than Sweden?
Women
Count
Total
Count
Total
Respondents
12
286
20
320
Respondent’s father
38
286
44
320
Respondent’s mother
41
286
45
320
The vast majority of the volunteers were born in Sweden, as were their parents. A total of 32
respondents (5%) were born in a country other than Sweden. The majority of these were born
in the same country as both their parents. Finland and Denmark were the two countries where
most of the respondents had their origin. Approximately 1.4 million people in Sweden (of the
9 million population) were born in another country, which is more than 10% of the whole
population. In this inquiry, 5% have a background of immigration, and in this case there were
no gender differences.
Opinions about the organisation of the event
As mentioned in the aims of this report, the results in this study are foremost addressed to the
organisers of the GöteborgsVarvet to use in their work to develop the event’s organisation,
especially in the area of volunteering. To contribute to knowledge development in the field,
we have first concentrated on the backgrounds of the respondents. This helps to establish
causal correlations to facilitate the understanding of other results in the study, because it is
13
vital in all forms of development work to give target groups (the GöteborgsVarvet
organisation) as much information as possible to improve their course of action.
A fundamental aspect of people’s willingness to participate in volunteer work is that they
receive information on how to apply to become a volunteer and receive communication
regarding the form and content of the assignments. The most common ways to receive
information about how to apply as a volunteer are presented below.
Table 4: Alternatives to obtain information about how to work as a volunteer at GöteborgsVarvet 2013.
How did you get information about the possibility
of working as a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
(several answering alternatives possible)
Sex
From the event management
Via mail
Via homepages
Via Facebook
Via Phone
Other
Men
Women
Count
Count
90
198
53
15
32
51
84
225
46
15
31
76
The most common ways to receive information were primarily from mail, but also from other
available digital resources, such as different homepages and information meetings with the
GöteborgsVarvet management. Facebook and other social media had less importance in this
respect. Looking at the age distribution, one can see that the older respondents receive
information more often from the event management and from their clubs, while the younger
respondents to a larger extent obtained information from digital resources.
As shown in Table 5, the majority of the respondents experienced clear instructions on their
tasks before the event and about the given information.
Table 5: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1)
representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N=597-599).
Sex
Do you agree or disagree with the
following statements:
I did not receive sufficient information
about the event before it started!
I was given clear instructions on my tasks
before the event!
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
2,32
1,33
2,34
1,14
3,96
1,15
3,93
1,15
Not significant.
14
One has to acknowledge the dispersion, which indicates heterogeneous conceptions.
As previously mentioned, the respondents were given certain assignments in the event. The
organisers had the goal of assigning persons who were suitable for the given tasks.
Table 6: The respondents’ assignments divided by task and sex (N =411).
What kind of assignment did you have during
GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
(several answers allowed)
Bicycle
Cleaning
Construction
Deposit
Finish
Fluid control
Food
Guard
Health care
Host
Information
Massage
Number plate delivery
Parking
Shower
Start
The course
Traffic guard
Transport
Other
Men %
1 0,2
11 2,6
30 7,0
1 0,2
34 8,0
37 8,7
7 1,6
25 5,9
12 2,8
6 1,4
36 8,5
2 0,5
12 2,8
15 3,5
1 0,2
25 5,9
69 16,2
54 12,7
13 3,1
34 8,2
Women %
1
0,2
20
4,4
18
4,0
1
0,2
38
8,4
63
14,0
8
1,8
17
3,8
12
2,7
6
1,3
33
7,3
12
2,7
20
4,4
2
0,4
1
0,2
31
6,9
78
17,3
56
12,4
10
2,2
24
5,3
In regard to the distribution of tasks between sexes in certain assignments, it was more or less
randomised, with exception for certain areas such as construction, fluid control, guard,
parking and massage. Whether or not this distribution is typical for events like this is hard to
say. One can draw the conclusion that gender patterns are present in some of the assignment
groups. If we look at the age distribution we find the young female volunteers (generally
speaking) work as hosts at the start of the event, while young men work with taking care of
personal property at the start and in cleaning. Older women work generally with traffic and
older men with parking and food.
It is important in all organisations, especially for people in leadership positions, to manage
their tasks in ways that make all volunteers feel comfortable in their work groups. Some
questions in the survey were put to the respondents about their experiences in the working
situation. Most of the respondents were assigned as volunteers with certain work tasks (80%
of the men and 86% of the women), while a smaller proportion of volunteers were assigned as
supervisors for different work groups (men - 16%, women - 10%) and men, in that respect,
15
were overrepresented. The respondents also felt that there was a good or very good work
climate in the work groups, with certain differences. Over 80% of the respondents, both men
and women experienced a good or even very good work climate in their work groups, and
also with the supervisors for the work groups. The respondents were quite satisfied with how
people in top management positions (in the organisation) fulfilled their obligations. They also
found the climate of cooperation as constructive, both in the work groups and in the overall
management of the event. There were only minor differences between men and women, and
they were not statistically significant.
Individual benefits of volunteering
Lockstone and Baum (2009) state that volunteers play a major role in event organisation and
recommend hat they should be officially recognised by, for example, media coverage with
attention given to volunteerism as such and to the volunteers’ different assignments (Gallarza,
Arteaga & Gil-Saura, 2013). How the volunteer comprehends the individual benefits of
volunteering might depend on what kind of event and/or assignment the respondents have.
The assignments for volunteers in GöteborgsVarvet were divided into many different tasks,
and as mentioned above, also organised into work groups. The respondent’s personal
assignments were basically related to their previous experience and knowledge about the
management of the event. The fundamental question is how the volunteers understand the
different tasks and the resources they were given to fulfil their tasks.
Table 7 below shows if the respondents maintained a positive attitude towards volunteering.
Table 7: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1)
representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 595-600).
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements:
Sex
Men
Mean
The work as volunteer was in line with my expectations!
In the future I will say no to all kinds of voluntary work!
I have an increased desire to be an official/volunteer! *
4,14
1,30
3,52
Women
SD
Mean
SD
0,81
0,73
0,97
4,14
1,23
3,80
0,88
0,65
0,96
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The items above are correlated to each other in a relatively large proportion. Therefore we
might cluster the three items together to a latent expression where satisfactory - desirable
aspects are prominent. It is important when a person looks back on the management
assignments, that the expectations the person had before the event are fulfilled. If the
expectations are suppressed, there is a fundamental risk that the person will not volunteer
16
again. Solberg (2003) saw in his study that a large number of people enjoyed volunteering and
received psychological rewards from their participation, which underlines the importance of
intrinsic motivation.
The conditions under which the volunteers work are another important factor. Even if
volunteers are assigned to provide service to other people, it is also important that they
themselves are served. Reasonable possibilities to rest, opportunities to be served good food,
and receive praise from others will probably enhance their work. Table 8 below shows
aspects that are important in that respect and the respondents were both positive and negative
about the service they received.
Table 8: Understanding about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale: item one (1)
representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 592– 599).
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements:
Sex
Men
Mean
We got good food during the event!
The workload was quite enough!
The official clothing was functional! *
The official’s costumes were fashionable!
2,91
3,86
3,70
3,47
Women
SD
Mean
SD
1,20
1,08
1,14
1,20
2,96
3,86
4,03
3,66
1,30
1,10
1,09
1,28
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The items about clothing are slightly correlated to each other, but the other items have quite a
low correlation between each other. We have to acknowledge that possession aspects are
important for volunteering and the willingness for future assignments. The right proportions
of good food and an individually adopted workload is a successful prescription, even if some
respondents have doubts about if that was the case here. The respondents stress that the
official clothing has to be appropriate for work tasks (adopted to individual work situations)
and something that the volunteers would proudly wear, in other words - practically
fashionable without disregarding functionality.
Motivation and volunteering
How do volunteers perceive the different values of being assigned certain tasks? Are the
qualities and experiences that they gain through volunteer work transferable to everyday life
situations or perhaps related to the labour market? Answers to these questions summarise, to a
large extent, how a high motivation creates participation in volunteer work. Clary et al. (1996),
Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis et al. (2004) found motivating factors behind the
choice to volunteer that are abundant and important. Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse (2011),
17
Surujlal (2010) and May et al. (2010) have all extracted latent factors and answers to the
questions above that seem to be found in a data reduction procedure. Different questions
about understanding motivating tasks in the assignments were asked, and answers were given
on a 5-item rating scale.
Table 9: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1)
representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 597-599).
Sex
How important is the following statement for your
motivation to work as a volunteer?
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
3,10
3,01
3,02
0,91
0,94
1,04
3,27
3,14
3,12
I feel important when I make a contribution as a volunteer!
When I work as a volunteer, I feel happy with myself!
I can make a tangible impact on something that interests me!
SD
0,86
0,93
0,99
No sign.
Relating the results of the table above to Weinberg and Gould (2011) shows that these three
items underline the personal or intrinsic values/aspects. The personal aspects include
fulfilling different goals, needs or interests and creating motivation to perform a specific task.
A large proportion of respondents are of the opinion that there are important intrinsic values
that motivate volunteering that have little to do with material rewards, while others do not.
Solberg (2003) found in his study that people enjoyed volunteering and received
psychological rewards.
The respondents also acknowledge extrinsic rewards with volunteer work. Motivation in this
case has its origin in the fact that volunteering contributes to the respondents’ willingness to
develop skills and collect experiences, a position in which a lot of the respondents were
doubtful.
Table 10: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one
(1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 585-590).
Sex
How important is the following statement for your motivation
to work as a volunteer?
It is good a good merit to work as a volunteer! *
Working as a volunteer can give me contacts in the labour market!
I learn more about events when I make a contribution as volunteer!
As a volunteer, I get practical experience of events!
Men
Mean
3,29
3,87
2,45
2,44
Women
SD
1,23
1,10
1,07
1,09
Mean
3,04
3,69
2,35
2,28
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
18
SD
1,30
1,26
1,17
1,15
As previously mentioned, the situational or extrinsic aspects that occur are specific to each
person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees as motivating in a specific
situation (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Questions about extrinsic aspects were asked and here
we find significant differences between men and women in one of the items. The rating is not
very high but there are some correlations between the items that underpin our statement about
some respondents acknowledging extrinsic values. We can also see that men, to some extent,
experience developmental aspects in being a volunteer. Clary and Snyder (1999) and
Papadakis, et al. (2004) also found career development aspects to be important for volunteers.
Extrinsic development can also incorporate social development. To maintain or enlarge your
social sphere/network and social contacts are aspects of development that give people more
contacts, contacts that could be beneficial, for example to one’s social (career) development.
Table 11: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, with item
one (1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589597).
Sex
How important is the following statement for your
motivation to work as a volunteer?
People around me have encouraged me to work as a volunteer!
I feel the ambient pressure to participate as a volunteer!
I have friends who work as volunteers!
I can use the work I put in as a social merit!
It is common in my family to work as a volunteer.
Men
Mean
2,95
3,66
2,17
1,98
3,03
Women
SD
1,24
1,21
1,16
1,03
1,46
Mean
SD
3,05
3,63
2,30
1,88
3,08
1,36
1,36
1,39
0,99
1,56
Not sign.
The results show that the respondents are doubtful about the notion of socialising positive
personal aspects related to their participation, and they are also doubtful if volunteering could
be useful as a merit in their daily lives as well as in the labour market. There are no major
differences between men and women. Earlier studies (Stråhlman, et al. (2013) have shown
that these five items in Table 11 could be clustered together as an extrinsic or as a social
relations aspect – to work as a volunteer is improving socialisation perspectives and relations
(Clary, et al., 1996). Low correlations in this study shadow this statement somewhat.
Other positively related rewards of volunteering are new concepts of acquired knowledge, and
usefulness in different aspects of life. Several respondents indicate that they have used their
presence at GöteborgsVarvet to gain new useful knowledge.
19
Table 12: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale,
with item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 592596).
Sex
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a
volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
I have gained insight into how it is to organise large events!
I have gained new skills and experience! *
I have expanded my network!
3,96
3,86
2,91
1,15
1,08
1,24
3,93
3,86
2,96
1,14
1,12
1,30
I have actively contributed to the organisation of this event!
3,47
1,20
3,66
1,28
I've got insight into athletics at various levels!
4,14
0,85
4,14
0,95
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
A fairly large amount of the respondents felt that they gained new knowledge and experiences
that can be useful in career development. There were only small differences in the sample
between men and women (except for the item about new skills and experiences), and the
majority were not statistically significant. The items disclose that there is experience aspects
in participating that can be described as knowledge or a career aspect. Jarvis and Blank
(2011) and Solberg (2003) also indicate career aspects as important in volunteer recruitment.
The respondents also referenced certain communicative and participating implications as
important experiences to gain. The volunteers have to feel safe in their work, that the work is
exciting and free, and that they receive appreciation for their work. If these conditions are
satisfied they would recommend others to work as a volunteer. Gallarza, Arteaga and GilSaura (2013) conclude that volunteering is a highly emotional experience.
Table 13: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale,
item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589-597).
Sex
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a
volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
I think that the work was exciting! *
I've been praised for my work!
3,54
1,05
3,78
1,05
3,55
1,17
3,63
1,17
I feel that I developed as a person by working as volunteer!
3,03
1,24
3,01
1,24
I would recommend others around me to work as volunteer!* 3,97
I felt safe when I was working as a volunteer!
4,28
0,88
4,20
0,88
0,94
4,26
0,92
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
20
Both the men and the women in the study felt the importance of what we can call a
communicative aspect in relation to their work assignments. Being a volunteer is a give-andtake business; you learn from others, and you teach newcomers if you are an experienced
volunteer. The communicative aspects also implied that you have something to tell friends,
regardless if you have good or bad experiences. In the large events you also can meet and talk
to well-known people, maybe from other countries.
Table 14: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale:
item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589-592).
What kind of experiences did you receive
from being a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Sex
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
I had an outlet for my interest in sports!
I saw the famous practitioners of athletics!
2,96
1,23
3,01
1,25
2,62
1,40
2,67
1,51
I saw celebrities (in general)! *
2,12
1,22
2,16
1,38
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The results show that the respondents did not feel that they had the opportunity to see famous
and well-known persons; GöteborgsVarvet is above all an event for leisure-time athletes, even
if famous people are in the starting line-up. We have constituted what we can call a fame
attraction aspect, even if that aspect is not strong in GöteborgsVarvet. The volunteer’s
engagement in sports (as practicum) could also be another reason for volunteering (Clary et
al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al., 2006). The volunteers also felt that they
contributed to their hometown (in the majority of cases) by donating personal time to his/her
city as well as to the event.
Table 15: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item Rating Scale: item one
(1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 593-597).
Sex
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a
volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
By working as a volunteer, I feel more involved in what is
happening in my hometown!
I feel more important after having participated as a
volunteer!
My friends were also volunteers!
I do not really like being an official! *
Men
Women
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
3,58
1,13
3,64
1,23
3,29
1,10
3,29
1,23
3,89
1,21
3,88
1,32
1,61
0,99
1,44
0,88
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
21
The respondents appreciated the importance of making contributions both to their city and to
the event as such (Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura, 2013). No major gender differences could
be seen in the results of these questions. The respondents also felt that they volunteered
because of their duties towards the city of Gothenburg (Grassman, 1994), and that the work
they did in the event made them feel more interested in volunteering in the future. We might
call this personality and loyalty aspects.
Questions were also asked about activities related to the marketing of GöteborgsVarvet. The
volunteers had the opportunity to ride the Gothenburg tram for free in connection with the
event. Approximately 67% of the volunteers had discovered this, but only 22% used this
benefit. A clear majority also felt that the sponsors contributed to the overall experience of the
event for the runners and the spectators. The volunteers also felt that GöteborgsVarvet is a
festival (almost every one of the respondents indicated that). Questions were also asked as to
whether the volunteers perceived the sponsors' advertising. Here, the responses were more
scattered; some sponsors had as much as 60% identification, while for others, only 10% of the
volunteers recognised the sponsors’ logotype.
22
5. Discussion
Method discussion
Initially, we discussed the methods that were used as well as the eventual problems with the
sample decline. The problem with web-based questionnaires is twofold (Eriksson et al., 2007).
First, there is an age problem, as web services are based on digitised technology. For older
people, it can be a problem to manage computer-based correspondence. We also know that
many people, especially older people, do not have the same confidence in electronic mailing
as they have in mailing by post. Second, access to computers (as well as smartphones, e-book
readers, or tablet computers) can also be a problem. Furthermore, even in a highly
technology-based country like Sweden, not every individual has a computer. Even so, we
crosschecked three variables and did not find any skewness in background variables (sex, age,
and residence). The validity and reliability in relation to the questionnaire have to be
considered as high. The questionnaire has been tested and used before by Hanstad (2012),
which strengthens the validity.
Result discussion
It seems that the same behavioural factors as motivational lure for volunteer work appear in
this study as in the Stråhlman et al. (2013) study about the volunteers in the Indoor European
Championships in Athletics. This means that regardless of gender and participation level,
people have more or less the same attitudes towards volunteering, and in general the results in
this study also share many aspects as other researchers. For example Grassman (1994) states
that it is people’s own interest in sport matters and being part of a social context that is a
strong motivator. An earlier athletic background in track and field in this study, as well as in
Stråhlman et al. (2013), seems to be a desirable aspect in volunteering with the aims being to
do a good job for the city, the organiser, and for the volunteers themselves. Therefore,
volunteer work has, by support from earlier research, a general impact in most countries,
which makes volunteering in sporting events an internationalising activity. Therefore it is
strongly recommended to all kinds of sport event organisers to develop volunteering in an
international context and it is important to develop the voluntary work by continuously
improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996; Solberg, 2003, Stråhlman et al.,
2013).
An important factor in recruitment of volunteers is “the payback” to the volunteers’ efforts.
Volunteering is, as mentioned above, a give-and-take relation between organisers and
volunteers. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), Papadakis et al. (2004) and
Stråhlman et al. (2013) point out strong personal reasons for volunteer participation, and they
all indicate task-motivation as the most important motivating factor. Therefore it is important
23
for the assignment of future volunteers to find the match between duty and personal
motivation. The respondents in this study indicated aspects of task-motivation, both intrinsic
and extrinsic aspects and the payback had psychological and social implications. The point
here is that work has to be voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for
performing the task (Clary & Snyder, 1999).
Being part of a sporting event is strongly linked to personal motivation for the volunteer. If
the volunteers have a direction and an intensity towards their work tasks, than the work can be
improved and a better overall perspective on preferred work-tasks is achieved by the
organisation. This shows that both intrinsic and extrinsic gains motivate volunteer work.
We can conclude that motivation theory is an important theoretical standpoint in explaining
and understand the volunteer (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011, Stråhlman,
et al. 2013). Stråhlman (2013) discussed Mannell and Kleiber’s (1997) definition about
motivation as factors that impel a person to action, with a desire to reach some kind of selfadaptation. This imbalance has its origin in individual needs that could be satisfied through a
volunteer’s contribution. It seems to be a persons’ desire to do something for someone else
that makes them feel that they are contributing. In this study, as well as in Stråhlman et.al
(2013) study, the respondents felt that they were doing something good for the city, for the
organisers of the event, and, of course, for themselves, and when praised for their actions,
they felt that they developed personal assets. Weinberg and Gould (2011) indicated the
direction and the intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013) and the respondents in
the study experienced both personal and situational factors while fulfilling different goals,
needs or interests. Gagné and Deci (2005) found that there has to be both internal (intrinsic)
and external (extrinsic) motivation, and supports self-determination theory (SDT) as a useful
tool for further analysis.
Some final words
To accomplish the GöteborgsVarvet event, as well as the iEM and most huge sporting events,
volunteers are essential; without them, it would be very difficult to implement such an event.
Therefore, as Lockstone and Baum (2009) and Stråhlman, et.al (2013) discuss, it is important
to enlighten the people in general about the importance of voluntary work. The results from
the sample in this study, as in Stråhlman, et al. (2013), confirm that volunteering is an
emotional experience (Gallarza, Arteaga & Gil-Saura, 2013) and offers an emotional reward
(Solberg, 2003). Love, Hardin, Koo, and Morse (2011) and Stråhlman, et al. (2013) have
found important motivational factors such as enrichment, prestige, and career enhancement.
and they have also found that the volunteers experienced these opportunities useful in their
careers. The respondents felt a degree of altruism (Suruajal, 2010; Stråhlman, et al, 2013) as
24
part of their work as volunteers. Finally, we underline May, Zhang, and Connaughton’s
(2010) findings, that knowledge about developing and rewarding factors is essential for
recruiting and retaining volunteers.
25
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27
Idrottsvetenskapliga rapporter –
Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap
Göteborgs universitet
Adress:
Box 100
405 30 Göteborg
Redaktör: Owe Stråhlman
1. Stråhlman, O., (2004). Idrott – mål eller medel. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
2. Patriksson, G., Eriksson, S., Augustsson, C. & Stråhlman, O. (2004). Utveckling och
förnyelse av idrottsverksamhet” - en utvärdering av projektverksamhet som fått medel ur
Allmänna arvsfonden. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
3. Patriksson, G. & Stråhlman, O., (2004). Young peoples lifestyle and sedentariness - the
case of Sweden and Denmark. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
4. Annerstedt, C. (2006). Framgångsrikt ledarskap inom elitidrott. Göteborgs universitet,
Idrottshögskolan.
5. Stråhlman, O (2006). Elite sport career process, career analysis of former Swedish elite
athletes. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
6. Stråhlman, O., Patriksson, G. & Annerstedt, C. (2008). Arbete – livsstil – hälsa. Resultat
och analyser av AB Previas databas Arbetsliv och Hälsa. Göteborgs universitet,
Idrottshögskolan.
7. Stråhlman, O. & Patriksson, G. (2008). Att rätta mun efter matsäcken. Förutsättningar för
att bedriva projekt om kostnadseffektivitet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs
universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
8. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O., Eriksson, S. & Kristén, L. (2008). Handslaget – från idé till
utvärdering. Om projekt, ekonomi och verksamhet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs
universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
9. Annerstedt, C., Annerud, E. & Stråhlman, O. (2009). Hälsoform: en analys av ett
hälsofrämjande koncept. Institutionen för pedagogik och didaktik, Göteborgs universitet.
I samband med omorganisationen av verksamheten vid UFN år 2010 påbörjades ny
indexering:
2012:
1. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O. & Eriksson, S. (2012). Blev Idrottslyftet ett lyft? Analys och
utvärdering av Riksidrottsförbundet, Akademiska Idrottsförbundet, Flygsportförbundet och
Korpen – Svenska Motionsidrottsförbundet. Göteborgs universitet: Institutionen för Kostoch Idrottsvetenskap.
2. Patriksson, G., (2012). Swedish young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical (in)activity
and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature. Göteborgs universitet:
Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
3. Kougioumtzis, K (2012). Greek young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical
(in)activity and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature. Göteborgs
universitet: Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
4. Backman, J. (2012). I skuggan av NHL: En organisationsstudie av svensk och finsk
elitishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för Kost- och idrottsvetenskap
(licentiatuppsats).
2013:
1. Patriksson, G. & Persson, C. (2013). Physical literacy among inactive Swedish young
people - An interview study of a neglected group in sport science research. University
of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
2. Kougioumtzis, K. (2013). Physical literacy in Greek children and adolescents. A study
within the Active Lifestyles project. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food,
Nutrition and Sport Science.
3. Samuelsson, D. (2013). En sportchefs vardag - en kvalitativ studie om sportchefens
uppgifter i elitserien i ishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap.
4. Adolfsson, H & Söderberg, E. (2013). Att arbeta utan lön? En studie om
funktionärerna på GöteborgsVarvet. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap.
5. Teng, G. (2013). Uppdrag samspel - en studie om elevers samspelskunnande i bollspel
i ämnet idrott och hälsa. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap (licentiatuppsats).
6. Högman, J., (2013). Young people´s experiences of organized spontaneous sport.
University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
7. Stråhlman, O & Marting, S., (2013). Volunteers at the 2013 European Indoor Athletics
Championships – a study on volunteerism in sport events. University of Gothenburg:
Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
2014:
1.
Stråhlman, O & Pålshammar, J., (2013). Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013,
Volunteering Experiences at a Sporting Event. University of Gothenburg: Department
of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
Reports in Sport Science
Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science
University of Gothenburg
Address:
Box 100
405 30 Göteborg
SWEDEN
ISSN 1653-6991

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