Ö»MÕÁZÀ§Á»M{ÕÁZÀ§
ǩȊDžǣƮ
,t˵Z¬f¿YÂÀ»Ä]į{ÂÖ»©ÔYÖ˸]ZeZËÄ«ÁÄ]fÂa
ÖZyYZËÃ|ËY,°§lËÁeZËÁ¹ZÌa®ËÄmÂe\·ZmÁ¾Á
{ÂÖ»|Ì·Âe
DžƯNJȅĥĹƥȂĺķİȊȄ
{ÂyÄ]YÃ|ÀÀÌ]ÄmÂe|ËZ]įdY¾ËYf//ÂaZ]ÕZÅÖ³ËÁY
ÄfY{ZfyZ//Á|À¯\Ì£e½M½|¿YÂyÁÕÌ´ÌaÄ]YÁY,|À¯\¸m
Äf^·Y|Z]Y~³ÌiPe¹ZÌaµZ¬f¿Y{|¿YÂf]|ËZ]fÂa,¶°ÅÄ]|Z]
dY{|ÅYÂyÕfÌ]ÌiPe,{ºÌÀeeÃ{ZfÂa|«Å
-{ÂÖ»ÄÌÆeÖZyÂÀ»Á¥|ÅÄ]ÄmÂeZ],iR»Á[ÂyfÂa
-{]Ö»ÃÆ]Y{ÖÀ »ÁÃ|¿ÕZŲ¿Y-{Y{tYÁÁ¾//ÁÕZŹZÌa
dYÄmÂe\·ZmÁ±]Ö§Z¯ÇY|¿YÄ]
DžƯNJȅĥǀƥǣƨƤ
{ÂÖ»ÖuYÖeÁZ¨f»{Z ]Y{,½M¿Á»Ä]ÄmÂeZ]fÂa
ZË {Z ]Y,fÂaÖuYÕY]{Y|¿ZfYÕZÅÃY|¿YÄf^·Y
,»Y½ZË|f»dY¾°¼»ÖÅZ³dYÃ|¦Ë eÕ{¼cÂÄ]Á
¶^«YYÁ¿Y¨À¯,ËZ¼Å,ÃZ´//ËZ¼¿ÕY]¹ÓÕZÅf//Âa{Z ]Y
|ÀZ]Ã{¯¦Ë e
Ö¸tf§Ä¼Z§
®Ȩ̈
ZÀZ¯
ǀƪDžȀ
ĹƵƟǀǕ
ǁƟĹijȅ
ƢDžƠǺǵĸƠǽƿƟǂƣƟ
ĹljǁȀǵƓ
DžƯNJȅĥǠƤȅǾƤ
Ö»MÕÁZÀ§,ZËÂa°¨e,¾Ë¿»M,fÂaZÅÃYÁ|̸¯
,½YÂe,µZuÅ{Z»Y,|¿ÂÖ»ºÌ¬eÖÂÀf»ÕZÅĿ³Ä]ZÅfÂa
ZÅfÂadZŽMÖuY{f»ÁºÆ»ZÀY,d¯uÁc|uÁ
{¯ºÌ¬eÕ¿|ÀqÁÕ¿®e¿Á{Ä]½YÂeÖ»Y ÃZY
Äf¿ÕYĸ¼m½MÕÁįÖ˸]ZeZËÄ«ÁÕ¿®efÂa¦·Y
tÌÂeÄ]ÕZ̿İ¿M½Á|]-dY½|¿YÂy¶]Z«¿®ËZ]įdYÃ| ÖZfyYÕZÅÃZ´ËZ¼¿{ZŽMÈWYYÁÖ¼¸ÕZÅfÂaÖuY
įYqdYd̼ÅYWZuZËÂa°¨eÁ¾Ë¿»MÕZfY{
ÖZycZ»Â¸ »ÁÂÅÄ]fÂa¾ËY{,«YÁ{|Z]ÄfY{ÖÅZ¨
ZËÂ6 »cÂÄ]YÄ·Z¬»®Ë\·Z»ÕYÂfv»½YÂeÖ»fÂaZ]
{ÂÖ»{ÖfuYÄ]
YÂuªËYÁ{Y|¿ZÌ¿
\m»ÃÂ̾ËY{Y{½Z¿\Zz»Ä],Zf¿Z]ÃY¼ÅÂ6 »
ÁÃ|ËYÕZ¬·Y,ÄmÂe\¸mÕY]fÂa¾ËYÕ¿|Àqf/Âa[
Ä·Z¬»¾ËY{||ÅYÂy¾Å}{Y|ËZaÌiPeÁËÕ̳Y§
¾ËeºÆ»Á{ÂÖ»Ã{Z¨fYÁ|Ì·ÂeZyÕZ¯¹Zn¿YÄ]Ã|ÀÀÌ]ªËÂe
{ÂÖ»ÄWYYfÂaÃZ]{ÖeZvÌÂe
ÕY]fÌ]d«Á¥Ä]\Zz»Z̿տ®ef//ÂaZ]½McÁZ¨e
Õ¿|ÀqfÂa0Ó¼ »dYfÂa{Ã|//° À»ÂÀ»{
¾°¼»\·Z»ÁËÁZe|Å{Ö»ÕZm{Ây{YÕZÌ]ËÁZeÁ\·Z»
džƥǦƘDžNJ
\·Z»½|¿YÂyÕY]YÃ|ÀÀÌ]Á|¿Ì´]{ÂyÄ]ÕYÁÌn¿d·ZudY
,Zy¾Ì¼ÅÄ]|¿Y{Ä´¿{Ây¶]Z¬»{Ö//e|»,ËÁZe¾Ì]Z//^eYÁ Zu{ÁdY®Ì§Y³ÀÅcÓÂv»ÁZÅ{ÁZf{YfÂa
¦«Âe½Z°»Yį|Z]ÖÀ¯Z»YZÅfÂaĿ³¾ËY\¿¶v»dYÕÁ ,µZj»ÕY]dYÃ{¯d§//ÌaÄf//ÂÌa½M_Zq®ÌÀ°eÁÖuY
|Z]{Âm»ZŽM{Ã|ÀÀÌ] µZ{Ö§Y³ÂfÌ·YfyYÃËÁÄ],ÖaZqÕZÅ®ÌÀ°eËY|Ìa
ÖuYÀÅ{±]Ö]Ô¬¿Y,Ö¿Z¼·M|¸¨ÀZ·MȸÌÁÄ]Õ{ÔÌ»
{¯Za]fÂa
DžƯNJȅĥƫȋȃƮǴȅǒƤ
ÈÀËÅZ]fÂa{Z˽Z³Z¼|Ì·Âe|¿|hZ]ÖaZqÕZÅ®ÌÀ°e
[YÂmµYR|ÀqÄ]|ËZ],ºÌÀ¯ÄÌÆefÂaºÌÅYÂz]İÀËYY¶^«
Ö¿Z¯ÄqfÂa{¥|ÅÃÁ³.dÌqf//ÂaÈÌÆeY¥|źÌÅ{ Ö§Y³Âf̷»Á¯ZËÖ´¿Ö§Y³ÂfÌ·YfyY,ÃËÁÄ]{¾°¼»º¯
{Ác|»ÄqÕY].||ÅYÂy\¿Ö¿Z°»Äq{fÂa.{Â]|ÀÅYÂy ÖËZ§Â°\m»,dyZÌ»{ZË{Y| e{Y²¿|ÀqfÂa_Zqį
Ã{Z¨fYfÂaYÖ¿Z»Äq{.||ÅYÂyÃ{Z¨fYfÂaYd]¿|Àq Ä]ÃÂ̾ËYÄ]įÖËZÅfÂa¾Ìfz¿Äf^·Y|fÂa{®Ì§Y³ÀÅ
.||ÅYÂy µZYaZÆÀe{Â]Ä¿Y|À¼ÂÅÌ£ÁÕYZ],Öv|Ì_Zq
d̸]Z«Ä]fÂaÖuYÀÅ,ÃZµÁÕZÅfÂaËY|ÌaZ]Õ{ÔÌ»
|À¯Ö»®¼¯fÂafÆ]ÖËYZ¯Ä]¶Y|Àq¾f§³¿{
|ÌËÂyǬ·Z]
ÕZŹZÌa{ÂÃ|¿ZnÀ³fÂa{¹ZÌa®ËZÆÀed//YÕÁ
ʾˀˆˀ˨ãĕ˨˨V˨ʷ˨ŧęʭ˙ģ˨˨V˨Ōù˨äğ˨ŧęŗĕ˨V˨äģěŘŎí˨ãÙŘŊŘŒÞă˨Ėģę˨V
÷ö
cZÆ»
Õ̳ºÌ¼e
º
yµ
fÀ¯
cZ
Æ»
©Ôy°¨ecZÆ»
Ö/ËY/mYÈ/»Z/¿¾Ì/ËMÇ{Z///»YÇ/^/eª^/
«YÂ^ÕZ§f//³Á¨/u½Â/¿Z«
üZeƺËu{Ân»½Á|]dy{
dYµZË
ȁƷȋƯǾ
Á½YZ¯|¿Yd//{ZÌfyY{ÖËZÅÁÁZ//ÅY]Y,Ö//»MÕÁZÀ§
{,Ö»M¶WZ»cÔ°»¶uÄ]į|Å{Ö»Y«dÌ]eÁºÌ¸ e½ZÌ·Âf»
,Ây¾ËY{|ÀÀ¯Ö»ÕZÌ]®¼¯ZËÂa°¨eÁ¾Ë¿»MÕZfY
Y|ËZaÁËÕ̳Y§dÆm{ÕiR»ÁºÆ»¬¿,fÂa|À¿Z»ÕY]Y
Ö//»M®¼¯ÕZÅÁÁY]Y¿¾ËYYÃ{Z¨f//YÃÁ»Y|ÀÀ¯Ö»Z¨ËY
ZÌfyY{Ö»MÕÁZÀ§Ä¯Ö¸ ¨·Z]ÕZÅd̸]Z«YË,{Y{ÕfÌ]½Z°»Y
0Z¼¸»{ZÖ»//Ì»YÖ¿YÁY§]ZÀ»Ä]Ö//f{½Z°»Y,|Å{Ö»Y«
ÖuYÄ]ÄmÂeZ],Ö//»MÕ·ÂÀ°eYÕÌ³ÃÆ]ÕZ//ŹZ¿Är¿ZÀq
{Y§Y,ZÅ¥|Ŷ»Z||ÅYÂy{ZnËYÖ»Z¿,{̳cÂÖ»MºÀ»
{ÂÖ»fÂa֣¸Á\Zz»Ö¼³{hZ],{ZË
Ã|¿Ì³Y§{YÖ]¸»Õ̳{ZË|À¿YÂeÖ»ÄmÁ¾ËfÆ]Ä]įָËZ//ÁÁ {Y½M½YÂf]įÖÀ »¾ËYÄ],|//Z]ÄÔy|ËZ]f//Âa
|¿ÂhZ] |ËZ]Äf§Z¯Ä]¥Áu,¾ËY]ZÀ]{¯Ä ·Z»ÖÅZe¯c|»
ȸZ§YYfÂa½YÂf]įÕÂÄ],|ÀZ]d//{ÁZ¿YÂy
...................................................................................................˨ĂģŘő˨äÏ
{\¸»dYfÆ]Äf°¿¾ËYdËZÕY]-|¿YÂyÁ{0Zf^¿
1. Alois Senefelder
{ÂÄÔyĸ¼m®Ë
2. chromolithography
Ö´ÀŧÁÖZ¼fmY»Yd¿ÁZ »
YÂ////////ÅYÕY{Æ///////
÷÷
ʾˀˆˀ˨ãĕ˨˨V˨ʷ˨ŧęʭ˙ģ˨˨V˨Ōù˨äğ˨ŧęŗĕ˨V˨äģěŘŎí˨ãÙŘŊŘŒÞă˨Ėģę˨V
ĺǎdžȅǺƘĹƥȂDžƯNJȅĥdžƤĺȊƥȂȁǾȅǻǾ
ZÆ»
M{Âyc
ÖÅZ³
»
ZÆ
ZÅc
YÕ
Z^e
Ö
DžƯNJȅĥĺƨƥȋǎdžDŽƤ
ÖeZ°¿Ä]ÄmÂeZ],ZŽMd̨̯ÁdÌ]¸»¿YfÂaY¿YÕ|À]Äf{
|¿ÂÖ»Ö§ »ZfyYÂÄ]į{ֻ̳cÂ
»ֳZeÁÖ³{ZdËZ½YÌ»
½Z´¼ÅÕY]¹ZÌa½{Â]¾ÁÁduY|u
\Zz»{ÃÌ´¿Y{ZnËYÖËZ¿YÂe
½{Â]ºÆ§Á{¶]Z«
´Ë|°ËZ]ZŲ¿\̯eÇÂv¿
YmYÖ´ÀÅZ¼ÅÇÂv¿
{t//Z]ÕZÅÃÁ³ÕY]½YÂeÖ»Yf//Âa,d//Y¯}Ä]¹Ó
{¯ÄÌÆeÌ¿{Yº¯Á{YÂÖ]{Y§YÖfu,cÁZ¨f»
Ö³|¿ÕZÅcZƻ»M
ZÆ»
Z¬»c
Z]ĸ]
fY
È̸¯¶»Z\¸»¾ËY|Z]¿Á\·Zm,Ë|]d//Y¹Óf//Âa
ÁZÅs,cÔ¼m,cZ¼¸¯Ì¿,fÂaÈÌÆeÄ]Â]»ÕZÅÄ^Àm
ÄÌÆe,ÄÔyÂÄ]{ÂÖ»½MÇ|ÀÅ{¶Ì°eZÀ¾Ì]]YÁ
|Z]|Ë|mÖ»¾f§ZËÖa{|ËZ]Ã|ÀÀ¯
Ŀ³¾ËY-{¯ÄÔyfÌeZËÄf¿®ËÄ]ZÆÀe½YÂeÖ»YfÂa
İÀËYÕY]|À¿Z»Ö»Ö«Z]\Zz»Zy{Õ{ZËc|»ZÅÄf¿
ÕËÁZeYdYÕÁ,{ÂfÌ]¾Å}{ZŽMdÌ^je½Z°»Y
|ÀfÅ{¶]Z«0Z ˽Z³|ÀÀÌ]ÕY]į{ÂÃ{Z¨fY
,½YÂÀÁfÌeĸ¼mYfÂa¦¸fz»ÕZÅd¼«¾f§³Y«ÇÂv¿
»Õ̳Y§{ÌiPe½YÌ»{įd//YÖËZÅ̤f»Ä¸¼mY
{ÂmÁÄ]ÄmÂeZ],Á¾ËYY{Y{½YÁY§d·Zy{fÂa{hv]{»
ÀÌq{dYÕÁ,fÂaÖuYÕY]ÕYÄ¿ZËYÕZÅY§Y¹¿
Ä]¹Ó|ËM¶¼Ä]¹Ód«{,fÂa½Â³Z¿Â³ÕZÅd¼«\ZÀ»
¶^«Y,fÂa{Z ]Y|À¿Z»dY¾°¼»Ì¿fÂaÀÌq,dY¯}
|Z]Ã|¾ÌÌ eÁ¦Ë e
Ä]Är¿ZÀqÁ|ÀfÅcZZuYÁZÅÃ|ËY¾Ì^»Ä̼ÅZŲ¿
Ã|ÀÀÌ]]ÖËYÄ]ÌiPe|À¿YÂeÖ»,{ÂÃ{Z¨fYZŽMYÖvÌv
¾ÌWeÕY]ZÆÀeZŽMY,d//YÕÁ¾ËY]ZÀ],|À//Z]Äf//Y{
{¿Ã{Z¨fY
© Copyright 2026 ExpyDoc