Document

Grammar for A-level English
Language
Dick Hudson
St Francis Xavier College, June 2008
1
Plan
• An animated description of basic sentence
structure
– with some notation
• A collection of interesting variations
– with some terminology
• A grammatical treasure hunt
– in seven extracts
2
The extracts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Grammar joke
The Owl and the Pussycat
Oliver Twist
Directgov: vehicle taxation
A grammarian's funeral (Browning)
The Sun: Blues warned off Kaka move
Northern Ireland Transcribed Corpus of Speech
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dependents
Basic verb
sentence
structure
Has a tense
make
made
verb
subject
object
babies
noun
S
T
dependents
predicative
parents
noun
happy
word
O
P
4
Hunt for …
• A verb with just one word as its subject and
no O or P or other dependent.
– 1: He arrives, and, …
• A sentence containing the verb BE three
times, with adjective or place adverb as P.
– 6: “But signing Kaka is impossible, because he
is here at AC Milan and will be here until the
end of his career.”
5
Modifying a verb
make
verb
S
noun
babies
O
P
parents
noun
adverb
often
word
happy
with
preposition
noun
smiles
6
Hunt for …
• A verb modified by a monosyllabic adverb
standing immediately before it.
– 4: Vehicles that are exempt from vehicle tax
still need to display a tax disc.
• A verb with S, O and a following modifier,
each of which is just one word.
– 2: So they took it away, and were married next
day …
7
Modifying a noun
make
verb
S
O
noun
babies
adjective
healthy
P
parents
noun
word
happy
preposition
with
the normal range of baby behaviour such as …..
8
One alternative notation …
S
P
O
Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy.
9
…and another…
S
P
O
Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy.
noun phrase
clause
10
…and another
Healthy babies with normal behaviour make parents happy.
11
Phrases and clauses
• A phrase is a group of words that depend
on one word.
• That word is the phrase’s head.
– The phrase can be classified according to its
head
• e.g. ‘noun phrase’, ‘preposition phrase’
• A phrase headed by a verb is called a
clause.
12
Hunt for …
• no + adj + noun + preposition + the + noun
– 3: which I need not trouble myself to repeat, inasmuch
as it can be of no possible consequence to the reader
• Nouns contrasted only by their preceding
adjectives and by this/that.
– 5: That low man seeks a little thing to do, /
Sees it and does it:/ This high man, with a great thing
to pursue, / Dies ere he knows it. (x 2)
13
Predicatives
make
verb
S
noun
babies
O
P
parents
noun
happy
adjective
adults
noun
into adults
preposition
cry
verb
14
Hunt for …
• Predicative = a noun modified by a
preposition
– 3: it remained a matter of considerable doubt
• Predicative = a noun modified by an
adjective
– 4: If you’re a disabled person, …
15
Verb chains
seem
S
P
We
to have
S
P
been
P
trying
P
to start ……
16
Hunt for …
• A chain of three verbs: verb + not + verb +
verb
– 6: Kaka will not be heading to Stamford
Bridge
• A chain of three verbs where the third verb
does not have the same subject as the others
– 7: I know I've heard tell, …
17
Six interesting variants
•
•
•
•
•
•
Subject-auxiliary inversion
Auxiliary contraction
Topicalisation
Subject delay
Postposing
Extraposition
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Subject-auxiliary inversion
is
S
He
Verbs like is:
But NOT:
S
P
he
ready.
BE, HAVE, WILL, CAN, DO, ..
GET, BECOME, TRY, …
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Why put aux first?
• Because it could be negative:
– He isn’t
is ready.
Isn’t he ready?
– Is
• So we focus on ‘truth’.
– Is he ready? = Is it true that he’s ready?
20
Hunt for …
• inverted aux + S = ‘if’
– 5: That, has the world here – should he need
the next,/ Let the world mind him!
• ungrammatical inverted non-aux + S
– So, with the throttling hands of death at strife,/
Ground he at grammar;
21
Auxiliary contraction
is
’s
S
P
It
Contractable:
mine.
Most finite (past/present) auxiliaries
Purpose: to show lack of formality.
22
How casual?
• A matter of degree, not all or none.
• We can contract some contractable
auxiliaries without contracting all of them.
• Project: count contracted auxiliaries
– as percentage of all contractables.
– very good for practicing grammatical analysis!
• Contraction is an issue in students’ own
writing.
23
Hunt for …
• A text where all contractable auxils are contracted
– 5: hundred’s |here’s |here’s|here’s
• A text where some auxils are contracted and some
aren’t.
– 1: he can’t | cabbie is | I have |jokeologists have
– 4: that are |disk is |that will |you’re |footways will
– 6: Milan have |Scolari is |Phil has| Kaka will not | “It’s
|Kaka is | he is
• A contracted auxiliary with an object
– 7: he hadn’t even a bicycle
24
Topicalisation
rained
S
It
yesterday
‘topic’
25
Hunt for …
• A verb that has two topics
– 2: And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand,
They danced by the light of the moon
• A topic 29 words long
– 3: Among other public buildings in a certain
town, which for many reasons it will be
prudent to refrain from mentioning, and to
which I will assign no fictitious name, there is
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‘Negative’ topics and subj-aux inv
So do I.
No way am I going to …
Not only did he …
Only once did he …
At no point did he …
formality
•
•
•
•
•
27
Hunt for …
• so + inverted aux + S
– 7: the North Sea's bound to come to an end,
sooner or later, and so's the Arab places
• negative topic + inverted aux + S
– 1: but never once have I heard it asked for
28
‘Place’ topic and subject delay
sailed
S
aitneat little into
yacht
the harbour
29
Hunt for …
• A simple adverb + subject delay
– 5: here’s the platform, here’s the proper place
… here’s the top-peak
• A prepositional phrase + subject delay
– 3: in this workhouse was born; on a day and
date which I need not trouble myself to repeat,
inasmuch as it can be of no possible
consequence to the reader, in this stage of the
business at all events; the item of mortality …
30
Subject delay and formality
Here comes your bus.
There are my gloves.
In the corner is an old oak tree.
In the corner stands an old oak tree.
From this observation arises another
concern.
formality
•
•
•
•
•
31
Postposing
put
S
We
O
a bag
it into the box
of jewels that we had found up
the chimney
32
Hunt for …
• A postposed O following a preposition
phrase
– 2: 'Dear pig, are you willing to sell for one
shilling / Your ring?'
• A postposed O following a simple adverb
– 1: you have brought home the punchline
33
Extraposition from a noun
arrived
S
a letter
from the bank
34
Hunt for …
• An extraposed preposition phrase
– 2: a Piggy-wig stood / With a ring at the end
of his nose
• An extraposed relative clause that …
– 4: A ‘free’ tax disc is issued that will need to
be renewed each year.
35
Extraposition with it
surprises
S
that he came
It so late
O
me
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Hunt for …
• Three examples of an extraposed clause
after it
– 3: which for many reasons it will be prudent to
refrain from mentioning …
– 3: it remained a matter of considerable doubt
whether the child would survive …
– 3: it is somewhat more than probable that
these memoirs would never have appeared
…
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Why deviate?
• Focus on finiteness and truth
– subject-auxiliary inversion
• Put ‘topic’ early, because it’s already in the
hearer’s mind.
– topicalisation
• Put ‘heavy material’ late, to give the hearer
time to process it.
– subject delay, postposing, extraposition
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Thank you
• This slideshow is available at:
www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/talks.htm#alel
• For more on grammar in teaching:
www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/education.htm#strategy
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