手，手臂 - 臺大開放式課程 (NTU OpenCourseWare)

Typology of Formosan Languages
Claire Hsun-huei Chang
Department of English
National Chengchi University
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 Assumption: Language and culture
 Body parts typology
 An overview of Formosan Languages
 body parts in Formosan languages
 Color terms typology
 color terms in Formosan languages
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Language has shaped our societies into what they are
today.
 Language can reflect culture, giving us a way of
expressing our thoughts.
 Franz Boas, an American anthropological linguist,
noted that language is used to classify our experiences
with the world. Different people will classify the world
differently, based on the languages they speak.
 There is much more linguistic diversity in the world
than had been commonly thought by those who study
primarily Indo-European languages.
Franz Boas. (1940). Race, language, and culture.
 Free online database of structural properties of





languages http://wals.info
2005 book published by Oxford University Press
A joint project by Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology and Max Planck
Digital Library
141 maps
142 features
2650 languages
 hand/arm
 finger/hand
 Hand：from the tip of the finger to wrist
 Arm：wrist to shoulder
 Type I：same term（228）
 Lonwolwol (Vanuatu)： va:
 Czech：ruka
 Gurma (Niger-Congo)：nu
 Type II：different terms （389）
 English：hand // arm
 Ngawun (Australia）marl 'hand‘, palkal 'arm'
 Chai (Nilo-Saharan; Ethiopia), síyó ‘hand’, múní
‘forearm’, yíró ‘upper arm’, no term for ‘arm’
 Mixed type：same and different terms
 hand: ‘hand’ and ‘arm’
 hand vs. arm
 Bambara (Mande; Mali) ：bolo 'hand and arm,' tègè,
'hand' (and also denoting 'palm' and 'foot').
 Semai (Mon-Khmer; Malay Peninsula) ：tek , ‘hand’
and ‘arm’, kengrit, ‘arm.’
 Jicarilla Apache (Athabaskan; New Mexico) gan, 'hand'
and 'arm' l-lá ‘hand’, ganí ‘arm’
 http://wals.info/feature/129A?tg_format=map&v1=cff0
&v2=cd00
 Type I (same term): mostly near the equator, few away
from the equator
 Type II (different terms) : mostly away from the
equator, few close to the equator
NCCU 張郇慧整理
Continent
Type I（same） Type II（Diff）
Australia
（1）
V （59）
South America
V
Europe
V
S Mexico/Central V
America
Africa/Asia/Pacific V
 Broadly distributed
 Languages closer to the equator tend to show identity
than their closely related sister languages located
further from the equator
 Witkowski and Brown (1985): latitude
 Climate, clothing and polysemy：extensive wearing
relates negatively to the occurrence of polysemy
Witkowski, Stanley R. and Brown, Cecil H.. 1985. "Climate,
Clothing, and Body-part Nomenclature"
 Tailoring technique
 finger：one of the five
 Hand：from the fingertips to the wrist
 Type I：identical（72）
 Warlpiri (Pama-Nyungan; Northern Territory, Australia),
rdaka
 Cahuilla (Uto-Aztecan; California), - ma-l
 Kxoe (Khoisan; Namibia), cèú,
 hand/finger as a collection
 (Southern) Paakantyi (Pama-Nyungan; New South
Wales, Australia), mara
 Mesa Grande Diegueño (Yuman; California), esally
 Pacoh (Mon-Khmer; Vietnam and Laos), ati
 Type II：different（521）
 English (finger/hand), Tzotzil (c’obil ‘hand’/ bic’tal
c’obil ‘little hand, fingers’）
 Yapese (Austronesian; Micronesia), paaq ‘hand’，bugul
ii paaq ‘tip of the hand, fingers’, Choctaw (Muskogean;
Mississippi), ibbak ‘hand’，ibbak ushi ‘fingers, son of
hand‘
 ‘Fingers’ are derived from ‘hand’ for Type II languages.
 http://wals.info/feature/130A?tg_format=map
 Type I (identical)：Australia and North America
（except the Central and S. Mexico）, South America
 Type II (different)：around the world
 Type I hand/finger identical languages (72)
 46 (64%) traditional hunter-gatherers
 18 (25%) mixed cultivation and foraging
 8 (11%) full-fledge agriculture
 90 % non-agricultural way of life
 Navajo: Type I with agricultural way of life, showing a
change of life from hunter-gatherers to agricultural
 decoration：the use of ‘ring’
 Material culture for farmers
 Kunz (1917: 31)：Eskimos, no rings, not manufacturing
rings
 Kunz (1917: 17-18) no prehistoric finger rings in
archeological excavations in North and South America
 Rings are acquired by groups from Western source not
natively manufactured.
Kunz, George Frederick. 1917. Rings for the Finger
 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/2108/
Major-divisions-of-the-Austronesian-languages
Number of languages: 23 in Taiwan (out of a total of
1262 Austronesian languages)
 Atayalic (2), Paiwanic (17), Tsouic (4), Yami/Tao (1)
 Language family：3 branches out of 4 in Taiwan
 Language structures
Major divisions of the Austronesian languages, from
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Wiki kwami
原住民族分佈圖 from 行政院原住民委員會 Council of Indigenous
Peoples, Executive Yuan.
 Atayalic (2)
 Tsouic (4)
 Atayal
 Rukai
 Seediq
 Northern Rukai (1)
 Tsou (Cou)
 Southern Rukai (2)
 Kanakanabu
 Saaroa
 Paiwanic (21)
 Amis, Nataoran
 'Amis, Pangcah
 Bunun
 Basay
 Babuza; (Favorlang)
 Kavalan
 Qauqaut
 Siraiya
 Honya
 Ketangalan
 Luilang
 Kulun
 Papora/Papura; Camachat
 Paiwan
 Pyuma
 Pazih, Pazeh
 Kaxabu, Kahabu
 Saisiyat
 Thao
 Taokas
 Center for Aboriginal Studies, National Chengchi
University http://www.alcd.nccu.edu.tw/index_0.html
 Language learning materials/textbooks: 9 levels, 42
languages（2006）
 1000 word list (2009)
 Readers in Formosan Languages (原住民族語讀本)
 Type II, use of different terms
 Hand/elbow/arm/finger
 Use of the number ‘five’ (lima)（18）
 Native vocabulary（17）：
 [Ts’ou] emucu （3）, [Atayal] qba （6）, [Amis] kamay
（5）, [Truku] baga（3）
 No vocabulary（7）
 Ciku/hiku: borrowing？Proto- (26)
 Native vocabulary：[Sakizaiya] batac,
 Derived from a base vocabulary：elbow ＝ arm
 No vocabulary（10）：Kavalan, Bunun, Tsou（3）,
Rukai（4）, Atayal（1）
 Having a term for arm（30）：
 Distinct vocabulary (23) ：different from ‘hand’
 Derived from word formation（7）：Paiwanic, Atayl,
Teluku
 No vocabulary：12
 Having a term for fingers（37）
 Specific vocabulary（27）
 Derived through word formation (10)
 No term for fingers（5）
 Hand/elbow/arm/fingers
 手/手肘/手臂/手指
 All four（20）
 3 terms（12）
 2 terms（8）
 1 term（2）
 Four terms
 arm/fingers using word formation：[Paiwanic]
 3 different terms for arms ：Amis
 patelaw ‘muscle’；
 kahong ‘shoulder’;
 fadangalan ‘arm’
 3 terms（12）
 No ‘hand’ (3)
 No ‘arm’ (5)
 No ‘elbow’ (2)
 No ‘fingers’ (1)
 2 terms（8）
 elbow/arm
 hand/fingers
 arm/fingers
 One term（2）
 hand
 Similar to the world type
 No polysemy
 Diversified word formation
 There are typological patterns in how languages name
colors.
 All languages have 2-11 basic terms
 English has red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple,
pink, brown, grey, black and white.
Small set of possible color term systems
white
black
red
green
yellow
blue
brown
purple
pink
orange
grey
Berlin and Kay’s Implicational Hierarchy.
There is an order of how basic color terms evolved.
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay. 1969. Basic Color Terms: Their
Universality and Evolution.
 Survey 110 languages in the world
(Kay, Berlin, Merrifield,
1991; Kay et al 1997; Kay and Maffi,1999)
 Universal color categories
 Primary color: black, white, red/green, yellow/blue
 Composite color:
 Green/blue (grue)
 Black/green/blue, white/red/yellow, black/blue, black/yellow,
yellow/green/blue, yellow/green
 Derived color：
 grey（black-white）, pink（white-red）, orange（yellow-red）,
purple（blue-red）, brown（yellow-black）
Kay, P., Berlin, B., & Merrifield, W. R. (1991). Biocultural implications of systems of color naming.
Kay, P., & Maffi, L. (1999). Color appearance and the emergence and evolution of basic color lexicon.
Kay, P., Berlin, B., Maffi, L., & Merrifield, W. R. (1997). Color naming across languages.
 Fundamental colors: black, white, red, yellow, green
and blue
Kay, P., & Maffi, L. (1999). Figure 3, Color appearance and the
emergence and evolution of basic color lexicon.
 3 （10）
 Languages with no
 3-4 （3）
written language
 Most languages have 5
colors
 Languages with less than
5 colors are distributed
in tropical areas
 4 （9）
 4-5 （1）
 5 （56）
 5-6 （11）
 6 （29）
 3-4 （20）
 4.5-5.5 （26）
 6-6.5 （34）
 7-7.5 （14）
 8-8.5 （6）
 9-10 （8）
 11 （11）
 Green-Blue different：English（30）
 One term for green/blue（grue）（68）
 One term for black/green/blue（15）
 One term for black/blue, green a separate term（2）
 Yellow/green/blue share the same term（2）
 Yellow/Green share one term, blue a separate term
（1）
 Others（2)
 Red-Yellow contrast：98
 Red/yellow share one term：15
 Red vs. yellow/green/blue：3
 Red vs. yellow/green：1
 Others：3
 6 colors (white, black, green, blue, red, yellow) : 10
 5 (white, black, green/blue, red/yellow)：22
 Green/blue different：1
 Green/blue same：7
 Green only：12
 Blue only：2
 4 (white/yellow, black, green/blue, red)：9
 1 (black): 1
 0：1 (?)
 Different vocabulary：10
 Green only：16
 Blue only：5
 Different vocabulary：32
 same：0
 Red vs. yellow/green/blue：0
 Red vs. yellow/green：0
 Red only：7
 Yellow only：0
 Others：3
 5-6 color terms
 Between stage III and IV; most languages entered stage
IV, some into Stage V
 Clear evidence of Blue/green class in Formosan
languages
 Word formation of cultural vocabulary
 Retained vocabulary or borrowing
 Distinct vocabulary
 Through metonymy or metaphor：[Saisiyat]─White
（‘clean’），[Tao]─Yellow（‘like little chicken’）,
blue（‘like the soup of snail’），[Bunun]─green
（‘bamboo snake, red-tail snake’）
 Independent vocabulary (non-analyzable) >
analyzable vocabulary
 Simple vocabulary > derived vocabulary
 High-ranking basic words > low-ranking basic words
(Wang & Wang 2004)
 high-ranking basic words:
 color (black, red, green, yellow, white),
 body parts (hand, feet)
Feng Wang and William S.-Y. Wang. (2004). Basic Words and
Language Evolution.
 Heine et al. 1991
 person > thing > event > space > time > quality
 Body parts > space (hand  the direct the hand
points to, temai [Japanese] ‘in front of the hand’,
‘you’）
 Body parts  person: shui-shou [water-hand ,
‘sailor’], lao-shou [old-hand ‘skillful person’]
 Body parts  measure word：彈一手好琴tan yishou haoqin [lit. play a good hand of piano]
 person  20 (Saisyat）
Heine, B. ; Claudi, U. ; Hunnemeyer, F. (1991).
Grammaticalization.
 change hands [pindah tangan]
 wash your hands of [cuci tangan]
 catch someone red-handed [tangkap basah ‘catch wet’]
 to give someone a hand
 on the gripping hand
 People with skills
 烏手 ‘mechanic’、運轉手 ‘driver’、頭手 ‘chef’、二
手 ‘second chef’
 person
 助手 ‘helper’，下手 ‘subordinates’
 Behavior, technique, degree
 軟手、手頭重/輕、手腳快/慢、收腳洗手、鬥腳手
 Others
 伴手、手尾、有一手
 牽手 ‘holding hands, get married’
 放手 ‘let go of hands, divorce’
 Primary colors：black, white, red, blue/green；used
as adjectives to modify the following nouns (-ai)
 others：yellow（ki iro）、green (midori no)；used
as nouns in “X no Y” construction, not as a prenominal modifier
 Language complexity: There is a great variation among
basic vocabulary in Formosan Languages.
 Language evolution: Research in basic vocabulary can
be used to examine how languages evolved;
Comparing languages can uncover the path of cultural
contact.
 Typological patterns of body parts and color terms of
Formosan Languages
 Cultural vocabulary
 Cultural contact
 Creation of new words
 Position of Formosan languages in the world
 Extended use of body parts and color terms
Work
p.3
Licensing
Author/Source
Franz Boas. (1940). Race, language, and culture. The
University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
p.11
NCCU 張郇慧整理 (2011)
p.13
Witkowski, Stanley R. and Brown, Cecil
H.. 1985. "Climate, Clothing, and Body-part
Nomenclature“
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by GET
Work
p.24
p.27
p.28
Licensing
Author/Source
Kunz, George Frederick. 1917. Rings for the Finger, p.17, 18,
31. J.B. Lippincott Company.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Major divisions of the Austronesian languages, from
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/2108/Majo
r-divisions-of-the-Austronesian-languages
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Wiki kwami
(Original uploader was Kwamikagami at en.wikipedia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Formosan_languages.p
ng
2011/12/19 visited
Work
p.29
p.45
p.46
Licensing
Author/Source
原住民族分佈圖 from 行政院原住民委員會 Council of
Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan.
http://www.apc.gov.tw/portal/docList.html?CID=6726E5
B80C8822F9
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay. 1969. Basic Color Terms: Their
Universality and Evolution. University of California Press.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Kay, P., Berlin, B., & Merrifield, W. R. (1991). Biocultural
implications of systems of color naming. Journal of
Linguistic Anthropology, 1, 12-25.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Work
p.46
p.46
p.48
Licensing
Author/Source
Kay, P., & Maffi, L. (1999). Color appearance and the
emergence and evolution of basic color lexicon. American
Anthropologist, 101, 743-760.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Kay, P., Berlin, B., Maffi, L., & Merrifield, W. R. (1997).
Color naming across languages. In C. L. Hardin & L.Maffi
(Eds.), Color categories in thought and language.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Kay, P., & Maffi, L. (1999). Figure 3, Color appearance and
the emergence and evolution of basic color lexicon.
American Anthropologist, 101, 743-760.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Work
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p.60
Licensing
Author/Source
Feng Wang and William S.-Y. Wang. (2004). Basic Words
and Language Evolution. LANGUAGE AND
LINGUISTICS 5.3:643-662.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW
Heine, B. ; Claudi, U. ; Hunnemeyer, F. (1991).
Grammaticalization. A conceptual framework, Chicago :
University of Chicago Press.
and used subject to the fair use doctrine of the Taiwan
Copyright Act Article 50 by NTU OCW

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