LITERARY TERMS

LITERARY TERMS
additions October 2015
this document can be used to update previous versions
0. GENERAL
paratext
A textual item that serves some supplementary function in relation to a principal text that it describes,
introduces, justifies, or explains. There are several kinds of paratext, including prefaces, introductions,
forewords, afterwords, glosses, blurbs, footnotes, and appendices. (Baldick)
1. FICTION
1.2. action, story, plot
action
any event or series of events depicted in a literary work; an event may be verbal as well as physical, so that
saying something or telling a story within the story may be an event. (Norton)
A sequence of acts and events; the sum of events constituting a 'story line' on a narrative's level of action.
[…] Events in the 'primary story line' are often kept distinct from 'external' events that take place before the
beginning or after the end of the primary story line (constituting a 'pre-history' and an 'after-history',
respectively). (Jahn)
1.4. time structure
ab ovo
(L ‘from the egg’) This term may refer to a story which starts from the beginning of the events it narrates, as
opposed to one which starts in the middle – in medias res. (Cuddon)
the play starts at the beginning and provides all the necessary background information concerning the
characters, their circumstances, conflicts, etc. (exposition) (Lethbridge/Mildorf)
in ultimas res
the story begins with its actual outcome or ending and then relates events in reverse order, thus drawing the
audience’s attention on the ‘how’ rather than the ‘what’ of the story. (Lethbridge/Mildorf)
1.7.2. the structure of fictional narrative (Onega/Garcá Landa 11)
1
1.8.1.4 reliability
signals for unreliable narration (Nünning 121):
• explicit contradictions within the narrator's comments
• contrasting versions of the same event
• discrepancies between the statements and the actions of the narrator
• contradictions between the self-characterisation of the narrator and characterisation of the narrator
by other characters
• discrepancies between his or her account and interpretation of events
• repeated occurrence of subjective comments and addresses to the reader
• the narrator's insistence on his/her own credibility
• memory lapses
• paratextual signals (hints in the title, subtitle, preface, …)
• statements that contradict general world knowledge and socially accepted ideas concerning
psychological normality and moral values
1.9.2. metafiction
“writing about writing”; term for self-reflexive literary texts which focus on their own literary elements, such as
language, narrative and plot structure; it is a main feature of Postmodernism (Klarer 139)
The laying bare of literary devices in metafiction brings to the reader[s’] attention those formal elements of
which, through over-familiarization, [they have] become unaware. (Hutcheon 24)
Metafiction is a term given to fictional writing which self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its
status as an artefact in order to pose questions about the relationship between fiction and reality. In
providing a critique of their own methods of construction, such writings not only examine the fundamental
structures of narrative fiction, they also explore the possible fictionality of the world outside the literary
fictional text. (Waugh 2)
2. POETRY
2.0. types of poems
haiku (hokku)
a Japanese verse form of three unrhyming lines in five, seven, and five syllables. It creates a single,
memorable image. (Poetry Foundation)
performance poetry
A term applied to poetry specifically written to be performed out loud. The work may sometimes transfer
successfully to the printed page, but its true power usually lies in the moment of public performance. Often
with an anti‐establishment edge, performance poetry covers a wide range of poetic activity, from topical
satire and burlesque to ranting and agitprop, including avant‐garde sound poetry and mixings of word and
music. Usually performed from memory, rather than read, it can be accompanied by highly choreographed
gestures and subtle voice techniques, leading to accusations (not always unjust) of style over substance.
American jazz poet Kenneth Rexroth's (1905–82) motivation to ‘get poetry out of the hands of the
professors… to make poetry a part of show business’ remains at the heart of performance poetry today.
Performance poets are less likely to appear at literary clubs than in music venues, bars, comedy festivals,
and on radio, and some issue a CD before a book. (Drabble)
slam
A slam […] is […] a poetry competition in which poets perform original work alone or in teams before an
audience, which serves as judge. The work is judged as much on the manner and enthusiasm of its
performance as its content or style, and many slam poems are not intended to be read silently from the
page. The structure of the traditional slam was started by construction worker and poet Marc Smith in 1986
at a reading series in a Chicago jazz club. The competition quickly spread across the country, finding a
notable home in New York City at the Nuyorican Poets Café. (poets.org)
concrete poetry
poetry in which the words on the page are arranged to look like an object; also called shaped verse. George
Herbert’s "Easter Wings," for example, is arranged to look like two pairs of wings. (Norton)
2
3. DRAMA
3.0. the semiotics of drama
theatre codes and sign systems
Providing not only one text but a multi-layered texture of verbal, visual, and auditory signs, drama is a
codified artefact. […] What makes the decoding of signs difficult is their simultaneous appearance on the
verbal and visual level. There are several visual and verbal ‘texts’ in drama that run parallel to each other in
theatrical performance and also may interact or overlap, such as stage scenery and props, the actors’
bodies, their gestures and facial expressions as well as costumes and acoustic signs such as sounds or
music. […]
When analysing the semiotic system of drama, we must first determine whether a sign belongs to the
acoustic or the visual realm of performance. We then have to distinguish whether the sign is related to the
actor, the stage, or other aspects of dramatic production. Finally, a differentiation should be made between
signs that are ‘durative’ and remain constant over an extended period of time (such as stage decoration) and
signs that are ‘temporary’ and vanish almost immediately after being communicated (such as gestures and
facial expressions). The following diagram provides a systematic overview of the theatrical semiotic system.
(Baumbach/Nünning 47)
linguistic signs
(see 3.1. dialogue, monologue, soliloquy, aside, prologue, epilogue)
paralinguistic signs
Considering that speech in drama is always embodied speech, paralinguistic signs, i.e. signs which
accompany the articulation of words, contribute significantly to the attribution of meaning on stage. The
timbre, pitch, and loudness of the voice, the manner of articulation, the speed of delivery, as well as rhythm,
stress, and pauses all serve to influence the creation of meaning in performance. Not only do paralinguistic
signs communicate emotions (e.g. rage, delight, grief, despair) and certain character traits (e.g. impatience,
coyness, boldness) but they also influence the audience’s perception of words and sentences.
(Baumbach/Nünning 48)
3
kinesic signs
On the visual level, the actors’ postures and movements as well as their body language (i.e. their facial
expressions and gestures) contribute to a complex supra-linguistic sign system which the spectators or
‘readers’ have to interpret. These movements are referred to as the kinesic component of the performance
[…]. Their meanings often derive from their cultural contexts and are based on convention: Kneeling, for
instance, is usually regarded as a sign of humility; […]. Kinesic signs can complement, contrast with, or
replace verbal language. (Baumbach/Nünning 48)
proxemic signs
Proxemics examines the spatial relationship of objects or figures in a given space. In the study of drama, the
distance between characters on stage, their interaction and the space between stage and auditorium all
become significant insofar as these elements provide insights into the constellation of characters in a play
and the communication situation in the theatre. […] [For example,] physical distance might signal alienation
and distrust. (Baumbach/Nünning 48)
scenery
[Scenery] defines the space for the dramatic action and is often, yet not always, set out in detail in the stage
directions. […] Some directors might aim for a naturalistic scenery while others work with an almost bare
stage […], relying heavily on the actors’ bodies and the principle of ‘word scenery’, i.e. the evocation of
scenery through words rather than through painted canvas or stage props. (Baumbach/Nünning 49)
properties (props)
The usual abbreviation for stage ‘properties’, i.e. those objects that are necessary to the action of a dramatic
work (other than scenery, costumes, and fixed furnishings): weapons, documents, cigarettes, items of food
and drink, etc. (Baldick)
Generally, the set of moveable objects needed by the actors. […] While many props are simply realistic
decoration, some serve as characteristic attributes (a pearl necklace, a pipe, a crown), some propel or
motivate action (a bottle of whiskey, a sword, a gun), and some may have a richly symbolic value (the mirror
in Richard II). (Jahn)
… historically a prop has been, like costume, a signal of meaning, even having the attributes and importance
of a symbol. […] On the open Elizabethan stage a torch or a taper could turn day into night upon the
entrance of the actor … (Styan)
costumes
In performance costume has always transmitted the clearest signals both of character and of degrees of
reality and unreality in the dramatic experience. (Styan)
sounds and music
Beside verbal and visual signs, plays are full of noises and include complex sound systems, which support a
(naturalistic) setting (through sounds of thunder, storms, the roar of the surf etc.), mark the space the play is
set in (e.g. through sounds of the city), or to create a particular mood and atmosphere. Music in drama can
attain symbolic quality. (Baumbach/Nünning 50)
4
techniques of characterisation
The reliability of characterisations offered […] differs considerably, depending, for instance, on whether the
figure to whom the characterisation refers is present or absent. If characterisation is enacted in the
character’s presence, the description might serve strategic aims (such as flattery, courtship, humiliation in
public), which influence the way in which a character is evaluated. […] When assessing the value of these
characterisations, both the underlying intentions and the characters who deliver them must be considered
because it makes a difference whether they are friends or foes of the character described. […]
Characterisation by other characters becomes particularly significant if it precedes the first entrance of a
figure and thus manipulates our first impression of the newcomer. […]
[Figures may also] characterise themselves implicitly […] through their behaviour towards each other and the
duration and manner of their speech. […] [Characterisation through commentary by others can] become a
vehicle for both explicit and implicit characterisation insofar as they provide information on other characters
[…], while also offering an insight into the character of the speaker. (Baumbach/Nünning 112-115)
telling names
[Telling names] aid [a figure’s] characterisation as well as raise certain expectations concerning their
behaviours and actions. Telling names [such as Mrs. Candour or Sir Benjamin Backbite, see above] are
examples of authorial-explicit characterisation devices. (Baumbach/Nünning 114)
3.6.2. Types of comedy
Romantic comedy
A general term for comedies that deal mainly with the follies and misunderstandings of young lovers, in a
light-hearted and happily concluded manner which usually avoids serious satire. The best-known examples
are Shakespeare’s comedies of the late 1590s, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Twelfth Night, and As You Like
It being the most purely romantic, while Much Ado About Nothing approaches the comedy of manners and
The Merchant of Venice is closer to tragicomedy. The romantic comedy has become a recognized genre of
popular film, in which context it is now sometimes abbreviated as romcom. (Baldick)
5
4. FILM
4.2.3.3. angle
bird’s eye view
The bird’s-eye view is perhaps the most disorienting angle of all, for it involves photographing a scene from
directly overhead. Because we seldom view events from this perspective, the subject matter of such shots
might initially seem unrecognizable and abstract. […] In effect, bird’s-eye shots permit us to hover above a
scene like all-powerful gods. The people photographed seem antlike and insignificant. (Giannetti 14/17)
opposite: worm’s eye view
4.3.2.2. continuity
nonsimultaneous sound
Diegetic sound that comes from a source in time either earlier or later than the images it accompanies. (B&T
480)
The most common example of this is the sonic flashback. For instance, we might see a character onscreen
in the present but hear another character's voice from an earlier scene. By means of nonsimultaneous
sound, the film can give us information about story events without presenting them visually. (B&T 288)
Nonsimultaneous sound can also take the form of a sound bridge:
1. The sound from one scene may linger briefly while the image is already presenting the next scene. (B&T
289)
2. At the end of one scene, the sound from the next scene is heard, leading into that scene. (B&T 481)
dialogue overlap
When filmmakers edit conversations in shot/reverse shot, they often use a dialogue overlap to smooth down
the visual change of shot. In dialogue overlap, the filmmaker continues a line of dialogue across a cut. (B&T,
270)
voiceover
The use of film narration, commentary, subjective thought, or dialogue in which the speaker or speakers
remain unseen. The most frequent use of voice-over occurs in documentary and instructional films that are
said to be "narrated." The device is also used in dramatic films for narrative exposition and, frequently, to
suggest a person's thoughts while that person is shown on the screen. (Beaver)
It is perhaps most commonly used as an expository device to convey necessary background information or
fill in gaps for continuity that cannot be presented dramatically. Some films use voice-over narration only at
the beginning to give necessary background, place the action in historical perspective, or provide a sense of
authenticity. Others may employ voice-over at the beginning, occasionally in the body of the film for transition
or continuity, and at the end. (Boggs 275)
6

Download Report