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91 Dies Natalis
e
Academische zitting
Donderdag 15 mei 2014
91 e dies natalis
academische zitting
91e Dies Natalis
Academische zitting | Donderdag 15 mei 2014
Donderdag 15 mei 2014 vond in De Vereeniging in Nijmegen de academische
zitting plaats ter ere van de 91e Dies Natalis van de Radboud Universiteit.
a c ade m is che zit t ing 15 m e i 2014
inhoud
Opening | Rector magnificus Prof. Bas Kortmann Toespraak | Voorzitter college van bestuur Prof. Gerard Meijer
Diesrede | Prof. Heino Falcke
Laudatio | Rector magnificus Prof. Bas Kortmann Speech
| Rowan, Lord Williams of Oystermouth
Afsluiting
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Opening | Rector magnificus Prof. Bas Kortmann
Volgens de traditie van onze universiteit, open ik deze academische plechtigheid met
gebed.
Spiritus Sancti gratia illuminet sensus et corda nostra
Dames en heren, hartelijk welkom bij deze academische zitting waarmee wij 91e dies
natalis van de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen met elkaar vieren. Welkom burgemeester
van Nijmegen, leden van het stichtingsbestuur en de raad van bestuur van Radboudumc.
Welkom professor Heino Falcke, die vandaag voor ons de diesrede Towards the Limits of
Space and Time zal uitspreken.
In particular, I’d like to extend a most warm welcome to our guest of honour: Rowan,
Lord Williams of Oystermouth. Who, in the second half of this ceremony, will receive
an honorary doctorate. We feel very honoured to have you with us today.
En verder uiteraard ook een hartelijke welkom voor alle leden en vrienden van onze
academische gemeenschap.
De zitting is vandaag tweetalig. Tot aan het muzikaal intermezzo is de voertaal Nederlands.
We reiken de universiteitspenningen en de studentonderscheiding uit en collegevoorzitter Gerard Meijer houdt een rede. Dankzij een tolk kunnen onze buitenlandse gasten
ook dit deel van het programma volgen. Daarna gaan we over naar het Engels en volgen de
rede van professor Heino Falcke en de uitreiking van het eredoctoraat aan Lord Williams.
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Toespraak | Voorzitter college van bestuur Prof. Gerard Meijer
Rowan, Lord Williams of Oystermouth,
leden en vrienden van onze academische gemeenschap,
Vorige week woensdag ontving eurocommissaris Neelie Kroes tijdens een speciale academische zitting in de Stevenskerk uit handen van burgemeester Bruls de Vrede van Nijmegen
Penning. Aansluitend sprak zij op bevlogen wijze haar indrukwekkende Vrede van Nijmegen-lezing uit. Zij wees op het belang van Europa voor de vrede. En signaleert een bijzondere contradictie bij de burgers. Waar Europeanen aan de ene kant steeds meer geneigd zijn om zich terug te trekken binnen de eigen landsgrenzen, zijn Europeanen aan
de andere kant nog nooit zo internationaal georiënteerd geweest. We maken reizen over
de hele wereld, maken gebruik van Aziatische en Amerikaanse technologie en gaan werken
of studeren in andere lidstaten van de Europese Unie. Maar, en ik citeer Neelie Kroes:
We tend to forget that globalisation is a two way street; not a one way street, nor a dead end
street. If it enables opportunities for you, and you are happy using them, it does so for others
as well.
Neelie Kroes kreeg de penning toegekend vanwege haar verdiensten voor Europa. Tot deze
verdiensten behoren onder meer haar inspanningen voor de digitale agenda en voor
Open Access. Zo heeft zij eraan bijgedragen dat de Europese Commissie vrije toegankelijkheid tot de resultaten van wetenschappelijk onderzoek verplicht heeft gesteld binnen
het programma Horizon 2020.
In deze toespraak wil ik het graag hebben over Open Access van wetenschappelijke publicaties. Dat wil zeggen de onmiddellijke elektronische beschikbaarheid van wetenschappelijke artikelen, kosteloos voor de gebruiker, wereldwijd. Dit is zeker geen nieuw thema,
integendeel. Reeds in 2003 ondertekenden een groot aantal organisaties waaronder ook
alle Nederlandse universiteiten, de KNAW en NWO de zogenaamde Berlin Declaration on
Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities. Daarmee spraken zij zich expliciet
uit voor vrije toegang tot onderzoeksresultaten, zonder barrières, want – zo begint de
doelstelling van deze verklaring – Our mission of disseminating knowledge is only half
complete if the information is not made widely and readily available to society.
Open Access bevordert de uitwisseling van kennis en draagt daarmee bij aan de wetenschappelijke en maatschappelijke ontwikkeling. Artsen moeten kennis kunnen nemen
van nieuwste inzichten, nieuwe kennis helpt bedrijven om te innoveren, en leraren kunnen het lesprogramma aanpassen aan de actuele stand van de wetenschap. De filosofie
achter Open Access van wetenschappelijke artikelen is helder en duidelijk en wordt
breed onderschreven. Sinds de Berlin declaration hebben de ontwikkelingen op het terrein
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van Open Access niet stil gestaan. En tegelijkertijd kunnen we niet anders dan concluderen
dat deze ontwikkelingen achterblijven bij digitale vernieuwingen op andere terreinen,
zoals bijvoorbeeld in de muziekindustrie. Van een revolutie in de wijze van wetenschappelijk publiceren lijkt nog allerminst sprake, het heeft meer weg van een trage vorm van
evolutie. Nog steeds staat het grootste deel van de artikelen achter slot en grendel bij
commerciële uitgevers, alleen toegankelijk voor hen die het zich kunnen permitteren de
steeds hogere abonnementskosten voor de tijdschriften te betalen. En terwijl dat bij ons
aanleiding geeft tot groeiende ergernis, hebben in veel andere landen universiteiten en
instituten – ook uiterst gerenommeerde – deze abonnementen uit kostenoverwegingen
al lang op moeten zeggen.
Er zijn twee belangrijke manieren om Open Access te realiseren, in het jargon Green Open
Access en Gold Open Access genoemd. In Green Open Access wordt het wetenschappelijk
artikel vrij elektronisch toegankelijk gemaakt in een archief, naast dat het ook wordt
gepubliceerd in een tijdschrift waarvoor abonnementsgelden moeten worden betaald.
Dit archief kan een institutioneel archief zijn, zoals onze eigen Raboud Repository, maar
dit archief kan ook door wetenschappelijke disciplines georganiseerd zijn, zoals dat het
geval is voor de arXiv, bijvoorbeeld. De versie van het artikel die op deze manier vrij
toegankelijk wordt gemaakt is nagenoeg gelijk aan de versie van het artikel die in het
tijdschrift wordt gepubliceerd. Het vrij-schakelen van het artikel in het archief gebeurt
óf onmiddellijk óf na een door het tijdschrift opgelegde embargo periode van typisch één
jaar. Op dit moment is via onze Radboud Repository 23 procent van de Nijmeegse artikelen
die gepubliceerd zijn vanaf 2004, vrij toegankelijk voor iedereen.
Bij Gold Open Access wordt het wetenschappelijk artikel gepubliceerd in een tijdschrift
en zijn er géén abonnementskosten meer verbonden aan dit tijdschrift. Alle artikelen
zijn daarmee direct na publicatie vrij toegankelijk voor iedereen. De uitgever moet zijn
geld op andere wijze verdienen en vraagt daarom aan de auteur een financiële bijdrage
voor publicatie van het artikel, de zogenaamde Article Publication Charges, oftewel APCs.
Dit is dus een omkering van het oorspronkelijke verdienmodel van de uitgever; niet de
lezer betaalt, maar de auteur. Gold Open Access met een faire en duurzame financiële
bijdrage door de auteurs moet het uiteindelijke doel zijn, maar over de weg daar naar toe
lopen de meningen uiteen.
Een belangrijke reden om deze toespraak aan het onderwerp Open Acces te wijden, is dat
de staatssecretaris van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, Sander Dekker, in november van het afgelopen jaar het onderwerp stevig op de agenda heeft gezet met een brief
aan de Tweede Kamer waarin hij uitdrukkelijk kiest voor een snelle overgang naar Gold
Open Access. In januari zette hij zijn brief kracht bij met een keynote speech tijdens een
internationale conferentie die gehouden werd in Berlijn, tien jaar na het tekenen van
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de eerder genoemde verklaring aldaar. Terecht hanteert de staatssecretaris het uitgangspunt dat de resultaten van publiek gefinancierd onderzoek altijd vrij beschikbaar zouden moeten zijn. Dekker beschrijft Open Access als onvermijdelijk en het is niet zozeer
de vraag óf het er komt, maar wanneer. En omdat er in principe geen technische belemmeringen zijn, zou dat op zo kort mogelijke termijn moeten gebeuren. Dekker wil binnen tien jaar de volledige omslag naar Gold Open Access gerealiseerd zien, en hij wil dat
Nederland hierin een voortrekkersrol neemt. In zijn speech vergeleek Dekker Green
Open Access met een vierde plaats in de sport: niet onverdienstelijk, maar geen medaille
en daarmee de meest frustrerende positie. Daarom riep hij tijdens zijn speech in Berlijn
– net vóór het begin van de Olympische Winterspelen in Sotsji – alle betrokkenen op
om ‘gezamenlijk voor goud’ te gaan.
Het streven van Sander Dekker is prijzenswaardig, maar om dat doel te bereiken moeten
de uitgevers meewerken en dat terwijl hun huidige verdienmodel radicaal zal veranderen.
De uitgevers hebben op dit moment echter een wonderlijk, maar uitermate profitabel,
verdienmodel en zitten hier begrijpelijkerwijs niet echt op te wachten. Het wonderlijke
van dit verdienmodel werd onlangs treffend beschreven door onze eredoctor Robbert
Dijkgraaf, in een scherpe column in het NRC. Hij vergeleek de uitgevers met supermarkten en de universiteiten met de klanten van die supermarkten. De supermarkten
verkopen in dit geval alleen maar ‘groenten van eigen grond’; van de eigen grond van de
klanten, wel te verstaan! Het zaaien, bemesten en oogsten van de groenten gebeurt
door de klanten, die de producten vervolgens om niet aan de supermarkten leveren. De
supermarkten pakken het in, plakken er een prijssticker op en verkopen het terug aan
de klanten. De winstmarges van de supermarkten zijn hoog, soms tegen de 50 procent.
En elk jaar worden de prijzen ongestraft drie tot vier procent boven inflatie verhoogd.
Het is wonderlijk en bizar dat de wetenschappelijke wereld, die toch niet uit de allerdomsten bestaat, dit heeft laten gebeuren, zo concludeert ook Robbert Dijkgraaf.
Voor de universiteiten betekent dit dat er elk jaar een steeds groter deel van het onderzoeksbudget naar de uitgevers gaat. Bij de wetenschappers is de hoogte van deze abonnementsgelden niet altijd even goed bekend, omdat deze immers via centrale kanalen, uit
de budgetten van de universiteitsbibliotheken, betaald worden. Vanaf centraal niveau
zien wij deze kosten heel direct, en ik kan u vertellen dat deze voor onze universiteit
inmiddels meer dan vijf miljoen Euro per jaar bedragen. Bij Gold Open Access, daarentegen, zullen de onderzoekers zeer goed op de hoogte zijn van de kosten voor publicaties
omdat deze dan door middel van de eerder genoemde APCs direct bij hen in rekening
worden gebracht. En deze kosten van typisch duizend Euro per artikel mogen dan voor
de individuele wetenschapper hoog lijken, het zal voor de universiteiten als geheel goedkoper worden; minimaal de gelden die nu in winstmarges van uitgevers zitten zullen
dan immers vrij komen voor onderwijs en onderzoek. Op dit moment hebben we voor
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veel tijdschriften in feite te maken met een soort hybride situatie, waarin individuele
auteurs tegen betaling van APCs hun eigen artikelen Open Access kunnen maken, terwijl
de universiteiten daarnaast nog gewoon de abonnementsgelden betalen voor de tijdschriften waarin deze artikelen verschijnen. Inderdaad, het is alsof de supermarkten de groenten
eerst belasten bij de aanlevering en deze daarna alsnog verkopen, een verschijnsel dat in
het jargon double dipping wordt genoemd. Het zijn mooie tijden voor de supermarkten.
Uitgevers hanteren voor de abonnementen op dit moment alles-in-één-prijzen die worden
vastgesteld in zogenaamde Big Deals. In deze supermarkten kunnen klanten dus enkel
en alleen het volledige aanbod afnemen tegen een vaste prijs. Keuzevrijheid is er niet.
En als de supermarkten ongevraagd nieuwe producten ontwikkelen dan stijgen de prijzen
automatisch mee, want je krijgt immers meer waar voor je geld. De klanten zouden
liever naar een andere supermarkt gaan, maar helaas, die mogelijkheid is er niet want
er is geen andere met een vergelijkbaar assortiment. Ik zei net ‘een vaste prijs’ maar dat is
niet te verwarren met ‘één vaste prijs’: jawel, de supermarkten brengen voor hetzelfde
aanbod bij elke klant een andere prijs in rekening. Elke klant moet na aanschaf een
geheimhoudingsverklaring ondertekenen om rumoer onder de klanten te voorkomen.
De universiteiten zullen binnenkort met de grote uitgevers onderhandelen over deze Big
Deals, en dat is een andere reden dit hier nu onder uw aandacht te brengen. Voor de
uitgevers is het commercieel bijzonder aantrekkelijk om de huidige situatie te laten voortbestaan. Of, als dat niet mogelijk blijkt te zijn, toch op zijn minst de transitieperiode
naar Gold Open Access zo lang mogelijk te laten duren en met halfslachtige toezeggingen
tijd te rekken.
Hoewel de uitgevers een uitzonderlijk sterke positie lijken te hebben, is het belangrijk te
realiseren dat ze niets zonder de wetenschappers kunnen. Onderzoekers leveren de wetenschappelijke artikelen aan en verzorgen de kwaliteitsbeoordeling van door anderen
aangeleverde artikelen. De deelname aan editorial en advisory boards van tijdschriften is
voorbehouden aan internationaal erkende wetenschappelijke experts op het desbetreffende vakgebied. Het zou te ver gaan om te zeggen dat de wetenschappers de uitgevers
níet meer nodig hebben, maar als universiteiten moeten we ons in onderhandelingen
met de uitgevers wel degelijk goed van onze sterke positie bewust zijn.
Voorafgaand aan de onderhandelingen met een grote uitgever verzocht de president van
de Max Planck Gesellschaft enkele jaren geleden aan alle Max Planck directeuren hem
schriftelijk toestemming te verlenen om in de onderhandelingen over de Big Deal met
deze uitgever aan te kunnen kondigen dat ze al hun taken voor tijdschriften van deze
uitgever zouden opzeggen als de onderhandelingen niet tot het gewenste resultaat zouden leiden. Dit zou betekenen géén artikelen meer opsturen naar tijdschriften van deze
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uitgever, géén beoordelingswerk meer verrichten voor deze uitgever en terugtreden uit
editorial en advisory boards. De respons van de Max Planck-directeuren was overweldigend.
Dat slechts de áánkondiging van het overleggen van deze stapel brieven grote invloed
had op het onderhandelingsresultaat moge duidelijk zijn – al valt de exacte uitkomst
ook hier onder de geheimhoudingsovereenkomst.
Ik zou af willen sluiten met de oproep aan alle onderzoekers om zich actief in te zetten
voor het vrij toegankelijk maken van onze wetenschappelijke publicaties. Voor de individuele onderzoeker kan dat op dit moment uitstekend via onze Radboud Repository; anders
dan onze staatssecretaris dicht ik deze manier van Green Open Access toch zeker een zilveren medaille toe. Binnen internationaal goed-gedefinieerde en goed-georganiseerde
disciplines kunnen groepen wetenschappers zelf de regie in handen nemen om de overgang naar Gold Open Access teweeg te brengen, met instandhouding van de geaccepteerde
standaard van intercollegiale toetsing. Dit is onder andere in de hoge-energiefysica
succesvol gebleken en dergelijke initiatieven verdienen onze actieve ondersteuning. Om
de gewenste overgang naar Gold Open Access ook in andere disciplines snel te bewerkstelligen is het nodig dat wetenschappers – beter dan in het verleden – in gezamenlijkheid optreden naar de uitgevers, om zo de druk op de uitgevers maximaal op te voeren.
De aanstaande onderhandelingen over de Big Deals zijn het juiste moment hier voor. Ik
wil hier nogmaals memoreren aan Neelie Kroes, die aan het einde van de Vrede van
Nijmegen-lezing zei: ‘I want this continent to be the most open, secure and competitive internet space in the world. For this we indeed need to be much more daring and even rebellious.’
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Diesrede | Prof. Heino Falcke
I shall start my lecture with a Bible verse, as a theologian will be speaking after me. First
I thought of John the Baptist: ‘After me comes he who is mightier than I, the straps of
whose sandals I am not worthy to untie’ (Mark 1:7). However, I see that Lord Williams
isn’t wearing sandals today, so that won’t be it.
I decided to start with this verse: ‘The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim
the work of his hands’ (Psalm 19:1). This is an age-old opening verse from the Bible’s Old
Testament and I think it reveals one of the age-old fascinations we have when looking
at the stars. There has always been some kind a spiritual experience. Today, science is
mainly sobering, but at least for some of us, the fascination still remains.
Astronomy, which has been with us since the beginning of mankind, has always been
used to determine our location, our place in time, but also in space here on this earth:
spiritually, but also literally. From the early cave drawings and Stonehenge, to the Nebra
sky disk that you see here, there is ample – though not entirely irrefutable – evidence
that people have always looked at the stars and charted them. Watching the skies, we
can learn something about space and time, measuring the position of stars as they rise,
culminate and set. You can determine the time of the year and the seasons from them.
Similarly you can determine where you are on this planet. We all know that the early
explorers and sailors used the stars to guide their journey.
Consequently, it’s no coincidence that the Dutch were actually the first to charter the
skies in the Southern Hemisphere, during the Golden Age. It was very good science, yes,
but having good sky charts also meant good money, good navigation. And surprisingly
– stunningly at that time – cooperation between science and industry seemed to work
without governments pulling the strings and without the need for a government telling
scientists what to do via a ‘topsectorenbeleid’.
So the relationship of astronomy with space and time got a dramatic overhaul at the
beginning of the last century. Einstein was not an isolated theorist – he was very well
aware of what was going on in astronomy. There was one particular thing that was
bothering people at the time: the perihelion shift of Mercury, the fact that the ellipse
of Mercury’s orbit would shift by one hundredth of a degree within a century. This
seems like a very tiny effect, but it is something that could not easily be reconciled with
the theory of gravity at that time. So in Einstein’s mind space-time was born: the idea
that space and time are not independent and absolute and rigid, but they jointly make
up a deformable fabric that is embedded within everything there is in our universe.
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Space and time is relative. They shrink and they expand with your relative velocity and
they shrink and expand with the presence of masses. Gravity is therefore no longer a
force, but the deformation of space-time. For example, clocks here on earth run a bit
slower than in a satellite orbiting 20,000 kilometres above us. This is simply because
the earth’s mass deforms space-time. Clocks here go 38 microseconds slower in a day,
which means one second in 70 years. That doesn’t sounds like much. Well, if you use
your GPS today, and we did not correct for those deformation effects, you’d be off by ten
kilometres after just one day. So again, space and time and astronomy have come together.
And history repeats itself. We help to measure space and time, your ‘TomTom’ helps you
to navigate safely through today’s urban jungle and a Dutch company is cashing in.
Of course, GPS is not the most extreme example of the effects of deformed space-time.
The more mass there is and the more deformation there is, the slower time will go and
the more even light will be attracted. So let’s do a thought experiment where we start to
shrink the earth. I’m not really suggesting that here today, as it might spoil the festive
spirit if we all get crushed, but let’s just imagine that we shrink the earth further and
further. What happens is that you’ll deform space-time more and more until you almost
puncture it. Time will run slower and slower and, when the earth approaches a size of
about two centimetres, time as seen from an external observer, will seem to come to a
crushing halt. Light that passes by will also not be able to escape. Simply put: once you
go to the most extreme cases of gravity you’ve fallen so far down the drain that nothing
will be able to come back out. We call that point the event horizon, because according
to General Relativity, ‘things’, i.e. matter, light, or any kind of information that have
passed this invisible boarder can only go inside; they can never go out. This is so-tospeak the end of space-time in our universe today.
We can actually simulate what black holes look like in giant computer calculations. We
put all the physics of gravity, magnetic fields, fluid dynamics and radiation into the
equations and calculate how hot gas behaves and looks like around black holes. As an
example, here you see a simulation of a black hole. Impressive, isn’t it? (Showing a
black slide) – I’m asking for a few more millions Euros to improve that simulation! No
actually, it’s not quite so bad. If a black hole is just sitting there, nothing is going to
happen, it will be invisible. But as soon as you let matter fall into a black hole, the matter will start to heat up, it will whirl around the central black hole, it will heat up and it
will start to radiate. And that’s what we’re doing now – ‘Bang’: here it goes. The black hole
was indeed there but just now it is visible. Once we were letting material fall inwards it
suddenly started to light up. That process is actually the most efficient process of energy
generation that we have in the universe. If you could pour ten buckets of water into a
black hole, you could provide all of the Netherlands with energy for an entire year – all
forms of energy! This works, because matter becomes incredibly fast, with speeds up to
a c ade m is che zit t ing 15 m e i 2014
the speed of light and all that energy is available to tap into. At least, that is what theory tells us. Is it actually true? We’ll find out later in the presentation.
Now, black holes are not the only singularity that we can talk about. The same equations that describe black holes – Einstein’s equations – also describe the entire universe.
And, when Einstein did that, there was one problem: the entire universe – according to
his calculations - would simply collapse. That’s not a very healthy place to be in – a
universe that collapses. It took some head scratching until a catholic priest came up
with a solution. His name was George Lemaître. He predicted and solved Einstein’s
equation, saying the universe is not collapsing. It’s not static. It’s actually expanding.
The universe started from a small beginning and expanded into its current state. Space
was like a big fabric expanding over the last few billions years. He called that beginning
the primeval atom. Americans later called it the Big Bang, which I think is much more
catchy, and that term has stayed with us until today. I guess given that it was a catholic
priest who came up with that idea, pope Pius XII. was actually much quicker to embrace
that kind of theory than many scientists at the time. As one well-known, outspoken
atheist, Lawrence Krauss states in his book, ‘A Universe from Nothing’: ‘a beginning,
implies creation and creation stirs emotion’. Clearly we don’t want that in science,
right? We don’t want emotions, I mean.
But we know today that the universe is expanding. It is growing. Lemaître was correct. We
can only humbly observe what the universe looks like. Whether that speaks for or against
a creator is actually beyond the realm of science. It is not a secret that I personally
am someone with faith in a loving creator, but that is actually not based on scientific
evidence. It is based on a deep inner feeling and conviction, which I cannot prove to you
by scientific means. I can only share it with you. But so it is with many other things in
our lives. Like the fascination I feel for astronomy and science. I can only share that
with you; I cannot prove that to you.
So let’s make a little trip to that universe and have a look at it. It is quite amazing that, as
soon as the blinding light of the sun goes away, you actually start to look much deeper
and much further in the universe. What I show here, is a picture taken of the Milky
Way. It was taken with an almost ordinary camera; your naked eye would never be as
sensitive as that. But this is what you’re going to see with camera eyes: thousands,
hundreds of thousands of stars. In fact, we know some two hundred billion stars hiding
in our Milky Way. And if you would look at such a galaxy from the outside, it would
look like this. This is our neighbouring galaxy, the Andromeda galaxy. It has a diameter
of about 60,000 light-years. So light would take 60,000 years to travel from one end to
the other. And, if we were located in that galaxy, and Nijmegen was there, then 24,000
light-years away in the very centre we would have a giant black hole. In fact, we suspect
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that in almost every centre of a galaxy we have big black holes. They actually represent the
biggest form of black holes, super-massive black holes, with a mass of million times the
mass of a star or the mass of the sun. We cannot easily look at our own Galaxy from the
outside, since we are sitting in the Galactic disc; hence, we are looking edge-on. We can
see this from this nice perspective, where we see a lot of dust and some stars. The dark
areas are dust clouds out of which new stars will actually form in the future, while the
stars we see on top of the dark regions are still in the foreground. As the movie progresses,
we switch over to somewhat higher resolution images. More stars are to come, in fact
the Milky Way is full of stars: 200 billion of them, roughly. Finally, let’s switch over to
infrared. Infrared lets us peer through the dust clouds in our Galaxy and we approach
the centre of our own Milky Way: the Galactic Centre.
Again, there is a strong concentration of stars – the central star cluster. Here something
quite extraordinary is going on – these are measurements done by colleagues in Garching
from 1992 until now. We usually think of stars as being fixed in the sky, however, what
is actually happening here is that they’re moving significantly within just a few years.
In fact, they’re moving faster the closer they are to this cross. Obviously, in the original
picture there was no cross there. This cross marks the location of a very bright and
strong radio source, called Sgr A* (Sagittarius A star), that was detected already in 1974,
but is hardly visible in infrared pictures.
Particularly one star, called S2, is utterly amazing. It moves very fast and quickly swings
around that cross. Our colleagues using the European Southern Observatory’s (ESO)
Very Large Telescope (VLT) can measure precisely how fast: 10,000 kilometres per second.
The reason why the star swings around is simply because there is strong gravity that
pulls it around – a mass concentrated in that cross. You can measure from the size of
that orbit and the velocity how much mass you need, which is four million times the
mass of the sun, while the sun has three hundred thousand times the mass of the earth.
Hence, this place, this cross, is the best place, the best candidate we have for the presence
of a dark super-massive object.
But is it a black hole? That is what we are trying to find out right now. Here I show images made of that radio source, Sgr A*, at different frequencies. As I explain later, with
radio telescopes, you can achieve much higher resolution, allowing you to zoom further
in. And what you see is a really beautiful picture of a black hole… No, it isn’t; it is utterly boring! All you see with a high-resolution telescope is a boring blob and not much
structure. As you go to higher frequencies, i.e. toward smaller wavelengths, you see that
the blob becomes smaller and smaller. Apparently, as you look at higher frequencies,
you come to a smaller and smaller source size. As we predicted a couple of years ago,
if that is a black hole you should roughly approach the event horizon at the highest
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frequencies we can observe these days. Here, we’re talking about 230 GHz and higher
frequencies; that is where the radio emission should come from next to the abyss, from
next to the event horizon. Indeed, radio observations in recent years have confirmed
that this radiation does come from a tiny region – tiny in astronomical terms, of course.
Unfortunately, for now the quality of images is not good enough to show us what is
really going on. Our resolution corresponds more or less to a single pixel in a picture,
but this is exactly what we are trying to change. The goal is to finally reveal the shadow
of that black hole, i.e. to make a picture of the dark hole punched by the event horizon
into a sea of radiation. It turns out that this is finally possible with technology, that is
becoming available right now.
So how would you do this? Well, you would do this with a telescope that is as large as
the earth. The bigger the telescope, the higher its resolution and for our purpose we
need a telescope which is the size of the earth. Luckily we don’t have to place a metal
shield all over the Netherlands and Europe and so forth. I guess most people would not
approve of that concept. So what we actually do is to combine radio telescopes distributed
over the entire world. We collect the data digitally at each telescope and later combine
them in a special computer centre. You can then synthesize, in the computer, a virtual
telescope that has a resolution of a telescope the size of the entire earth.
The first measurements have been made with a few telescopes only and all you get so far
is essentially this single pixel. However, as you include more telescopes, which is what
we are trying now, one will go from a single pixel to something that will eventually
show that holy grail, the event horizon.
Of course it’s not just our own Milky Way, which contains such a spectacular object. If
our galaxy hosts one, other galaxies should too. After all, we shouldn’t be that special.
What you see in the next picture, is an optical image of a distant galaxy; a so-called
Elliptical galaxy, that radio astronomers have named Hercules A. This image doesn’t look
very spectacular at first sight, but if you overlay a radio image made by our colleagues
from NRAO onto the same image the scene changes dramatically. Suddenly you see a
giant collimated outflow. The picure looks so pretty but this is not a drawing or an artist’s
conception, this is real data that I’m showing you. What you see is a jet of hot plasma
moving out. We know it’s moving at the speed of light. And we know it comes from a
region, which is smaller than the size of the solar system. The jet has the power of an
entire Milky Way: hundreds of billions of stars; there’s just so much power there. The
interpretation of these kinds of sources is again – as I showed in the simulation – that
matter is falling into the black hole while a small fraction of plasma is escaping along
the rotation axis of the black hole thanks to magnetic forces. Supermassive black holes
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are out there; they are everywhere. These black holes, however, as pretty as they may
look, are much further away, so we can’t really see down to the event horizon.
Let us now look even further into the universe. This is one of my favourite pictures,
which I often show, the Hubble Deep Field. This is a tiny patch of the universe, so small
that it corresponds to what you would see if you would hold a needle up to the sky and
look through the eye of the needle towards the night sky. Of course, you have to stare
for two weeks at one location with eyes that are 2.5 meters in diameter, but that’s okay,
we can do that with a space telescope. Just make sure to hold the needle steady! What
you would then see is that picture. It’s full of galaxies. Every point in there is a single
galaxy. Sometimes they are like our Milky Way, but sometimes they are much, much
bigger. If you then count up how many galaxies there are in the universe, you come to
hundreds of billions of galaxies, each including hundreds of billions of stars. So you see
the sheer scale of the universe.
What you also see, is… yes, another verse from the Bible: ‘As countless as stars of the sky
and as measureless as sand on the seashore.’ (Jeremiah 33:22). And indeed, there are as
many stars in the universe as you have sand on the seashore – but then counting all the
seashores in the world. And what you also see, now with incredible precision, is that, if
you look at the velocity of all these galaxies, they all seem to be flying away from us at very
high speed. That’s very strange. How can that be? Is that because we have a very strange
deodorant? No, the reason is that the entire universe is expanding. That is something
that has been established by now beyond any reasonable doubt.
One other aspect that is very important – it actually became once more front page news
a few weeks ago – is the so-called cosmic background radiation that is seen everywhere
on the sky. What I show you here is a radio measurement of heat radiation from the
cosmos. This is pretty much the same kind of radiation that you would see if you heat
up a piece of metal in a fire; you take it out – it’s red. It’s glowing red. It is heat radiation.
You see that all over the sky. But that kind of radiation can only come from matter that
is intransparent. Yet our universe is transparent – we can look through the intergalactic
space to the most distant galaxies. How can that be? The explanation is that the radiation
we see is the glow from the early dense fireball that engulfed the entire cosmos when
the universe was very, very small. This radiation is from 14 billion years ago and was
made just 400,000 years after the big bang. Amazingly, we can still measure this today.
Those two observations, the fleeing galaxies and the all-pervading heat radiation, are
the key elements, which confirm that Lemaître’s picture of the expanding universe is
indeed correct.
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You may have heard a few weeks ago that Harvard scientists from the BICEP2 collaboration claimed to have found evidence in that radiation for the actual events that happened in an incredibly tiny fraction of a second just after the big bang. This phase is called
the inflationary phase of the universe. The results were hailed as irrefutable evidence for
the big bang by the press. Well, first of all, there has already been evidence for the big
bang for a long time, but indeed, what happened just 10-36 seconds after the big bang
remains a mystery and is certainly of fundamental interest.
But, second of all, I must say that’s not how science works; it does not work with press
releases – even tough I do not dislike them per se. There is always – and in this case in
particular – a significant chance that the result, which here is at the hairy edge of being
significant, could also be wrong. So sometimes it’s good to wait a few years – maybe ten
years – to see whether other experiments confirm a scientific result. So, in summary,
what we should take away today is that there is really no doubt that the universe has
been expanding and has come from something that we now call a big bang. However,
how that works in detail is still ongoing research and the question what caused it in the
first place – and whether that question is allowed to be asked – remains an interesting
point of philosophical, physical, and theological discussion.
So now we are back on our earth. The sun is rising again. The universe seems to disappear.
And the question is: ‘What does this all mean for us?’ Well, first of all, the beginning
and end of space-time are no longer purely theoretical speculations. They are part of
routine investigations. They are part of our daily lives. Thus, it is fair to say that the
“end is near” - at least, in terms of science, while this is not entirely true for my presentation, where I need two or three more minutes. I’m looking at the Rector and trying to
figure out whether he is nervously looking at his watch already or not…
So I think there is little doubt that black holes and the big bang are real and they are
here to stay. We’ll find out whether they represent exactly the kind of singularity, which
Einstein had been predicting. As it stands right now, those singularities present limits
of how far we can ever hope to venture with today’s science, simply because that’s the
end of our observable universe. So what is behind the event horizon? What is before the
big bang? Well, we don’t know.
It may be that there is some revolutionary new physics that will let us look beyond
these limits, that goes further. People have been suggesting that, behind this universe,
there are a plethora of other universes that are just invisible. There could be an almost
infinite number of universes, called multiverses. The only problem is that they are just
not observable.
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But maybe not, maybe this idea of multiverses is just utter nonsense. We don’t know. It
could simply be that we’ll never really find out, because we’ll never be able to transcend
this universe that we live in. We might have come to the ultimate limit in how far we
can actually go with our scientific endeavour. But again: maybe not. We’ll have to wait,
search and find out.
It could well be that the only way to transcend this universe is in our own minds.
So that brings us back to the age-old question: ‘What is our place, as humans, in this
universe?’ If you look at this universe from the perspective of an astrophysicist, you
have hundreds of billions of galaxies with hundreds of billions of stars; we seem to be
less than a grain of sand on a grain of sand in an ocean of nothingness. What does
being human actually mean? Well, I still beleive we are something very special. We are
all made of ordinary matter, we are actually made of the same matter as stars and all
the other things that we see in the universe. But we... we live, we love, we think. Matter
that lives, and loves, and thinks? Are you kidding me? It’s nothing that any physicist
would have ever dared to predict to come out of the big bang. I think this still remains
one of the biggest puzzles we have: who are we?
We may be able to understand the entire universe, but may never be able to understand
ourselves, or the Dutch train system, or the German tax system, or why the Dutch never win the World Cup, or whatever. Some of these questions will probably always
remain unanswered. Yet, there is something that makes us special: It is things that we
can do that other matter cannot do.
The Apostle Paul referred to the three most important things that there are: faith, hope
and love (1. Cor. 13,13). I truly believe this is what makes us special. Hence, I want to
close with a question that a German astrophysicist asked, Harald Lesch, who is actually
also a very well known and popular science presenter on German television. At the
150th anniversary meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft (German Astronomical
Society), he asked at the end: ‘What would be missing if humans wouldn’t be here in
this universe?’. ‘Well,’, he said, referring to the Apostle Paul, ‘faith, hope and love, those three would be missing’.
So let’s make sure we never lose those three, wherever our scientific curiosity may take us.
Thank you for your attention.
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‘De zussen Evelien en Charlotte Asberg, beiden geboren en getogen te Nijmegen,
nemen ons mee op een muzikale reis door het sterrenstelsel, geïnspireerd door de
titel van de diesrede van professor Falcke. Via Eric Satie’s menselijke ster: la Diva
de l’Empire, leiden zij ons naar de ingetogen pianoklanken in het maanlicht van
Claude Debussy’s Claire de Lune en zijn melancholische bespiegelingen onder de
sterrenhemel Nuit d’Etoile, waarna we afreizen we naar het kleurrijke Jupiter van
Leonard Bernstein.’ (Bas Kortmann)
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Laudatio | Rector magnificus Prof. Bas Kortmann
Rowan, Lord Williams of Oystermouth, it is far from easy to deliver a laudatory speech
about you and your work for church, academy and society. You don’t like at all ‘pomp
and circumstance’. You are a modest man in all aspects. Nevertheless, I would like to
explain to the members of our academic community as well as to our guests and the
outside world why the Council of Deans has decided to award an honorary doctorate to
you. So I do hope you will forgive me the laudatio I am going to deliver.
In a recent issue of Times Higher Education, you write that universities have never simply
been nurseries for experts, but that they are places of learning and formation appropriate
for people who will play a leading role in public life. How exceptionally you exemplify that
admirable pursuit of learning and public responsibility, if only because since you were
a student and a teacher, your life has brought you to places and situations that could
not have been more public. That public calling has demanded the intellectual nuance
and wisdom that you have demonstrated throughout your academic and ecclesial life.
You were born in Swansea, South Wales on the 14th of June 1950, into a Welsh-speaking
family, where your academic abilities became apparent at an early age. You went from
grammar school to the University of Cambridge, where you studied theology. In 1975, you
finished your doctorate at the University of Oxford, with research on the mystical theology
of the Russian philosopher Vladimir Lossky. After working as a teacher in theology for
an Anglican monastic community in Mirfield, you returned to Cambridge to become
chaplain of Westcott House. Some years later, you were appointed as a lecturer in Divinity
and became Dean and chaplain of Clare College. During that period, you published a
substantial work on the history of Christian spirituality, The Wound of Knowledge
(1979), at the very young age of 29. Five years later, you became the youngest professor
of the University of Oxford, when you were appointed as Lady Margaret Professor of
Divinity and Canon of Christ Church.
From the very beginning of your academic career, your achievements have been most
outstanding. You were awarded the degree of Doctor of Divinity in 1989, and became a
Fellow of the British Academy in 1990. You have been involved in many theological,
ecumenical and educational commissions and received several honorary doctorates
from universities worldwide.
Your work has covered a wide range of subjects and research fields, leading to publications on
Russian philosophy and literature, Christian spirituality, the arts, patristic and modern
theology, and religion and public life. Your book on Arius (1987), the archetypical Christian
heretic, has become a classic in theology and is considered to be your magnum opus. In it,
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you present a convincing analysis of how, from early Christianity on, the interpretation
of Scripture and the development of ideas on God and humanity are entangled with the
struggle between fidelity and political power. Your collections of theological essays On
Christian Theology (2000) and Wrestling with Angels (2007), but also your poetry, sermons
and other writings as a Church leader, have now become influential source material for
research by a new generation of students and peers in philosophy, theology and religious
studies, and the social sciences. You have engaged in academic debates with natural
scientists, and recently, in the prestigious Gifford Lectures (2013), you presented your
own views on new research in the neurosciences and the study of language.
After a relatively short period in Oxford in the 1980s, you responded to a very different
calling on your life when you accepted the election as Bishop of Monmouth, in Wales,
where you also became Archbishop in 1999. It would only take three years before you were
called to become Archbishop of Canterbury, the Primate of England and the spiritual
leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion. In 2002, you were enthroned in the chair
of St Augustine and became one of its most distinguished occupants since St. Anselm in
the 11th century. As Archbishop, you have encouraged the global dialogue between Jews,
Christians and Muslims. In the dialogue between the Christian churches, you have shown
an ecumenical spirit, and in the Anglican Communion you have fostered mutual
understanding and atonement. These however were not always the easiest years of your
career and you have been at the end of public scrutiny on complex issues such as women
bishops, same-sex marriage and Islamic law. Finding yourself at the centre of these debates
on human nature and public policy, and anticipating potentially divisive decision-making,
you were confronted with your own learned conviction that although the truth needs
to be sought, it can never be represented by a final and decisive authority for all.
After serving ten years as Archbishop of Canterbury, you would return to the University
of Cambridge once more, as the Master of Magdalene College, where you are now enjoying
the academic environment of conversation, exploration and teaching. In January 2013,
you also entered the House of Lords as a life peer, taking the title of Baron Williams of
Oystermouth. So again, you find yourself in the middle of learning and public responsibility. From early on in your academic career, even long before you became a bishop and
were involved in policy making yourself, you have emphasized the importance of critically
questioning religious views and their impact on society. You have written extensively on
religious conflict, religious laws and peace-making, and on global economics and politics.
One of your recent books, Faith in the Public Square (2012) is a collection of talks and
lectures on the implications of religion for politics and social policy. It is a fine example
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of how complex public matters demand a critical intellect and a listening attitude, such
as yours. And for that, your own field of studies has an important role to play. You once
argued that at a Christian university, ‘speaking for liberty and dignity in human affairs
involves speaking about God within the life of the intellectual institution. Theology is
an active – and potentially unsettling – conversational partner for any and every other
voice in the community’. ‘The truth will make you free’ is a text from the gospel that
you care about deeply, and you live out your conviction that its application to the life of
the university in the wider society is an important aspect of its meaning.
The Radboud University would like to honour you today for your achievements in theology,
and your inspiring work for Church, academy and society.
May I ask you to please stand.
Having heard the University Board, the Council of Deans has decided to award an honorary doctorate to doctor Rowan Williams.
In the name of the Lord. With the power entrusted by law to the Council of Deans, I
hereby confer upon you, doctor Rowan Williams an honorary doctorate from Radboud
University Nijmegen, and all rights associated by law or common practice with this
doctorate.
As proof thereof I present you with this doctoral diploma, adorned with the Great Seal
of the university, and I will drape you with the cappa which is the symbol of the honorary doctorate awarded to you.
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Speech | Rowan, Lord Williams of Oystermouth
Rector, Bishop, dames en heren,
It is my very great honour to accept this doctorate, so kindly conferred by Radboud
University Nijmegen. This is now my second visit to the university. Both have been
occasions of stimulus, delight and encouragement. And I hope that there will be more
visits to come. To further build on a relationship that has been so generously created by
your friendship.
We heard earlier on – from Professor Falcke – a quotation from the Psalms to begin
with. And I wish to begin in the same way, because it is always a good idea to take one’s
precedent from astrophysicists, who after all tend to know what happened before...
This is, as it were, the other side of the vision that has been laid out so wonderfully for
us in the remarks you heard earlier. Not only are we invited by the Psalmist to consider
the Heavens. We’re also invited to consider ourselves. What are human beings, that
You are mindful of them? Now that question ‘What are human beings that God should
be mindful of them?’ is a question which any university of Catholic and Christian
foundations is bound to take very seriously. And, in the light of the scientific vision that
is being uncovered by modern physics, it may seem a more pressing question then ever.
If we are indeed a grain of sand upon a grain of sand, what are we that God should be
mindful of us?
All education that is worth the name begins from some conception of an answer to that
question. Some conception of the deep ‘worthwhileness’ of human beings. The point of
a university which treasures its Catholic and Christian foundation is surely that it is
committed to exploring the Catholic and Christian perspective on that question. And,
while there are many, many ways of unfolding what such a Catholic and Christian
perspective might show, I want very briefly to mention three aspects of an answer to the
question which this tradition brings to light. A Catholic and Christian conviction about
human nature sees human beings as capable of three major and unexpected activities.
Unexpected in just the sense we heard earlier. But to have material stuff capable of
these things is a bit of a surprise. We’ve already heard that faith, hope and love are three
activities you might not think matter is capable of. But let’s broaden that a little and
suggest that human beings are capable of art, politics and contemplation. Art, politics
and contemplation.
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We are capable of art. That is we interact with our environment, we don’t simply receive
impressions or reproduce what is given to us. We innovate. We make a difference.
We take some of those other grains of sand that lie along aside us and create patterns
with them. We put those grains of sand that lie along aside us under microscopes. And
construct exhilarating stories about the millions of years in history encoded within
them. Because, in a rather old-fashioned way, I believe that science is part of what we
mean by art. To see more deeply, to make a difference, to decode and create patterns.
Surely, these are activities both of art and of science. And in both of them imagination
is at work. And, in that Christian and Catholic perspective, we believe that human
beings are capable of this imagination and innovation, because they carry the reflection
within their lives of a God who is imaginative, who creates from nothing, who makes
pattern and, in the wonderful words of one of the Apocryphal (6:02) texts, ‘looks into
the depths’.
We’re capable of politics. We think about how we relate to one another. We think about
how our words and our acts create systems of power, for good and ill. We look at our life
together and we ask questions about it. A point at which the life of Homo Sapiens begins in
the history of our world is surely bound up with the moment when some proto-hominid
asked another proto-hominid, in whatever passed for language in those days: ‘Does it
have to be like this?’. Where, as critical questions began to be asked, something of the
imaginative in innovative spirit that applies to the world around began to apply also to
the relationship between human beings. We became capable of politics. Of thinking
about justice, fairness, about the patterns of including and excluding people, a powerful theme of the Bishop’s homily at the Mass this morning. We think about how people
find a voice to work out what is the common good. And, just as with art and science, so
with politics. This is an aspect of our humanity reflecting something of the way in
which God, our creator, has imprinted his likeness upon us. Because our God is not a
god who simply sits in isolation, waiting for submission. But a God in whose very being,
relationship exists. And a God who reveals himself to the world by creating relationship.
Not at all a surprise then if those made in God’s image turn out to be capable of politics,
looking critically at how they live together and seek ways of giving more and more people
a voice.
But, beyond all that, is our human capacity for contemplation. Perhaps one of the most
surprising things about our humanity is that, for all its restless activity, its intellectual
intensity and creativity, it is capable of being still, of being silent. Absorbing the reality
before it, with joy, with gratitude, but in stillness. We are not fully human unless we
take completely seriously our capacity to be still. We are not fully human, if all we do is
feverish activity. We must learn to breathe, we must learn to sit, we must learn to look.
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And in breathing, and sitting, and looking, we find our humanity just as much as in the
restlessness of art and science and the complexities of politics. A God who has made us
has made us ultimately for his joy, has made us to be happy in the sight of him. And that
is the rationale for contemplation.
Now, if all those who educate have to ask the question at some point ‘What is the human
being we are trying to educate?’, that is the answer that this particular tradition gives.
The human being we seek to educate is capable of those things. Capable of imagination,
whether an art or science. Capable of the struggle for justice, participation, honesty and
society. And capable of stillness and the joy that arises in stillness, like water in a pool. It is
probably not a set of criteria that immediately makes a great deal of sense to those who look
after the national finances of educational institutions, whether in the Netherlands or
in the United Kingdom or worldwide. And yet, universities with a foundation like ours,
I’m happy now to say ‘ours’, are bound to keep that argument alive by asking about all
their activities, their priorities, their expenditure, the structure of their courses: ‘How
does what we do serve a humanity destined for those three things? How does our education and the forms of our life together, how do those help people grow in imagination
and innovation? In a concern for justice? In a capacity for stillness, breathing, sitting
and looking? It seems to me that universities with Christian and Catholic foundations,
when they’ve moved beyond the days of narrow confessional identity, still have the
most crucial role in our society. Exploring and defending the full range of what human
beings are capable of. Reminding our society what sort of people make it up.
Around us every day, and in what seems to be the most unpromising circumstances,
there are men and women destined for art and politics and contemplation. Can our
society do justice to the fullness of that human mystery? Can our educational system
do justice to that fullness? At the very least, here is an institution which has promised
to try to do just that. To be faithful to that witness and that vision. It is an enormous
honour for me to be invited to be part of that enterprise in this university. I hope and
pray that I shall in some way be able to join in those conversations and reflections
which this university undertakes as it seeks to fulfil this calling. But for today, my main
task Rector, friends, is once again to say with all my heart: thank you for the honour
done, the welcome given and the friendship created. Thank you.
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afsluiting
Lord Williams, thank you very much for your impressive speech. I’d like to ask you to
re-take your seat in the front row.
We’re about to end this academic ceremony. And I’ll switch to Dutch for some practical
announcements.
Het boek Geloof in de publieke ruimte van Rowan Williams is verkrijgbaar bij de ingang van
de Vereeniging.
De receptie vindt plaats in de hal en het café en ik verzoek u om de gasten van de eerste
rijen in de gelegenheid te stellen zich in het cortège te voegen.
Tenslotte heb ik nog een mededeling van meer bijzondere aard. Deze viering van de dies
natalis van onze universiteit is de laatste die ik als rector magnificus mag voorzitten. Op
de eigenlijke geboortedag van onze universiteit, 17 oktober, zal ik het rectoraat overdragen
aan mijn opvolger. Maakt u zich geen zorgen, vandaag is niet de start van mijn afscheid.
Ik hoop tot 17 oktober uw rector in formele en materiële zin te kunnen zijn en mijn afscheid
vindt op die datum plaats. Doordat ik het nu aankondig kan op gepaste wijze naar een
opvolger worden gezocht.
Mag ik u verzoeken om te gaan staan zodat we kunnen afsluiten met gebed.
Gratias tibi agimus, omnipotens Deus, pro omnibus beneficiis tuis. Qui vivis et regnas per
omnia saecula saeculorum.
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Rector magnificus Bas Kortmann overhandigt de Radboud
Met de Radboud Universiteitspenningen waardeert het college
studentonderscheiding aan Tessa Matser. Met de studentonder-
de persoonlijke inzet en betrokkenheid van medewerkers van
scheiding spreekt het college waardering uit voor studenten die
de universiteit. Collegelid Wilma de Koning overhandigt een
naast een intensieve studie actief participeren in de academische
universiteitspenning in brons aan Rob Cuppen, Directeur van
gemeenschap. Daarmee leveren zij een essentiële bijdrage aan de
het universitair sportcentrum, en Henk de Jager, voormalig
rijkdom van deze universiteit.
voorzitter van de ondernemingsraad.
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39
Vormgeving en opmaak: gloedcommunicatie, Nijmegen
Fotografie: Gerard Verschooten
Drukwerk: Van Eck en Oosterink, Dodewaard
© Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen, 2014
Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden vermenigvuldigd en/of openbaar worden gemaakt middels
druk, fotokopie, microfilm, geluidsband of op welke andere wijze dan ook, zonder voorafgaande
schriftelijke toestemming van de copyrighthouder.
91 Dies Natalis
e
Academische zitting
Donderdag 15 mei 2014

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