PPT gender issues uv - Università degli Studi di Pavia

Luisa Rosti
Full professor in the Department of
Economics and Business at Pavia
University.
Current Teaching:
* Labor Economics
** Personnel and Gender Economics
My research on gender
discrimination, education and selfemployment has been published in
Gender & Society, Economics of
Education Review; Small Business
Economics; International Journal of
Manpower; Education and Training. I
am author of Femina Oeconomica
Ediesse, Rome, 1996.
book cover
* Undergraduate 3-year degree courses (awarded at the end of a 3 year prgramme )
**Postgraduate 2-year degree courses (awarded at the end of a 2 year prgramme )
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
1
Women
and the Italian
graduates labour market
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
2
SUMMARY
The effect of the stereotypes that act on
both the supply side and the demand
side of the labor market leads to a waste
of talent that harms women, businesses
and society.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
3
FOCUS: STEREOTYPES
Stereotype is the belief that an individual possesses
certain characteristics only because it belongs to a
group that has these characteristics on average.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
4
For example, the woman is considered the most
practical and peaceful, less aggressive, she knows
how to listen and she loves to take care of others,
she is best suited to domestic production,
while the man has a strong personality, logical
and abstract reasoning ability, spirit of adventure
and leadership skills, and is more suited to the job
market.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
5
The problem with the stereotypes
Stereotypes are a result of the
information environment (1)
We do not need to deny the
grain of truth but we should
avoid the error of assessment
Can we eliminate them? No,
because of the point (1), but
we can reduce their costs with
equal opportunities policies
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
6
The problem lies in the fact that stereotypes
distort the rationality of choices and lead to a
waste of resources.
This result of psychological research is so
important as to merit the award of the Nobel Prize
for Economics, given in 2002 to the psychologist D.
Kahneman for his studies on Representativeness
Heuristic.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
7
This is the method that individuals use to
categorize objects, people and events, replacing the
use of the stereotypes and the similarity
criterion to the selection criteria associated with
the rational calculation of probabilities.
People tend to attribute similar characteristics to
similar objects, often ignoring information that
would lead to the opposite conclusion, but which
are contrary to the stereotype.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
8
Kahneman received the Nobel
Prize for Economics in 2002
(cognitive psychology applied
to economic decisions)
He is the second psychologist
(after Simon in 1978) to award
the N. in economics.
Daniel Kahneman
(1934 -)
Princeton University,
Dep. of Psychology
Amos Tversky
(1937-1996)
Stanford University,
(cognitive psychology)
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “On the Psychology of Prediction,” Psychological Review, 1973, 80: 237– 251.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
9
Their experiments show that individuals
base their judgment on the personality
traits that correspond to the stereotypes
ignoring the objective statistical
probability.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
10
FOCUS: TALENT
Individuals are not born equal. They differ
by level of intelligence or innate cognitive
ability. It follows that the smartest people
have a comparative advantage in problem
solving than others.
The talent should not be wasted because it
is the most important resource of modern
economies (Superstars, Rosen 1981).
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
11
FOCUS: TALENT
The talent (innate ability) is a random
variable;
it is not measurable as input but
manifests itself in the output;
its identification has social value because
a mismatch reduces the actual output
relative to potential output
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
12
Natural talent is specific and provides
a comparative advantage to those who
possess it, that is, the ability to
achieve excellence in certain activities.
General talent or intelligence
allows you to stand out in each
activity.
Between agents of the same natural talent, the most
intelligent will have higher productivity (ceteris paribus)
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
13
The theoretical context
we apply the mainstream method to 3 areas:
G. Becker
The Economics
of the Family
Nobel 1992
University of Chicago
the most cited economist by the Social
Science Citation Index
(A Treatise on the Family)
Personnel
Economics
E. Lazear
Professor of Human Resources
Management and Economics
University of Stanford
Marianne A. Ferber
Professor Emeritus of Economics
Gender
Economics
University of Illinois
Julie A. Nelson
Professor of Economics
University of Massachusetts
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
14
If we analyse the academic performance
of Italian graduates and their occupational
status and earnings three years after
graduation, we find that the educational and
occupational performances do differ by
gender: girls outperform boys in academic
achievement, but male graduates outperform
female graduates in labour market
outcomes.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
15
Gender Economics assumes the hypothesis of equal
distribution of talent between the sexes (gender
similarities hypothesis, Janet Shibley Hyde 2005).
Professional
Career
School Career
(educational)
The female talent is fully revealed in educational
career, but not in the professional career
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
16
The girls are graduating more...
2009-2010
M
F
Rate of transition from
secondary (high) school
58
68
Rate of achievement of
three-year degrees*
27
39
Rate of achievement of
long degrees (4-6 years)*
15
22
* number of graduates for every 100 young people (25 years old)
http://www3.istat.it/dati/catalogo/20121218_00/PDF/Cap7.pdf
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
17
haier
and get higher marks ...
Graduates by degree mark 2011
F/MF%
Voto da 66 a 90
41
Voto da 91 a 100
53
Voto da 101 a 105
62
Voto da 106 a 110
65
Voto uguale a 110 e lode
66
Overall graduates
59
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
18
and get more graduation with honors ...
Gruppo di corsi
Total
11
23
33
40
45
GRUPPO DIFESA E SICUREZZA
GRUPPO INGEGNERIA
GRUPPO SCIENTIFICO
GRUPPO EDUCAZIONE FISICA
GRUPPO AGRARIO
F/MF%
With honors
24
28
36
54
49
GRUPPO ECONOMICO-STATISTICO
51
GRUPPO ARCHITETTURA
52
GRUPPO GIURIDICO
57
61
62
69
59
66
GRUPPO GEO-BIOLOGICO
62
63
66
65
71
71
GRUPPO MEDICO
66
73
71
83
86
91
70
86
86
92
Totale
GRUPPO CHIMICO-FARMACEUTICO
GRUPPO POLITICO-SOCIALE
GRUPPO LETTERARIO
GRUPPO PSICOLOGICO
GRUPPO LINGUISTICO
GRUPPO INSEGNAMENTO
ns. el su dati I.stat 2011
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
19
but girls are more unemployed ...
TASSO DI DISOCCUPAZIONE NEL 2011 DEI LAUREATI DEL 2007
GRUPPI DI CORSI
LAUREA BREVE
Maschi
Femmine
LAUREA LUNGA
Maschi
Femmine
Gruppo difesa e sicurezza
10
21
31
2
12
21
17
13
15
21
31
26
15
23
16
3
26
22
41
5
22
24
28
19
23
40
37
24
19
39
18
0
9
12
22
5
4
10
15
8
13
17
24
20
5
9
10
0
15
9
30
4
7
14
20
13
18
29
26
20
9
22
16
9
Totale
15
23
10
18
Gruppo scientifico
Gruppo chimico-farmaceutico
Gruppo geo-biologico
Gruppo medico
Gruppo ingegneria
Gruppo architettura
Gruppo agrario
Gruppo economico-statistico
Gruppo politico-sociale
Gruppo giuridico
Gruppo letterario
Gruppo linguistico
Gruppo insegnamento
Gruppo psicologico
Gruppo ed.fisica
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
20
... and three years after graduation earn less than boys ...
Guadagno medio mensile netto in euro dei laureati del 2007 che nel 2011 svolgono un lavoro continuativo a t. p. iniziato dopo la laurea
LAUREA BREVE
LAUREA LUNGA
Gender wage gap
M
F
M
F
BREVE
LUNGA
Gruppo difesa e sicurezza
1638
1476
1784
1778
9,8
0,3
Gruppo insegnamento
1229
1103
1201
1187
10,3
1,2
Gruppo chimico-farmaceutico
1415
1248
1436
1399
11,8
2,6
Gruppo medico
1517
1444
1877
1773
4,8
5,5
Gruppo geo-biologico
1216
1181
1382
1292
2,8
6,5
Gruppo agrario
1331
1121
1254
1169
15,8
6,7
Gruppo architettura
1199
1122
1361
1267
6,4
6,9
Gruppo ingegneria
1397
1273
1586
1456
8,9
8,2
Gruppo letterario
1199
1087
1296
1164
9,3
10,2
Gruppo giuridico
1432
1246
1373
1223
13,0
11,0
Gruppo politico-sociale
1336
1179
1429
1271
11,8
11,1
Gruppo psicologico
1329
1192
1332
1178
10,3
11,6
Gruppo economico-statistico
1413
1298
1557
1375
8,2
11,7
Gruppo scientifico
1387
1218
1532
1347
12,2
12,0
Gruppo linguistico
1287
1220
1444
1257
5,2
12,9
Gruppo ed.fisica
1356
1167
1323
1137
14,0
14,0
Totale
1387
1267
1506
1308
8,7
13,1
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
21
...and face a glass ceiling in the course of their careers
An example: the academic career
F/MF%
Italiy
2011
European
Union
2009
United
States*
2009
Full
Professors
20
18
19
Associate
Professors
34
36
34
Senior
Lecturers
45
45
40
http://www.ingenere.it/articoli/donne-che-giudicano-le-donne-cattedra
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
*(escluse le scienze umane)
22
Differenziale retributivo
GPGtra laureati e laureate
25-64
Laureati
= 100
OCSE 2012
In Italy,
a female
graduate
earns slightly more than
half (65%)Laureate
of a male
25-64 graduate
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fonte: Education at a Glance 2012
Average annual full-time, full-year earnings of women as a percentage of men's earnings, by level of educational attainment and age groups 23
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
23
Why the female talent is not revealed and
is not rewarded as the male talent?
If economic theory attributes to the
competition among agents the efficiency
property in the detection of talent, why does
the impact of gender show that women do not
reach senior positions with the same frequency
as men?
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
24
Talent and Gender
2 Hp.:
2 theories:
Individuals have different talents
The distribution of talent is equal
between men and women as a group
Theory of tournaments: social welfare is higher
if the most gifted are matched to the executive
positions (Lazear e Rosen ’81, Rosen ‘92)
Theory of the glass ceiling: the rise of the
power, prestige and pay, for a job position leads
to a decline in the share of women matched to it
(Ferber e Nelson, ‘93)
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
25
In modern economies, efficiency requires
that the smartest people are matched
to leadership positions. As poor
decisions at the top of hierarchical
organizations produce enormous
damage, spilling cascades on underlying
layers, senior positions should be
entrusted to the smartest minds in order
to minimize the risk of error.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
26
Yet, while psychological research has
shown that intelligence is equally
distributed between men and women, the
glass ceiling literature signals that all
over the world the higher the rank, the
smaller the proportion of women.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
27
Hence, there is a waste of intelligence
and a sub-optimal match between
individuals and jobs within economies.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
28
In this lecture we use tournament
theory, which emphasizes the role of
intelligence as the main determinant of
rank and regards competition as an
efficient method to match individuals
with jobs in hierarchical organizations.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
29
Efficiency of Tournaments
The efficiency property of the tournaments only
apply if the tournaments are symmetrical, ie:
if all agents have the same cost for the effort
provided in the competition (if not, the
tournament is uneven),
and if all agents are treated equally by the
rules of the competition (if not, the
tournament is unfair)
30
But the competition for a career in the
real world are not even and fair towards
women.
A substantial literature shows that
because of stereotypes, an identical
performance is systematically
underestimated if attributed to a woman
rather than a man, thus revealing the
existence of gender discrimination.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
31
Entrusting talent revelation to the tournaments is a
problem for women because in real life tournaments
are asymmetric:
A) They are uneven: gender stereotypes determine
the different use of time between the genders, and
this unequal division of labor feeds the stereotype
of the "Maternal Wall“ (Correll, Benard and Paik, ‘07)
B) They are unfair: performance evaluation is
conditioned by gender stereotypes, and more skills
are attributed to gender considered more suited to
the role (Valian ‘98)
32
The stereotype of the "Maternal Wall“
Correll, Benard and Paik (2007)
The experiment concerns the
evaluation of an identical CV
referring alternately to 2 groups
of individuals (Mothers and
Non-Mothers). The evaluators
judged the Mothers less hard
working, less competent, less
suitable for hiring or promotions.
In addition, the mothers received
wage offers lower than the NonMothers.
-
+
Getting a Job: Is there a motherhood penalty?
NB: for fathers
the opposite is true
33
The stereotype of the “Think manager – Think male”
Biernat and Kobrynowicz (1997)
The same CV was
submitted to the
assessment of skills for
a management role. The
same skills were assessed
twice for men than
women
F
1
M
2
Manager
NB.: for the role of secretary the opposite is true
34
The revelation of talent through the
tournament is also a problem because the
stereotypes are pervasive and unconscious,
only specific searches can reveal their presence.
These studies show that each individual, man
or woman, perceives and treats women
differently from men.
35
Goldin and Rouse (American Economic Review, 2000)
The chances of getting a place
in the orchestra increases by
50% if the trial hearings of
candidates are blind.
This is demonstrated by the
data collected from 1970 to
1996 about 14,000 members of
major symphony orchestras in
the U.S.
36
Steinpreis, Anders and Ritzke (1999)
The experiment involved
238 academic
psychologists (118 men
and 120 women) who
evaluated the same CV for
both a first assumption
and a promotion
1
2
The result was that both male and female evaluators
preferred for hiring men at a ratio of 2 to 1.
37
Wennerås and Wold (1997)
The experiment deals with requests for admission to
a prestigious research center (Swedish Medical
Research Council).The admission rate of female
graduates was less than half that of the male
graduates. Women were 46% of applicants, but only
20% of those admitted.
Using the impact factor for assessing the scientific
productivity of applicants it was found that to
achieve the same score of a male graduate, a female
graduate had to have a number of publications
more than double.
38
NOBEL 1972
John R. Hicks,
Kenneth J. Arrow
NOBEL 2001
Joseph Stiglitz
gender discrimination
(stereotypes lead to )
The presence of discrimination is revealed only by specific
research, which highlight the difference in treatment
between agents of the same productivity (Stiglitz, 1973).
Nobel 1992
Gary S. Becker
Nobel 2006
Edmund S. Phelps
39
The lack of perception of discrimination
The research of cognitive social psychology show
that most of us want to behave properly (fair),
BUT most of us have unconscious prejudices that
influence the evaluation of work performance
(Valian, 1998)
Even individuals with strong egalitarian values,
fully convinced that they do not treat men and
women differently, unconsciously take
discriminatory behavior (Dovidio, 2001)
40
We often hear statements such as:
"Here we reward merit, not being a man or woman"
"I have never been discriminated against”
But research shows systematic errors of assessment
of which agents are unaware.
N.B.: in most of these studies the gender of the
evaluator was irrelevant, because even the females
evaluators are influenced by gender stereotypes
(Ellemers et al., 2004)
(The queen bee syndrome, or Eva vs Eva )
41
To design a good assessment procedures you need
to keep in mind that no evaluator is neutral with
respect to gender.
You should not believe what seems true on the
surface, or what you want to be true, but what is
scientifically proven.
The scientific method is the hallmark of university
studies, the critical spirit is its identity.
42
Why do we need Equal Opportunities Policies?
Equal Opportunities policies ensure that
competition is neither unfair nor uneven,
and remove barriers to recruitment, training
and promotion, seeking talent from the
widest pull of possibility.
This is the best way to foster cooperation and
to achieve greater prosperity for all, women
and men.
43
The image in the next page represents a
hierarchical structure that has nearly the
same number of men and women, with
intelligence equally distributed between men
and women. The arrows represent the career
paths, and the red line represents the glass
ceiling that prevents the top women from
reaching the top.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
44
Every senior position missed out by a
clever woman due to the glass ceiling, will
be replaced by a less-clever man.
Luisa Rosti [email protected]
45
THEORY
PRACTICE
Here is
the harm!
THE END
46