CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR PRESS FREEDOM Comparative perspectives on media laws in Zimbabwe and South Africa Nkosinathi Ndlela Thesis submitted for the degree of Dr. Art Department of Media and Communication University of Oslo Table of Contents Summary Acknowledgements SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION, METHODS & APPROACHES Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Purpose of the study 1.2 Research Problem 1.2.1 Restraints on press freedom 1.2.2 Research Questions 1.3 Scope of the Study 1.4 Justification of the comparative study 1.4.1 Hypotheses 1.5 Defining the Concepts 1.6 Research design 1.7 Limitations of this study Chapter 2: Methodology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Comparative Approach 2.2.1 The problem of comparability 2.2.2 Advantages of comparative research 2.3 Constitutional Approach 2.4 Hermeneutic Interpretation of legal texts 2.5 Data Sources 2.6 Qualitative Interviews 2.7 Multiple Case-Study Method 2.8 Conclusion Chapter 3: Press freedom and democracy debate 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theories of democracy 3.3 Understanding of Democracy in Africa 3.4 Theoretical Approaches to Democratisation 3.4.1 International Pressures for Democratisation 3.4.2 Domestic Pressures 3.5 The relation between the media and democracy 3.6 The foundations of press freedom 3.7 The philosophical arguments for press freedom 3.8 Perceptions of "press freedom" in Africa 3.9 Freedom of the press as a vital part of the democratic process 3.10 Summary and Conclusion Chapter 4: Theories and principles of media law 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The role of law in relation to the media 4.3 Perspectives on the legal systems 4.4 Constitution as the basis of the legal system 1 3 6 7 8 9 13 14 19 21 22 23 24 25 27 27 28 30 32 33 34 35 36 42 46 47 52 53 54 58 61 70 72 73 74 75 4.5 The Sources of Media law 4.5.1 (i) Statutory Law 4.5.2 (ii) Common Law 4.5.3 (iii) The Judicial decisions of the courts 4.6 Judicial Independence 4.6.1 Judicial Independence in Practice 4.7 Enforcement and non-enforcement of media law 4.8 International protection of fundamental rights 4.9 Constitutional protection of press freedom 4.10 Conclusion 79 79 83 85 87 89 94 94 96 101 SECTION II: PRESS FREEDOM AND THE PROTECTION OF REPUTATION Introduction 102 Chapter 5: Analysis of the law of defamation in Zimbabwe 5.1 Introduction , 106 5.2 Case Studies 106 5.3 Comments and Discussion 115 5.3.1 Constitutional dimensions 116 5.3.2 Defences against defamation action 118 5.3.3 Public Officials and Defamation 129 5.3.4 The Title to Sue for Defamation 130 5.3.5 Liability of Distributors ; 132 5.3.6 Damages 133 5.3.7 Criminal Defamation 135 5.3.8 The need to achieve a proper balance 138 5.4 Conclusion 139 Chapter 6: Analysis of the law of defamation in South Africa '6.1 Introduction 142 6.2 Case Studies 142 6.3 Comment and Discussion 152 6.3.1 Constitutional Dimensions 153 6.3.2 Balancing of Rights 156 6.3.3 Defences 159 6.3.4 Landmark Ruling: The rule of strict liability 167 6.3.5 Public Officials and Public Figures 169 6.3.6 The title to Sue for Defamation 171 6.4 Conclusion 174 6.5 Comparative Conclusion 177 SECTION 111: LAWS RESTRICTING ACCESS TO INFORMATION Introduction Chapter 7: Analysis of laws restricting access to information in Zimbabwe 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Laws Restricting Access to Information 7.3 A brief historical background 7.4 Analysis of the Official Secrets Act 182 184 184 185 189 7.5 Analysis of the Law and Order (Maintenance) Act 7.6 Contempt of Parliament 7.7 Protection of Sources 7.8 Media Law Reforms: Progress and Reversals 7.8.1 Reversing the trend towards liberalisation 7.9 Analysis of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act 7.9.1 How the Acts have been applied in practice 7.10 Concluding remarks Chapter 8: Analysis of laws restricting access to information in South Africa 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Laws Restricting Access to Information 8.3 The Constitutional Guarantee for Access to Information 8.4 Promotion of Access to Information: A brief history 8.5 Analysis of the Promotion of Access to Information Act 8.6 Other Laws restricting access to Information 8.7 Protection of Sources 8.8 The Protected Disclosures Act 8.9 Conclusion 8.10 Comparative Conclusion SECTION V: BROADCASTING LAWS Introduction Chapter 9: Analysis of broadcasting law in Zimbabwe 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Brief historical background 9.2.1 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Period 9.2.2 Nationalist Broadcasting 9.3 Broadcasting Policy Reforms: Continuity and Change 9.3.1 Broadcasting Monopoly 9.3.2 Commercial Broadcasting 9.3.3 Satellite Broadcasting 9.4 Reform of the Broadcasting Law 9.4.1 Legal Challenge to ZBC Monopoly 9.4.2 Formulating new broadcasting law 9.5 Analysis of the Broadcasting Services Act 9.5.1 The Broadcasting Authority 9.5.2 Public Service Broadcasting 9.5.3 Commercial Broadcasting 9.5.4 Community Broadcasting 9.6 Conclusion Chapter 10: Analysis of broadcasting law in South Africa 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Brief historical background 10.2.1 Nationalist Broadcasting 10.3 Broadcasting Policy Reforms: Continuity and change 10.4 Independent Regulatory Authority in 196 203 205 207 211 216 221 224 224 225 228 230 232 242 242 246 246 248 251 255 255 258 258 260 263 271 272 273 274 275 278 279 280 281 284 285 288 288 290 291 295 10.4. 1 Analysis of the Independent Broadcasting Authority Act 10.4. 2 The Triple Inquiry Report 10.5 Analysis of the Broadcasting Act 10.5. 1 Public Service Broadcasting 10.5.2 Commercial Broadcasting 10.5.3 Community Broadcasting 10.6 Conclusion 10.7 Comparative Conclusion •. 297 299 302 304 307 308 309 310 SECTION V: CONCLUSION Chapter 11: Conclusion 11.1 Introduction 11.2 What purpose is press freedom intended to serve ii\ Africa? 11.3 Limits to press freedom 11.4 Explaining similarities and differences 11.5 Constitutional Framework... 11.5.1 Constitutional Guarantees for Press Freedom 11.5.2 Legislative Safeguards to press freedom 11.5. 3 Judiciary safeguards to press freedom 11.6 Socio-political Context 11.7 Conclusion 317 317 319 326 327 327 328 330 332 333 Bibliography Appendix 335 354 IV