GAIRAIGO - Faculty of Oriental Studies

Kobe University, Graduate School of Humanities
(Oxford University, Faculty of Oriental Studies)
“Strategic Young Researcher Overseas Visits Program for
Accelerating Brain Circulation”
Bordilovskaya Anna
Outline
1. Background:
Loanwords in the Contemporary Japanese Lexicon
2. The Limitations of Previous Studies
3. Present Research: Research Questions and Homogeneous Collocation Hypothesis for GMs
4. Testing of HCHG on BCCWJ: Methodology and Results 5. Discussion, Further Research and Research Limitations
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1. Background: Loanwords in Contemporary Japanese Lexicon
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Structure of Contemporary Japanese Lexicon
Three major lexical strata of different origin:
(1) Wago (和語) or Yamato‐kotoba （大和言葉）
– native Japanese words；
(2) Kango （漢語）– words of Chinese origin, and
(3) Gairaigo（外来語） ‐ words borrowed from English and other languages (mostly European), excluding Chinese. ＊
There are other strata like konshugo/konseigo (混種語・混成語), mimetic words(擬態語・擬声語・擬音語), etc. 8/19/2015
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The Problem of Near Synonyms
The variety of lexical strata
Numerous near synonyms of different origins
Differentiation between near synonyms: For example: 色(いろ)・色彩・カラー ‘color/colour’
(1) Orthography (Contemporary Japanese):
Kango ‐> Kanji; Wago ‐> Kanji&Hiragana; Gairaigo ‐> Katakana.
(2) Historically developed stylistic constraints (one of): Kango ‐> written speech, Wago ‐> spoken Japanese. 8/19/2015
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Loanwords in the Japanese Lexicon
Gairaigo comprise about 10% of Contemporary Japanese Lexicon (Stanlaw, 2004) and the number of gairaigo loanwords has been fluctuating since Meiji period (1868 ‐ 1912)
“English words have become especially important since WWII, and these loanwords have become genuine parts of the Japanese lexicon, found in daily conversation and the world of letters” (Daulton, 2008).
WAGO and KANGO
NEAR SYNONYMS
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GAIRAIGO NEAR SYNONYMS
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Differentiation of Near Synonyms
The differentiation and the appropriate use of constantly increasing gairaigo as opposed to the native words wago and long‐
term assimilated kango present a problem for both native speakers and learners of Japanese. 8/19/2015
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Gairaigo and Japanese Language Learners
Stanlaw singles out 4 following problems that English loanwords pose for the learners of the Japanese Language, who are native speakers of English or have been studying English as a foreign language (Stanlaw, 2010, p. 53‐57):
“Problem 1: Students believe English loanwords mean the same thing as their original words do in English. Problem 2: Students believe an English loanword can just substitute for a native Japanese term. Problem 3: English loanwords seem simply random and arbitrary. Problem 4: English loanwords seem to reflect a Japanese copy‐
cat mentality.” 8/19/2015
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Gairaigo and Native Speakers y Excessive and inappropriate use of gairaigo near synonyms over native near synonyms can cause distress and misunderstanding among Japanese native speakers. y Example: in 2013 Japan's NHK sued over use of English words “A disgruntled viewer is suing Japan's national broadcaster for "mental distress" caused by an excessive use of words borrowed from English.” http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world‐asia‐23079067
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Summary:
y Contemporary Japanese has a complex structure integrating words of different origin and with different degree of assimilation. y While kango – wago near synonyms have worked out the differentiation in their functions due to the peculiarities of cultural contact and long history of assimilation, gairaigo near synonyms in many cases still do not have clear‐cut constraints on their use and are perceived as ‘competing’ with both wago and kango ‘near synonyms’. 8/19/2015
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2. The Limitations of Previous Studies 8/19/2015
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Overview of Some Previous Studies on Gairaigo
English loanwords in Japanese have been a topic of
various studies by both native and foreign linguists.
(1) Phonetic and morphological assimilation of gairaigo
(Kay 1995, Irwin 2011, etc.)
(2) Semantic changes
(Daulton 2008, Miyata and Tanaka 2006, Tanaka 2014, Kim 2006,
2011, etc.)
(3) Influence of gairaigo on the Japanese language acquisition
(Stanlaw 2010, Rebuck, etc. )
(4) Sociolinguistic factors (Loveday 1986, 1996, Kuya 2014, etc. )
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Referential Foreign vs. Native Dichotomy (1)
Leo Loveday (1996) suggested that the occurrence of
the near synonymic pairs wago/kango vs. gairaigo is the result
of the “Westernization of Japanese culture” and these pairs
exist “in semantic opposition where a word referring to a
Western phenomenon is English‐based and ‘complementary’
with a word deriving from (Sino‐) Japanese and referring to a
related version of the phenomenon belonging to native
culture”.
In the present research we will call this hypothesis the
Hypothesis of Referential Foreign vs. Native Dichotomy
(HRFND).
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Referential Foreign vs. Native Dichotomy (2)
According to Loveday there is a clear‐cut opposition between wago/kango vs. gairaigo near synonyms for concrete nouns, i.e., gairaigo concrete nouns are used to name foreign phenomena, while (Sino‐) Japanese words are used to name native phenomena. For example, tō/shōji (= sliding door) vs. doa (‘door’); futon (= quilted bedding) vs. beddo (‘bed’), etc.
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Limitations of Loveday’s Approach
y Limited group of near synonyms: near synonymic concrete nouns. What about other near synonyms, such as abstract nouns or adjectival modifiers? y Limited number of examples.
Can HRFND be supported by corpus‐based quantitative data?
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Functions of English Loanwords
y 3 main functions of English loanwords (Rebuck, 2002 ):
y Filling ‘lexical gap’: naming ‘things or ideas when no equivalent native word exists’, e.g. rajio （ラジオ; radio), roketto （ロケット; rocket）
y ‘Substitute for native equivalents to achieve some kind of special effect’ (a number of effects) (next slide)
‐ Euphemisms: using loanwords ‘because the native equivalent sounds too direct’ or it has ‘negative evaluation’, e.g. shinguru mazaa (シングル・マザー; a single mother), shirubaa (シルバー; silver)
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‘Substitute for native equivalents to achieve some kind of special effect’:
‐ Conveying “Western qualities”, e.g. kicchin (キッチン; kitchen), misesu (ミセス; misses).
‐ Using English to be trendy and modern, e.g. katakanashokugyou (カ
タカナ職業) – shisutemu anarisuto (システムアナリスト; system analyst), fasshon moderu (ファッションモデル; fashion model).
‐ Triggering “ethnocentric stereotypes”, e.g. names for new car models.
‐ Changing the image of thing that do not really change, e.g. suchuudento (スチューデント; student), oopuningu seremonii (オー
プニングセレモニー; opening ceremony).
‐ Telling East from West, e.g. gaadeningu (ガーデニング; gardening), appuru (アップル; apple)
‐ Providing supplementary vocabulary, e.g. yuuza (ユーザ; user).
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Limitations of Rebuck’s Classification of Loanword Functions
y Does not explain all cases, for example,
when substitution by a native term is not appropriate.
E.g. Hotto koohii (ホットコーヒー, hot coffee), hotto na kafe ratte (ホットなカフェ・ラッテ, hot café latｔe)
y Does not clarify the constraints of the use of loanword equivalents.
y Some of the functions seem to be similar.
y Focused on nouns.
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The Differentiation of Loan Color Terms
y Hinds (1974 ) addresses the problem of the differentiation of use of loanword color terms which are often used as modifiers. y His research method was very simple: respondents were asked to list a number of typical objects which could be described by color terms (12 native color terms and 12 ‘corresponding’ loanword color terms).
y Major findings: (1) most loanwords are used less frequently; (2) they are often used to describe objects different from those described by native color terms; (3) they are considered to be stylish. 8/19/2015
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Limitations of Hinds’ Research
y The results of Hinds’ experiment are based on a limited number of respondents and are gender and age‐biased (20 female college students).
y Hinds focuses only on color terms and does not consider any other loanword modifiers.
y The design of the experiment does not allow to analyze the use of loanword modifiers at the level of collocations.
y The analysis of the results does not formulate constraints or tendencies of loanwords modifiers use and functions.
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Summary: y Most previous studies focus on loanword nouns.
y Loanword modifiers (adjectivals) and their collocations are not investigated thoroughly.
y A lot of previous studies are based either on questionnaires or newspapers/magazines corpora.
y Most of the studies are descriptive and do not provide any guidelines or constraints on the function/use of loanwords having wago/kango near synonyms, which can be useful for learners of the Japanese language.
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3. Present Research: Research Questions and Homogeneous Collocation Hypothesis for GMs
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Extension of Loveday’s HRFND
It was previously suggested that the
Hypothesis of Referential Foreign vs. Native
Dichotomy (HRFND) can be extended to be
applied not only to concrete nouns, but also to
color term gairaigo modifiers when they are used
to modify nouns. It was demonstrated that
loanword color terms were more often used to
modify loanword nouns rather than nouns of
other origin. （Bordilovskaya, 2012)
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Hinds’ Research and HRFND extension
y Hinds’ research mentioned in the previous section is also in coherence with the Extension of HRFND, although it was not the objective of his study. y Hinds’ experiment demonstrated that in most cases phenomena associated with loanword color terms were also of foreign origin and nouns used to refer to them were mostly written in katakana, whereas, native color terms were more often associated with native phenomena, and nouns referring to them were written in hiragana or kanji. (see next slide)
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Example of Hinds’ Results
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Homogeneous Collocation Hypothesis (1) In the present research we hypothesize that
gairaigo are more often used to modify gairaigo nouns,
rather than wago/kango nouns, and the Japanese
language has a tendency for homogeneity of origin of
the members of GM + Noun collocations.
We call this hypothesis Homogeneous Collocation
Hypothesis for Gairaigo Modifiers (HCHG).
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Homogeneous Collocation Hypothesis (2) In other words, HCHG suggests that GMs (ones which
were not borrowed to fill ‘lexical gaps’) are used for the
description of the qualities of foreign‐originated
phenomena and are more likely to modify gairaigo
nouns, rather than nouns of other origin, i.e. wago or
kango. Thus, following HCHG buraun no jaketto
(ブラウンのジャケット； brown jacket) and hotto na
kafe ratte (ホットなカフェ・ラッテ；hot café latte) would
be more natural collocations than buraun no haori
(ブラウンの羽織）and atsui kafe ratte (熱いカフェ・ラッテ).
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Foreign Culture Frame (1)
y The motivation for the existence of HCHG and borrowing modifiers for the description of the qualities of foreign‐originated phenomena as opposed to native/long‐term assimilated ones can be explained by considering that Japanese culture and language has a historically elaborated FOREIGN CULTURE FRAME which includes not only phenomena introduced to Japan from foreign cultures, but also an inventory used for the description of the qualities of those phenomena, since they are perceived as not being equally corresponding to the similar ones existing in Japanese culture. It can be found on the level of nouns and modifiers.
y For example, gohan (ご飯, cooked rice) vs. raisu （ライス, cooked rice）– when used referring to ‘cooked rice’ the form of the representation of it can be one of the factors triggering FOREIGN CULTURE FRAME.
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Foreign Culture Frame (2)
y If we accept the existence of Foreign Culture Frame it will allow us to treat the problem of neat synonyms in a different way. Frame approach can be used ‘to describe differences that appear to be defined on social rather than conceptual level ... Communities are defined by the social activities that bind the members together’（Croft and Cruse, 2004).
y Therefore, we can address the problem of GMs use not as competing with wago/kango modifiers, but as profiled against different frames: ‘Some concepts appear to denote the same thing in the world but profile it against a different frame.’ (Croft and Cruse, 2004).
y The differences in the frames of gairaigo and wago/kango
modifiers should be reflected in their collocations.
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Scheme 1 Schematic Representation of HCHG 8/19/2015
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HRFND and HCHG
The important difference between the original Loveday’s HRFND hypothesis and our HCHG hypothesis is that the former one refers to the difference in usage of single words (concrete nouns), while the later one considers collocations ‐ combinations of modifiers and nouns. HCHG offers a broader look at the problem of gairaigo modifiers’ function in the Contemporary Japanese and deals with more general and higher linguistic levels.
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Originality of Present Research y Research object – Gairaigo Modifiers (GM) & GM Collocation.
y Research method – a corpus‐based study, less biased than experimental study (Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ) – a model of Contemporary Japanese reflecting it general tendencies).
y Focus on intra‐linguistic aspects of the problem (as addition to previous socio‐linguistic and extra‐
linguistic factors investigated by other researchers).
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Research Questions (1) Is there any tendency in the choice of collocation partners
for English‐based gairaigo modifiers when they are used to
modify nouns in Contemporary Japanese?
(2) If there is a tendency, what kind of tendency it is. Is there
any co‐relation between the origins of the modifiers and the
origins of the nouns they are used with? In other words, is
there a tendency for homogeneity or heterogeneity of the
origins of words in gairaigo modifier + noun collocations in
the Contemporary Japanese?
(3) Do all the gairaigo modifiers follow the same tendency? Is
there a possibility for classifying gairaigo modifiers in
accordance with their collocation preferences?
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4. Testing of HCHG on BCCWJ: Methodology and Results 8/19/2015
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3. Present Research: Research Questions, Objectives, Hypothesis, and Methodology Objectives of the Present Research
y To investigate the tendencies of gairaigo modifiers borrowed in Meiji period and still used in Contemporary Japanese based on the etymology of the nouns they are used to modify.
y To propose a new approach to the classification of GM based on their collocation tendencies.
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Research Object
y We will test a group of gairaigo modifiers ‐ GMs (adjectives in donor language ‐English) borrowed in Meiji period and still used in Contemporary Japanese to determine whether GMs are following HCHG or not.
y We are focused on combinations of GMs and nouns, and we argue that etymological factor can also have the influence on the choice of the collocation partner in GM + noun combinations. For the purpose of the present research we call such combinations ‐ collocations, since the constituting elements are found in the immediate closeness to one another, i.e. co‐occur in the texts.
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BCCWJ CORPUS
y The main method of the present research includes the corpus‐based search for particular collocation patterns. The corpus used for the study is Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ). See Scheme 2 and Graph 1 (following slides)
http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/products/bccwj/
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Scheme 2 Structure of Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese
Cited from http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/products/bccwj/
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The Distribution of Lexical Strata in BCCWJ (Outer Circle ‐ Tokens/Inner Circle ‐ Types)
konshugo
gairaigo
konshugo
gairaigo
wago
kango
gairaigo
konshugo
wago
kango
kango
wago
Graph 1 The distribution of lexical strata in BCCWJ adapted from 『現代日本語書き言葉均衡コーパス』語彙表ver.1.0 解説 (2013, p.7)
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Methodology
We will examine the following patterns common for GMs in Contemporary Japanese: y Gairaigo Modifier + ‐no‐ (case marker) + Noun
(Gairaigo Modifier is a regular noun in the recipient language ‐ Japanese)
y Gairaigo Modifier + ‐na‐ (copula) + Noun (Gairaigo Modifier is an adjectival noun in the recipient language ‐ Japanese)
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Case Study: Gairaigo Modifiers y Based on Sanseido’s Concise Dictionary of Katakana Words (2005) and Kadogawa
Dictionary of Loan‐words (1977) we have compiled a list 101 of gairaigo modifiers (adjectives in donor language) borrowed during Meiji period (1868‐1912). y We will test our hypothesis on of 101 gairaigo
modifiers taking into consideration only the original meaning(s) introduced in Meiji period. We are not looking at the cases of semantic change, etc. (For the complete list of GMs see Appendix 1) 8/19/2015
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GM Collocation Data
y Out of 101 GMs only 49 GMs had a frequency of more than 5 tokens of GM + noun collocations in BCCWJ. y The results of the BCCWJ corpus search for 49 GMs are presented in Graph 2 (‐no‐&‐na‐ linkers together) and Graph 3 (‐no‐&‐na‐ linkers separately).
y Graph 2 demonstrates the distribution of GMs collocations with nouns of different origin: gairaigo, wago and kango. 8/19/2015
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Results (1)
y There are two main tendencies for GMs: to modify either gairaigo nouns or kango nouns. y Some GMs are clearly following HCHG, whereas others do not seem to follow HCHG at the etymological level.
y We will look at two types of GMs collocations separately, depending on the origin of nouns found in collocations.
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Results (2)
y GMs following HCHG. i.e. GMs that are more often used to modify gairaigo nouns rather than wago or kango nouns are
イエロー、オリジナル、オレンジ、グッド、クラシカル、
クリア、グリーン、クール、グレー/グレイ、シルバー、
スタンダード、ダブル、パープル、ブラウン、ブラック、ブルー、
ヘビー、ホット、ホワイト、ヤング、レッド、ロング、ワイド、
ワイルド.
y Most of GMs explicitly following HCHG refer to basic physical qualities of the phenomena (such as color, size, age, visibly perceived qualities) and these GMs have corresponding ‘clear‐
cut’ wago/kango near synonyms. y E.g. kuuru na beesu (クールなベース; cool base), buraun no botomu (ブラウンのボトム; brown bottom), etc.
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Results (3)
y GMs not following HCHG. i.e. GMs that are more often used to modify kango nouns are アクティブ/アクチブ、エ
ロチック/エロティック、クリーン、シンボリック、スムーズ、
ソフト、ナイーブ、ナショナル、フェア、ベスト、ローカル.
y GMs mostly followed by kango nouns refer to more abstract qualities or qualities that can are not visibly identified. Therefore, these GMs might be introducing new conceptualization of qualities which do not have quite adequate correspondence in the recipient culture. y E.g. shimborikku na hyougen (シンボリックな表現; symbolic expression), nashonaru na kikan (ナショナルな
機関; national institution), etc.
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Results (4)
y Some GM demonstrated no preference for a particular type of nouns to modify, i.e. they were relatively equally found modifying gairaigo and kango nouns (ビッグ), or gairaigo, wago and kango nouns (スイート, ストレート、ハッピー、ス
ロー) in the sample presented in BCCWJ. However, even when GMs were used to modify wago nouns, those nouns referred not to Japanese cultural phenomena, but to culturally neutral ones, e.g. オフィシャルな手紙、クイックな動き etc. y It is important to consider that gairaigo comprise 4.91 % of Contemporary Japanese lexicon reflected in BCCWJ, compared with 43,52% and 49,69% for kango and wago respectively (see Graph 1). However, gairaigo nouns still demonstrate comparatively high frequency of tokens in collocations with GMs. Therefore, additional statistical analysis is needed to evaluate the distribution in BCCWJ. 8/19/2015
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The Distribution of Linkers
y If we compare the distribution of the use of ‐no‐ and ‐na‐
linkers we can also see the 2 tendencies for GMs (Graph3).
y GMs used preferably with ‐no‐ linker (possessive case marker) are more often followed by gairaigo nouns and demonstrate lesser degree of assimilation.
y GMs used preferably with ‐na‐ linker (copula) are either more often used to modify kango nouns or do not demonstrate a preference for nouns of particular origin. This can also indicate the higher degree of assimilation to the Japanese language. 8/19/2015
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4. Testing of HCHG: Data and Analysis
HCHG and GM Classification y We have demonstrated that a number of GMs explicitly following HCHG at the level of collocations, i.e. they are used to modify gairaigo nouns, rather than wago or kango nouns. Therefore, they support the tendency for homogeneity of members of GM + noun collocations and we suggest that this type of GMs has a clear‐cut etymological constraint on the choice of their collocation partners.
y Another group of GMs has demonstrated the tendency to modify kango nouns or wago nouns which are not referring to a native cultural phenomena, so we suggest that they are triggering Foreign Culture Frame at the level of concepts, i.e. they do not an etymological constraint, but they are still limited in the choice collocation partners (nouns) that should refer to neutral or foreign phenomena. (Context&Co‐text? ) 8/19/2015
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5. Discussion and Research Limitations 8/19/2015
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Discussion and Conclusion (1)
In present study we have introduced a new approach to
analyzing the patterns of collocations of English origin gairaigo modifiers. We have shown that there is an obvious bias in the structure of gairaigo collocations in Contemporary Japanese: some gairaigo modifiers are used to modify gairaigo nouns more often than wago/kango nouns. Moreover, GMs are not used for the description of qualities of traditional cultural objects and/or phenomena, even when they modify wago nouns. 8/19/2015
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5. Research Limitations and Concluding Remarks
Discussion and Conclusion (2) Our findings allow us of suggesting a new
approach to classification of gairaigo modifiers
in Contemporary Japanese.
Classification
of
GMs
taking
into
consideration the existence of Foreign Culture
Frame and HCHG can provide information
necessary for foreign learners of Japanese, so
that they can differentiate between gairaigo
and wago/kango near synonymic modifiers and
use them in a way which is balanced and easier
processed by native speakers of Japanese.
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COUNTER‐EXAMPLES
y Counter examples, i.e. the use of GM in collocations with wago nouns referring to native phenomena are possible when the writer/speaker tries to achieve a stylistic effect by violating the existing tendency to draw the attention of the audience. This can be found in advertising, product names, since Japanese culture has been in the process of experimenting and mixing old and new, traditional and cutting‐edge, native and foreign. y However, it is probably unlikely to find unique traditional native modifiers (for example, color terms used in traditional kimono industry) used for the description of foreign‐originated phenomena, introduced after Meiji period. 8/19/2015
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Limitations and Further Research
y The given research is based only on the data from
BCCWJ, thus the results are limited to the sample
presented in one corpus.
y We suggest that the increase of data set can give
more information about gairaigo collocation in
Contemporary Japanese.
y It is also necessary to have a deeper insight into
the assimilation processes diachronically to trace
the historical processes of the assimilation of
gairaigo modifiers.
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Major References y Bordilovskaya A. (2012). A study of loan color terms collocation in modern Japanese. In Proceedings
of the Thirty Fourth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 1362-1367.
y Croft、William and D. Alan Cruse. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press,
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Cambridge.
Daulton, E. Frank. 2008. Japan's Built-in Lexicon of English-based Loanwords. Multilingual
Matters, Ltd.
Hinds, John V. 1974. Make Mine Burakku. Language Research 10, No. 2.
Irwin, Mark. 2011. Loanwords in Japanese (Studies in Language Companion Series) . John
Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Kay, Gillian. 1995 English Loanwords In Japanese. World Englishes. Cambridge. Basil
Blackwell Ltd.1st Ed., Vol. 14
Loveday, J. Leo. 1996. Language Contact in Japan. A Sociolinguistic History. Oxford studies
in language contact. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press.
Rebuck, Mark. 2002. The Function of English Loanwords in Japanese. NUCB Journal of
Language, Culture and Communication. Vol. 4,1.
Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1990. The Languages of Japan. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Stanlaw, James. 2010. Japanese-English Language and Culture Contact: How Much English Is
Found in Japanese, How Is It Used, and Why Should Students and Teachers Care? CAJLE, Vol.
11.
Stanlaw, James. 2004. Japanese English: language and culture contact. Hong Kong University
Press, Hong Kong.
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Appendix 1 List of Gairaigo Adjectival Modifiers borrowed in Meiji period
(still in use in Contemporary Japanese)
コンサイズカタカナ語辞典（三省堂編修所）第 3 版２００５
Gairaigo Adjectival
Donor Language
Modifier
(English) ADJ
1
アイディアル（な）
Ideal
理想的、理念的、典型的
2
アクチブ（アクティブ X）
Active
活発、活動的、積極的、行
＃
（な）
明治期の意味
動的
3
アブストラクト（な）
Abstract
抽象的、非現実的
4
アブノーマル（な）
Abnormal
普通でないさま、異常
5
アンビシャス（な）
Ambitious
野心的、功名心のあるさ
ま、大望をいだいているさ
ま
6
イエロー
Yellow
黄色
7
イコール
Equal
等しいこと、
同じであるこ
と
8
イージー（な）
Easy
容易なさま、安易なさま、
手軽なさま
9
イージーゴイング（な）
Easygoing
生き方がおおらかなさま、
流れに逆らわず気楽なさ
ま
10
イモータル（な）
Immortal
永遠死ぬことの無いさま
11
イモーラル（な）
Immoral
不道徳なさま、ふしだら。
猥褻（わいせつ）
12
インターナショナル（な）
International
国際的、国際間のことにか
かわりのあるさま
13
インテンショナル
Intentional
意図的
14
イントリンシック（な）
Intrinsic
そのものに本来備わって
いる。固有であるさま
15
インノセント（な）
Innocent
（無罪の、無害の）罪のな
いさま、無邪気なようす、
天真らんまん
16
インプレッシブ（な）
Impressive
印象的、感動的
17
インペリアル
Imperial
「帝国の、皇帝」の意味で
複合語を作る
18
インポシブル/インポッシブ
Impossible
不可能、ありえないさま
ル（な）
19
インポータント（な）
Important
重要、有力
20
ウエスタン
Western
「西（方）の、西洋の、米
国西部の」の意味で複合語
を作る
21
エゴイスティック（な）
Egoistic
利己的なさま、利己主義
的、自分本位なさま
22
エコノミカル（な）
Economical
経済的、倹約的、費用節約
的
23
エターナル（な）
Eternal
永遠であるさま、永久的な
さま
24
エロチック/エロテック（な） Erotic
色っぽいさま、性愛に関係
のあるさま
25
オーディナリー
Ordinary
日常的なさま、平凡なさま
26
オフィシャル（な）
Official
正式、公式、公に認められ
ているさま
27
オリエンタル
Oriental
東洋に関すること、東洋
的、東洋風
28
オリジナル（な）
Original
独創的、創意にあふれてい
るさま、原初的、最初のも
のである
29
オールド
Old
「古い、昔の、年とった」
ｎアドの意味で複合語を
作る
30
オールマイティ（な）
Almighty
万能、全知全能
31
オレンジ
Orange
だいだい色、みかん色
32
クイック
Quick
速いこと、すばやいこと
33
グッド
Good
（１）よい、結構；（２）
「よい、すぐれた」の意味
で複合語を作る
34
クラシカル（な）
Classical
古典的、伝統的
35
クリア（クリヤー）（な）
Clear
明晰（めいせき）。はっき
りとしているさま
36
クリーン（な）
Clean
（１）きれいなさま、汚れ
がないさま；（２）みごと
で、鮮やかなさま
37
グリーン
Green
緑
38
クール（な）
Cool
（温度、色などが）冷たい
さま、涼し気なさま
39
グレー（グレイ？）
Gray
ねずみ色、灰色
40
グレート
Great
「大きい、偉大な」の意味
で複合語を作る
41
コミック（な）
Comic
喜劇に関係のあるさま、
骨
稽（こつけい）
42
コモン
Common
「ふつうの、共通の、平凡
な」の意味で複合語をつく
る
43
ゴールデン
Golden
「金色の、黄金製の」また、
「最高の、すばらしい」な
どの意味で複合語をつく
る
44
コールド
Cold
「冷たい、冷やした、冷え
た」の意味で複合語を作る
45
コンクリート（な）
Concrete
具体的、具象的なさま
46
コンサイス（な）
Concise
簡潔、簡明
47
コンサーバチブ（な）
Conservative
保守的、保守的な人、特に
保守的な政治家
48
コンベンショナル（な）
Conventional
因襲的（いんしゅ）、慣習
的、常套的（じょうとう）
49
サイエンティフィック（な） Scientific
50
サイレント
Silent
科学的、学術的、学理的
「静かな、沈黙の、無限の」
などの意味でふつう複合
語を作る
51
サブジェクティブ（な）
Subjective
主観的なさま
52
ジェントル（な）
Gentle
性格などがおだやなさま、
寛大でおおらかなさま
53
ショート
Short
短いこと、短期
54
シルバー
Silver
銀、銀器、銀色
55
シングル
Single
「単一、1 人用」の意味で
複合語をつくる
56
シンボリック（な）
Symbolic
象徴的
57
スイート（な）
Sweet
（味、におい、声などが）
甘いさま、甘美なさま、こ
ころよいさま
58
スカイ・ブルー
Sky blue
空色
59
スカーレット
Scarlet
深紅色、緋（ひ）色
60
スケプティック
Skeptic
懐疑的、懐疑論に関係ある
さま
61
スタンダード（な）
Standard
標準、基準、標準的である
さま
62
ストレート（な）
Straight
一直線、形や動きが一直
線、まっすぐなさま
63
ストロング
Strong
強いこと、丈夫なこと
64
スペシャル
Special
特別、特性
65
スムーズ（スムース、スムー
Smooth
滑らか、流暢、円滑
Slow
（速さが）遅いさま、ゆっ
ジー）（な）
66
スロー（な）
くりしているさま
67
ゼネラル（ジェネラル）
General
「一般の、全般的な」の意
味でふつう複合語を作る
68
セントラル
Central
「中央の、中心の、主要な」
の意味で、複合語を作る
69
ソフト（な）
Soft
柔らかいさま、軽いさま。
（人当たりなどが）穏やか
なさま
70
ダブル
Double
二重、２倍、重なっている
さま
71
ダンディ（な）
Dandy
伊達（だて）男、おしゃれ
紳士、都会風に洗練された
服装・趣味の男性
72
トラジカル（な）
Tragical
悲劇的なさま
73
トラジック（な）
Tragic
悲劇的、悲惨
74
ナイーブ（な）
Naive
うぶ、純真、素朴、天真ら
んまん
75
ナショナル
National
「国民の、国家の、国立の、
国粋的」などの意味で複合
語をつくる
76
パッシブ（な）
Passive
受身であるさま、受動的、
消極的
77
パッショネート（な）
Passionate
情熱的
78
ハッピー（な）
Happy
幸福、幸せ、うれしいさま
79
パープル
Purple
紫色、あい色がかった紫
80
ビッグ（な）
Big
大きいさま、巨大なさま
81
ビューティフル（な）
Beautiful
美しいこと、
きれいなさま
82
プア（な）
Poor
貧しい、貧弱なさま
83
ファースト
First
第 1、１番目、最初
84
フェア（な）
Fair
色が明るくて美しいさま、
（色白・金髪のさま）
85
ブラウン
Brown
茶褐色（ちゃかっしょく）、
とび色
86
ブラック
Black
黒、黒色
87
ブルー
Blue
青色、藍（あい）色
88
ベスト（な）
Best
最上、最良
89
ヘビー
Heavy
「重い、重量級の、強度」
の意味で複合語をつくる
90
ホット（な）
Hot
「暑い、熱い」の意味で複
合語をつくる
91
ホワイト
White
白、白色
92
ヤング
Young
「若い、少年の」の意で複
合語をつくる
93
ユニバーサル（な）
Universal
（１）宇宙に関するさま、
全世界にわたるさま（２）
一般的、普遍的
94
ラショナル（な）
Rational
理性のあるさま、合理的な
さま
95
レッド
Red
赤、赤色
96
ロイヤル（な）
Loyal
（雇い主などに対して）
忠
義であるさま
97
ロイヤル/ロワヤル（な）
Royal
王・王家に関係のあるさ
ま、王・王家にふさわしい
さま
98
ローカル（な）
Local
地方的、局地的；主に複合
語をつくる
99
ロング
Long
長いこと、長期
100
ワイド（な）
Wide
幅の広いさま
101
ワイルド（な）
Wild
（１）（動物などが）野生
であること；
（２）野生的、
荒々しいこと

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