Title
Author(s)
Citation
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URL
A ranching system in japan
Kobayashi, Shigeru
Geographical Reports of Tokyo Metropolitan
University(10): 25-41
1975
http://hdl.handle.net/10748/3438
DOI
Rights
Type
Textversion
Departmental Bulletin Paper
publisher
http://www.tmu.ac.jp/
首都大学東京 機関リポジトリ
ARanching System in Japan
Shigeru KOBAYASHI
INTRODUCTION
Atype of stock raising similar to the ranching in the New World is found in Japan．
It has been studied by some researchers， but the similarities existing between the ranching
and this type of stock raising have not attracted the attention of these researchers・It has not
been examined in relation to the ranching． The main purpose of this article is to analyse
this type of stock raising in comparison with the ranching and to give an explanation of its
distinctive features．
In addition， two major problems concerning this type of stock raising are discussed・One
of them is the origin of this type of stock raising． Some perspectives on stoρk raising in
East Asia will be given． The other one is connected with the cultural landscape． In this
respect， some important similarities between the ranching and this type of stock raising will
be found．
In the first section， a general description of the traditional stock raising will be given to
飴cilitate the understanding of the ranching in Japan」n the following sections， the main
subjects of this article will be discussed．
TRADITIONAL STOCK RAISING IN JAPAN
In the traditional stock raising in Japan， horses and cattle had been the most important
livestock． Although some other domestic animals had been raised， they had scarcely played
significant role．
As in Southeast Asia（Wheatley，1965）， milking of livestock had been practiced to a
certain extent in ancient times in Japan． The technique concerning milking and milk
products was imported from China in the 7th century． Mainly nobles and the imperial family
consumed milk・products in those days， which were tributed from many provinces to the
imperial court． A state farm in which milch cows were raised was set up． But these systems
were abolished by the 12th century（Takigawa，1939）． Although there are some records on
milking in the l 7th and 18th centuries（Kimura＆Saito，1955，214−5， Mori，1969，1，
1194−6），the consumption of milk and milk products did not propagate． Meat of livestock
also had been consumed in ancient times． But in the 7th and 8th centuries， imperial
ordinances fbrbade to kill and to eat livestock． Since then， it had almost never been
consumed（lgata，1942）． Therefore， in the traditional stock raising milk and meat of
livestock had been of no importance．
It is well known that livestock does not play important role in agriculture in East Asia
（Grigg，1974，82−3）． But stock raising has not been negligible element in agricultural system
and in the peasant household economy． Agricultural products and manure were transported
by livestock． It was used also for ploughing and harrowing． Its dung was one of the principal
sources of manure． Stable manure had been as important as the green manure and night soi1．
＿25一
But it should be noted that the technique of ploughing had hardly dif血ユsed in eastern part of
Japan by the middle of the 19th century． Since the Meiji Restoration（1868）， government
and peasants made efforts to propagate it． It was soon diffUsed all over the country
（Shimizu，1953，289−92，376−483）．
For the breeding of livestock， extensive land for grazing was indispensable． Therefore it
had been restricted in some regions which were abundant in pasture（Kimura＆Saito，1955，
282−3）．In these regions， the income from selling colts or calves bred had been very
important fbr the peasant household economy． In fact， this was the major part of its cash
income． The livestock bred in these stock breeding regions was sent to some other regions
where it was used（Ishida， H．，1962a， b）． In such regions， livestock was used intensively and
was fed in stable almost throughout the year． Of course in the stock breeding regions， too，
livestock was used for the agriculture． Even the cows or mares fbr the breeding were used fbr
ploughing and transportation．
It should be noted that peasants had not always raised livestock． In some stock breeding
regions， almost all the peasants raised livestock， but in other regions only a small portion
of peasants raised it（Ishida， H．，1962a， b）． Generally a peasant household raised only l to
31ivestock． During the Tokugawa Era， those who owned a greater number of livestock
appeared． They did not raise it by themselves since they were either landowners or rich
merchants． They put their livestock in charge of peasants． Peasants who were entrusted
livestock were allowed to utilize it for agriculture， and the income obtained丘om selling
colts or calves bred was divided among owner of livestock and peasants（Kimura＆Saito，
1955，227−9，236−41）．
Livestock sent from the stock breeding regions was also used for the transportation of
goods along the major main routes and urban areas． Horses were necessary fbr military
affaires． In the Tokugawa Era， some han−s or local powers strictly controlled the trade of
livestock． Through this regulation， these han・s acquired horses of high quality fbr military
use， and collected the tax of livestock． Some han−s put mares and stallions in charge of
peasants in order to encourage horse breeding（Kimura＆Saito，1955，212， Yasuda，1960a，
Mori，1960）． ’
On the other hand， the state or local powers had established‘‘maki”・s（maki means
originally pasture． They are referred to the‘official〃takt”・s from now on．）． In these official
〃mkt’−s， the ranching type of stock raising had been operated． They were set up in order to
supply livestock fbr state and local powers． The breeding of horses fbr military use was
the main role of them． Some surplus of livestock supplied from these〃uαki・s were sold to
peasants or livestock dealers． But the number of the livestock which official〃ηゼ・s supplied
seems to be sma11． For example， in the Tokugawa Era Satsuma−ha〃established many officia1
〃utkt’−s， but the number ofhorses in them amounted to only 5．1％in 1715and 2．3％in 1826
0f the number of horses and cattle in its territory（Kaneko，1935）．
Since a century ago， stock raising in Japan began to change， and modern type of stock
raising has developped． Milch cows and pigs increased with the diffusion of the consumption
of milk and meat． Cattle of Japanese strain became livestock for draught and meat． Now，
they are raised only for meat． Horses decreased because of the development of modern
traffic system and propagation of small tractors．
AN EXAMPLE OF RANCHING
Befbre an analysis of the ranching in Japan， an example of official〃uαki should be
一26
described to illustrate the way in which it was managed． The author takes an official mak’of
the Tokugawa Era as an example． It is the Ono・〃urki of Mito・加η． On this〃utkゴ， some
historical documents still remain and its management was studied by a few historians
recently．
The Mito・加ηwas a local power whose centre was at Mito． The Ono−makゴwas set up in
the southern part of Abukuma Mountains， and horses were put to graze in 1678． In the
beginning， there were no fences around the〃uαki． Therefore， horses could freely get out of
the〃mkゴand damaged cropland around it． Peasants had to erect fences around their
croplands and to set watches in order to defend it from horses． Consequently， in 1687，
1690，and 1720， wooden fence and earthen dyke to enclose the grazing land were con−
structed by the peasants in the villages around the〃urki． By 1720， the total length of the
fence and dyke amounted to 7，476 ken（13，436．8m）． Since then， the village communities
were fbrced to keep and repair every part of the fence and dyke（Itaba，19th c．， Sagi，
1969a）．（Fig．1）
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Fig．1：0no・〃iaki and its environs．
1．area damaged by escaped horses in 1747．2．approximate area of
Opo−〃iaki． 3．villages called out for the repairing fence and dyke．
4・villages called out for theηoんo〃la’o万or round。up in l 726．
5．villages where lived gosh’−s．6．villages where lived l 2 peasants．
7．villages where lived hunters．
●
＿ 27一
Fig．2：Site of the’or’」ヒo〃zeba．
・ 1．remained dyke．2．destroyed
・ dyke． 3．o童d pass．4・place
where lord had rested．
5．Paddy． 6．steep slope．
At the centre of the〃mki，‘‘fukurodote”and‘‘torikomeba”were also erected（Fig．2，3）．
The fakurodote was a horse−shoe shaped earthen dyke annexed with some wooden fence．
The torikomeba was a rectangular earthen dyke． Its site is confirmed by a toponym
Torikome and remaining dyke． Its shape and size coincides exactly with a sketch map in
the 19th century（ltaba，19th c．）．（Fig．2） It should be noted that the dyke and gates
constructed around the〃mkゴcan be traced only to some extent． There are some dykes made
in a later period， and it is very difficult to distinguis．h them from old ones． The most part of
the fence and dyke might be erected on mountain ridges． However， an approximate size of
the〃mkゴcan be inferred from the remaining toponyms of the gates．
：1
”。＿1．、：2
0
lkm
Fig・3・1：01d map of Ono−maki， from Itaba（19th C・）・ Fig．3・2：Site of Ono−maki．
A・tor’んo〃leわα． B．fu ku rodo te． C−Lgates of the〃iaki．
or subterranean shed．
T・tsuehimuro 1．area disposed to the Tokugawas after the
Meiji Restoration．2．remained dyke．
b
一28＿
ぐ
Fig．4：Catching of the horse driven into torikomeba， from Itψa（19th C．）．
The organization fbr the management of the〃utki was established in the beginning of the
18th century． Under the direction of county magistrate， three‘‘goshi”−s or officials who
inhabited in villages called out the peasants and gave order to them． Two watchmen or
‘‘
獅盾汲盾高≠b≠氏h・s were appointed among the peasants． They patroled the〃ldki every other
day and reported on sick horses and broken parts of the fence and dyke to the goshi・s．
In addition， eight hunters were appointed． Their duty was to kill the mountain dogs or
wolves which would dam母ge horses in the maki． As the waiting posts of these hunters， fbur
‘‘
fsuch imuro”。s or subterranean sheds were erected（ltaba，19th c．， Sagi，1969a）．
Horses were put to graze at all seasons． Generally once a year， these horses were driven
into fukurodo’8 and caught． For this purpose， many peasants were called out丘om villages
around the〃uαkt’ iFig．1）． This‘‘nokomatori”or catching of semi−wild horses was the m∼）st
important event of the〃vaんi． In 1727， ltheηoんo〃協oガwas carried out in March． It was
prepared from the 18th of March． At first， the fukurodo’e and the torikomeba were repaired
and some supplementary wooden fence was erected． The logs were gathered to tether the
horses， and some fbdder was mowed to give them． The horses which had strayed away from
the物んi were driven into it． On the 21st of March， the first nokomaton’was carried out．
At this time，532 peasants from 30 villages were called out． In the second〃okomatoアi on
the 22nd participated 882 peasants丘om 51 villages． The horses were driven into fukurodote
by peasants． Mainly the young male ones which wefe designated by the‘‘umaya−yakunin”・s
or officials of the加〃’s stable were put into toriko〃zeわa and captured with rope． This
r6quired so great a skill that it was performed by 12peasants selected from three Mllages．
In 1727， twelve horses were caught in a11， and five of them were sent to the stable of加η．
The rest of them were sold． Of course， all horses in〃uαki were driven into／tlkurodo te and
numbered， but in the case of 1727， its number was not reported． In 1730，225 horses were
driven into fukurodote and 260f them were caught． Four of them were sent to the乃α〃
stable． After theηoたo〃競07ゴ， some peasants took care of captured horses and accompanied
them to transport to the han stable． In 1727， total number of peasants who participated in
practisingηoんo〃mtori amounted to 2，618（Itaba，19th c．， Sagi，1969a）．
Even if the〃urki was enclosed with the fence and the dyke， horses often broke them and
escaped． As they damaged croplands of villages around it， again in 1733 the fence and the
dyke were enlarged」ts length reached to apProximately 7，700んεη（13，860m）． But as befbre，
一29一
8
the horses broke fence and damaged crops． The wooden fence was liable to be broken down
by fire which was set to maintain grassland of〃urki． The dyke also collapsed rapidly owing
to rime−frost in winter。 Peasants had to erect fences around their fields． The damaged area is
so extensive as is indicated in Fig．1．Consequently since 1750 some toriんomeわα・s were set
up out of〃ldkゴto capture the horses which had escaped from it．
Peasants had been groaned under a heavy burden． In addition to the damages by the
horses， they were called out to repair the enclosure and to practise noko〃η渉oガ． They also
had to burn the grazing land to maintain grasses． For these labours， the加ηseldom payed
wages． Furthermore， wild dogs damaged horses of the〃urki． It was very difficult to shoot
them to kill（ltaba，19th c．， Sagi，1969a）．
Thus，血 1787 the lord of the han decided to put the Ono−〃iakゴout of use・So，5・178
peasants were called out to catch all horses pastured． At this time， the horses which were
caught numbered 74． But not all horses could be captured at this time， therefore， in the next
year nokomaton’was carried out again． At this time， ten’orゴkomeわα一s were erected out of
〃urki（according to‘‘Ono bokujo ni tsuki negai”（1880）， f6ur’oガκo〃zeba−s were erected）．
The peasants participated numbered 3，409 and 23 horses were caught（ltaba，19th c．）．
Itaba who had been the county magistrate estimated the burden of peasants concerning
the Ono・〃mkゴ． It consists of compulsory labor f6r management of maki such as repairing of
the fence andηoんo〃za tori， and expense to defend crops from horses． In addition to them，
peasants could not convert some lands into arable land， since the horses would damage it．
Even fbr compulsory labor，9，350 peasants were within a whole year（ltaba，19th c．）．
After that， Mito，肋ηhad not organized〃utki． But in the early part of the 19th century， it
was decided to set up a〃mki again． In those days， the visits of fleets of the European and
American powers to Japan had raised the military tension． The Mito・han reinforced
armaments like other han−s and was in need of horses for military use． It also aimed to
increase the income of han by horse breeding． Thus， in 1935，a maki named Sakurano・〃2αんゴ
was set up on the wide terrace， south of Mito， and horses were put to graze． It was put out
of use after the Me茸i Restoration， in 1871（Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， III，123−34，
Shusansha bokuchiku narabini kaikon，1881）． On the other hand， in 18630no・〃mki was
set up again as a〃ldkt’for cattle raising． But the records on this〃urki are so scanty that it is
impossible to describe it in detaiL The Ono−〃mkゴin this period was smaller than that in the
l7th and l 8th centuries． It lasted until l 869（Ono fUku boku roku，1882， Sagi，1969b）・
As described above， this stock raising had the basic features of ranching． At first，livestock
was raised in a semi・wild state． They were put to graze in all seasons． The stud moved at will
in a wide area． Animals copulated freely． Secondly， increased animals were captured by
ηoんoη観07’，namely round・up． As the facilities for it， fukurod∂’θand torikomeba or corral
were erected． In the third place， the grazing land was used extensively． At the beginning， the
〃ldkゴwas on open range． Although after 1687 the fence and dyke were erected， it changed
later to an open range substantially（On the basic features of ranching in the New World， see，
fbr example， Grigg，1974，241−55，Jordan，1969）．
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RANCHING IN JAPAN
The stock raising described above has basic features． of ranching in the New World． But
they differ in certain details from one another． These differences町re related to some
distinctive features of the ranching in Japan． In this section， taking other〃zaki・s in the
Tokugawa Era as examples， these differences are e琴amined， and at the same time some
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1
other respects which could not mentioned in previous section are discussed．
At first there are some differences concerning the manner in which the round・up was
practiced． In Japan， it required many hands and in every case a great number of peasants
inhabited in villages near〃urki were called out． In Satsuma一加η， these villages were called
‘‘
汲浮唐?奄高?狽≠狽?￨shogo”． At the Fukuyama−mald of this加η， more than 10，000 peasants were
called out from kushimetate−3加go（Kanbashi，1960）． In the case of the Shogunate， these
villages were called‘‘notsuke−notsuzuki・mura”． At the Mineoka−〃mki，66 villages were
designated for it． The peasants in some of these villages had to repair the fence and dyke of
the〃mki（Arai，1965）．
At the time of round・up， peasants played same role as the beaters at the grand hunt．
In Mito−han， they had to go to the appointed posts in the makゴin the previous evening．
Peasants of each village formed a group under a flag． They hunted out animals and pursued
them to the direction of corral． Some peasants were arranged on the both sides of the
passage of horses． They also pursued horses immediately after their passing． The torikomeba
was camouflaged as if none was there， and the horses eased their mind to enter in it（Itaba，
19th c．）． The reason why so much labour was necessary is as follows． Firstly， peasants lacked
mobility． They had to run after horses on foot． Many beaters were needed to surround
horses． Secondly， it was dangerous to pursue semi・wild horses on foot， so that peasants had
to fbrm groups to do so． In〃mki・s of the Shogunate， peasants pursued horses with sticks
（Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， III，50）． Thirdly， complicated landforms and partly reserved
forests provided horses with places to hide themselves．
These facts represent that the technique to handle animals as a herd has not developed．
In Japan， herding technique is very poor and professional herders have never apPeared．
In almost all the cases， livestock was put to graze in the enclosed land without any herder．
Although in a few cases，1ivestock by some herders was accompanied， this task was
inefficient and laborious． Consequently， it was a very， difficult and dangerous task to drive
untamed semi・wild horses．
Although horses of Japanese strain are small in genera1（Hayashida，1974）， it was regarded
as extremely dangerous to catch animals gathered in corraL In the case of Ono・makゴ， at first ・
ηoんo〃uαban or a watchman of horses put a rope around the neck of a horse with a rod
（Fig．4）． Then a man clung to its neck， another man seized its ears， and the other one
s重τangled its nostrils with fingers． After that， forepaws and hind legs of the horse were bound
with a rope． They forced to open its mouth with a stick and bound its topgue with a rope
like a bridle bit． Finally， they bound with two ropes its neck and tethered． As mentioned
above， twelve young people of three villages participated in this task． The加ηgave them a
special wage（ltaba，19th c． On the technique applied at round−up in the〃uαkゴ・s of
Nanbu−han and the Shogunate， see Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， II，245−7， III，50−57，
77−81．It is very similar to that in Mito・加η）．
These facts denote that the technique like horsemanship in ranching in the New World
has hardly developed in Japan． In this respect， the technique of peasants in Oshima of Izu
Islands is noteworthy． In 1729， some peasants in Oshima were invited to round・up in
Kogane−〃zaki of the Shogunate to catch horses． On this occation， they approached to the
stud of〃ut ki on horseback． Jumping on the horse to be caught， they threw it down． They
were able to catch and tether it without any help of others． Sometimes， they used a rod with
arope to catch the neck of horse（Mishima，1800，605−6， Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， II，
209）．Many people were surprised at their technique． The recorder said that they Were so
skillful that no samurai or warrior could match them． In those days， only samurtガ・s were
allowed to learn the equestrian art． In Oshima， a ranch had been managed by peasants．
一31一
祠
Their technique might be acquired through handling semi−wild horses and cattle．
As the round−up required many hands and resembled to military manoeuvre in some
respects， the military exercise for samurai−s was carried out at the same time in Satsuma一加η
and Soma一肋η（Tachibana，1795． II．16−8）． In both cases， many armed∫〃nurai−s partici−
pated． In Soma−han， the round−up was a kind of ritual， because the horses in〃mkゴbelonged
to a shrine． Therefore， the horses caught were not utilized for any purpose． They were
returned to the〃urki Yasuda，1960a）．
The necessary ones of livestock were captured by round・up， and the rest were left in〃taki
for breeding． In Nanbu・加〃，、these ones were marked by cutting off a part of ears． In the
Shogunate， these an㎞als were branded． Every〃mkt’ had its own brand（Teikoku Keiba
Kyokai，1928， II，204−5，245， III，46−7）． This marking of livestock is identified with the
‘branding’in the ranching of the New World． By the brand the livestock of a〃urki could be
distingushed from other animals． It also prevented theft of livestock． Although in Mitq・han，
animals might not be branded， some measures to distinguish them had to be devised．
In addition， the grassland of〃mkゴhad to be maintained artificially． In Mito−han， trees
were cut and burned． The horses easily escaped from〃urkt’ C because the better grasses fbr
horses decreased owing to the extension of forest．（ltaba，19th c．， Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，
1928，III，131， Sagi，1969a， b）． Although in the other han・s also trees were cut down and
burned， a part of them was reserved in order to protect animals from cold wind and snow in
winter（Yasuda，1958a）．
As mentioned above， in Japan much labor was needed f6士the management of〃mki or
ranch because of the inferior technique． Furthermore， the physical environment was
unsuitable so that the grassland of〃urki could only be artificially maintained． Consequently，
the ranching in Japan was rather inefficient in comparison with that of the New World．
On the contrary， in ranches in the New World a small number of workers can handle and
control many animals． In the beginning， the domestic animals brought丘om Europe rapidly
multiplied in a semi・wild state under the favourable physical environment． Many writers say
that the techniques for controlling manage and handling the animals originate from Iberian
Peninsula（Denhardt，1951， Grigg，1974，241−55， Crosby，1972，64−125）． Extensive
grasslands f包voured the expansion of this type of stock raising． In the early stage，the price
of livestock was so cheap that only its hide and tallow were used in South America．
The growth of demand for beef and wool in urbanized areas of eastern United states and
Western Europe promoted further development of this stock raising industry． The ranching
in New World became an important type of modern stock raising directly connected with
the world market． In short， ranching system in the New World could not develop without
these environmental， technical and socio・economic conditions． Consequently， techno・
environmelltal features of the ranching in Japan can be understood only in connection with
the other aspects．
The most important fact is that the price of livestock was very high in Japan． In many
areas， peasant household which could afford to purchase and raise animals was rather limited
in number． Only upper class peasants who owned much arable land raised livestock（lshida，
H．，1962a， b）． Furthermore， animals raised in semi・wild state were more highly evaluated f（）r
agricultural and military use than other livestock（Kimura＆Saito，1955，216−17）． Some of
them were sold to peasants and livestock dealers， The income丘om this disposal by sale
might be great in every ha〃． Mitohan expended almost nothing on the management of maki．
In addition to the horses for military use， considerable income was brought to han at the
cost of peasants’compulsory service（Sagi，1969a）． The management of〃mki with the
regulation of livestock trade was an important part of financial policy in many han・s
＿32一
（Kimura＆Saito，1955，216−227）．
Consequently， it was important to raise the breeding rate of animals． For this purpose，
weak staUions were replaced with strong ones on occasion． In Karatsu一加η， mares， whose
yearling colts were set apart， were put into small pens with stallion in order to let copulate
after round・up（Kizaki，19th c．）． The number ofhorses was always con趾med byηoんo〃vaban
in Mito・加η． In Satsuma一加η， the number of newly born colts was reported immediately
（Kanbashi，1960）． In the Shogunate and Nanbu−han， peasants had to look for escaped horses
（Yasuda，1955b， Arai，1965）．
A〃2αんゴrequired so many hands fbr its operation that it was almost impossible for peasant
to manage a ranch． In addition， it was meaningless fbr the peasant agriculture to raise
animals in semi・wild state． Consequently， in almost all cases， ranches were organized by state
or local powers． Although some ranches were managed by peasants， they were restricted in
Izu Islands and Tanegashima Islands． Among Izu Islands， Oshima， Niijima， Miyakejima， and
Hach尊qlima had ranches（Mishima，1800，605−7，624，646，0machi，1951，81−6， Yasuda，
1958b）． In Tanegashima Island， besides officia1〃mki・s organized by a lord， some ranches
were managed by peasants（Oyama，1952）．
It should be noted that these ranches were generally organized by village communities．
The community members participated、in repairing of the fence of〃urki and round・up．
Without an organization like this， it would be impossible for peasants to manage it． In
addition， these islands were endowed by only a small area of lands suitable f6r crops．
Most part of them consists of volcanic slopes or terraces which could be used only as grazing
land． Warm climate also favoured the propagation of animals．
ORIGIN OF THE RANCHING IN JAPAN
As stated above， the techno・environmental aspects of the ranching in Japan are consistent
with its socio−economic aspects． Without taking account of these aspects， the ranching
system in Japan could not be understood． Although the〃urki・s like this were managed with
poor technique， they were not original in Japan． In this sense， the origin of the ranching
system in Japan should be pursued．
The ranching system in Japan can be traced back to the beginning of the 8th century at
least． According to the code which was prolnulgated in 701 and was revised in 718， the
imperial state established official〃mkゴーs（Kumoku ryo）． In these〃utkゴーs， horses and cattle
were raised． The text of this code said that 100 animals should form a unit herd and two
men were put on watch for them． They had to get 60 colts or calves per a unit herd every
year． If more was born， they were rewarded． There were also detailed provisions concerning
death and loss of animals． Although it did not directly mention or round・up， it is note−
worthy that branding was practiced． At this time， the peasants who resided near〃uαki were
called out． Probably， animals might be branded after the round−up， which required many
hands． The characteristics and the number ofhorses had to be registered． In addition， it was
prescribed to burn grazing lands in order to maintain grassland． The explanatory notes on
this code mentioned on feeding livestock in winter（Ryo no shu ge）， but there were no
provisions concerning the feed of animals． Perhaps， this comment might be applied only to
maki−s in snowy regions． The ．horses bred in official〃urki・s were mainly supplied to army
co「ps・
Areport on a〃utki in 968 indicates that animals were rounded up（Miyoshi，12th c．，
XXI，480・1）． When horses were gathered at a certain place inside the〃ldki， it was found that
一33一
■
350f 86 registered horses had been killed． This fact denotes that animals were raised very
extensively． In winter， they might be put to graze out of the〃utkt’． Some fragmental
documents denotes that〃mkゴ・s were enclosed by fences． In this age， some of them were put
out of use because the animals in it had damaged croplands（Nishioka，1929，305−29，
Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928，1，208−9）．
AIthough this institution of officia1〃tαki declined later， private〃utkゴーs organized by
nobles or powerful clans succeeded to the essential features of it（Nishioka，1929，329−470）．
These〃zakゴ・s played an important role in the formation of warrior or samuraゴclass．
Mori（1953，27−32，1969，1，1248−51）says that according to Kumoku ip，・o，some〃ηゼ・s in
Tohoku district were organized by feudal lords after the 12th century． Some of them were
directly inherited by Nanbu・加ηin the Tokugawa Era． At the same time， the technique
concerning operation of maki was transmitted． Like this， the ranching technique might be
handed down to posterity in the other districts．
On the other hand， it is well known that the state organizations in Japan were modelled
after the manner of China in this age． Its code or‘‘Ritsu・ryo”was also modelled on the
Sui and the Tang Dynasty． The provisions in Kumoku町アo resembled to those of Tang．
Consequently， the organization of〃zαki and the way to raise livestock might be almost the
same（On the provisions concerning the〃mkゴgf the Tang Dynasty， see Niida，1933，
697−712）．In the official〃mki−s of the Tang Dynasty， horses， cattle， camels， mules donkeys，
and sheep were raised． Of course， horses fbr military use was the most important livestock．
120horses or cattle fbrmed a unit herd， which was taken care of by a man． He had to get
60colts or calves per a hundred mares or cows every year． In addition， horses were branded．
There were also some provisions on death and loss oflivestock． It denotes that animals were
raised extensively like in Japan．
Although the official〃2αんゴin China can be traced back to the age of the Chou Dynasty，
its details are not known（Tani，1972，1）． However， according to an inscription horses put to
graze were captured in spring and autumn． Then， they were trained（Hayashi，1959，303−6）．
This might be a round・up． After that， the institution of the official ranch was lasted till the
Ch’ing Dynasty（Tani，1972，1−24）．
It should be noted that in China also， livestock for official use were not always supplied
only from these ranches． The Han Dynasty bought horses from peasants and put some horses
under their charges in order to encourage horse breeding． In addition， this dynasty
conquered pastoral peoples and confiscated their animals in the northwestem frontier in
those days． At the peacetime， horses w6re imported from these peoples（Miyagawa，1947）．
After that， these policies might be fbllowed by many dynasties． After the age of the Sung
Dynasty， the stat6 established definitely the institution to lend horses to peasants（Sogabe，
1959，Tani，1972）．
Thus， it is sure that the ranching system was imported from China before the 8th century．
Even if in Japan it was almost impossible to import animals from fbreign countries，
1ivestock fbr of行cial use was supplied in the same way as in China．
RANCHING AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
The history of the ranching system in Japan starts with the official〃utki−s of the imperial
state befbre the beginning of the 8th century． Since then， the distribution of the maki−s had
changed gradually． This change relates closely to the development of cultural landscape．
In this section， the role of the〃urkゴ・s in the formation of cultural landscape is discussed．
＿34一
In genera1， land which could be used intensively， namely cultivable land was reclaimed
first． In Japan， paddy rice cultivation has been the most important． The major part of aral）le
land has been occupied by paddy fields， which have been mainly located on alluvial plains．
It was one of the most important factors whether irrigation water could be av丑able or not．
On the other hand， the land use in ranches was very extensive， and the〃urki−s were located
mainly on lands unsuitable for paddy rice cultivation． The example of Mito・加ηdenotes this
principle sufficiently． The Ono・〃urki was set up oll flat topped mountains that are some
600metres high， where it is possible to cultivate the paddy fields only in the narrow valley
bottom． The Sakurano・〃mki was located on diluvial terrace，30 m above sea leve1． Water
available for irrigation of paddy fields is defficient on this terrace． Even if this terrace is wide
and flat， for this reason it was waste land where peasants gathered green manure and
∬rewood in the Tokugawa Era．
On the one hand， even the alluvial plain might be used as makゴin the remote region which
had not been cleared． In other words，〃mki was located in the marginal land． It had shifted
its site with the development of intensive land use．
The sites of〃ldki−s mentioned in Kumokuリノo are known only partly． It is certain that
in this age，〃zaki−s were set up at least in 23 provinces． But only several namgs of these
makゴーs appear in the documents（Nishioka，1929，312−3）． This institution of〃uαki declined
during the fbllowing two centuries， partly because the army corps to which animals were
provided decayed， partly because the development of agriculture prevented the continuance
of some㎜んゴーs． As stated above， several〃utki・s were put out of use fbr the reason that their
livestock did damage to crops around them． These〃urkゴーs might be converted into arable
land later（Nishioka，1929，313−25）．
After that， the institution of official〃mki was recompiled． The laws and regulations，
‘‘
dngi−shiki”（10th c．，708−9，827，973−4）show some facts concerning officia1〃taki・s in
those days． They were classified into three categories． Firstly，‘‘kan−mald”or‘‘shokoku。
maki”was official maki in a narrow sense． Secondly，‘‘mi・maki”or‘‘chokushi・maki”was
imperia1． The‘‘kinto・maki”was the third one． Former two provided animals to the central
government and the imperial court． The livestock which was sent from them was raised in
the kin tq−maki−s for a short time． So， they were set up near Kyoto which’had been the
capital of Japan． The other〃mki−s were located in relatively remote regions（Fig．5）．
Nishioka argues that the distribution of〃mki−s had changed since the 8th century， and this
change is due to the agricultural development in the regions near the capital（Nishioka，
1929，316−25）．The sites of〃urki−s in this age can not be exactly known’． Many writers
suppose that they were located on islands， peninsulas， fans， volcanic slopes， terraces， small
valley bottoms， or flood plains（Masuda，1934， Takigawa，1957， Yasuda，1959a， Fujimori，
1970，Shibata，1975，204−17）．
Since then， the kan−〃uαki， in the first place， and the next〃2ゴー〃mki andん’η’o−〃zaki declined
because of the neglect of duty of〃utki officials． In the beginning of the l l th century， even
mi−〃urki could hardly work． During this period， horses were tributed from some provinces．
Many horses were provided also by trade from Mutsu Province to the imperial court． This
fact denotes that horse breeding regions shifted into remoter areas（Nishioka，1929，329−85，
Fig．4）．
On the one hand， private〃2αん’・s came into existence since the 8th century． They were
organized by nobles or powerful clans． In them， crop production developed besides stock
breeding， and grazjng land was brought under cultivation gradually． Later， almost all of
these〃mkゴ・s might become the manors or‘‘shoen”−s（Nishioka，1929，385−438）．
After that， although the names of some〃mki−s appear on occasion in documents， it is
＿35一
difficult to show the distribution of〃ηゼーs． However， in this period，丘om the end of the
12th to 16 century， many feudal lords organized〃vakゴ・s． Horses bred in them played an
important role in the military affaires（Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928，1，847−62， kimura＆
Saito，1955，212）． 、
Although insufficiently， the distribution of〃ldkt’−s of the Tokugawa Era（a丘er the 17th
Century）can be shown． On some〃mki・s only their names are known． In addition， the period
when they worked．was various． In Fig．6， almost all the〃mkゴ・s set up in the Tokugawa Era
are shown． These contain besides those organized directly by the Shogunate or加η一s， some
〃η窺・swhich can be called official〃utki・s． For example， those of Hagi・加ηwere set up by
the vassa1S of it and the lord of this乃an authorized them． In Satsuma。肋η，some chief vassals
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Fig．5：Distribution of the officia1〃iaki−s in
the 10th C．， from Nishioka＆
Hattori（1956）．
1．shokokiかmakゴ（horse）． 2．shokoku−〃iaRゴ（cattle）．
3。〃2i−maki・4・ん∫η’o−maki． 5．boundary of provinces．
Fig．6：Distribution of the official maki−sin the
Tokugawa Era．
一36一
established〃η窺・s for themselves． The official〃utkt’・s in Tanegashima Island were organized
like this． In addition， a small number of〃urki・s have not basic features of ranching． For
example， in〃urkゴーs of Tsugaru・han， horses were put to graze only in daytime from spring to
autumn． They were accompanied by peasant watchmen． In winter， peasants raised them in
stable（Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， II，267−307， III，100−−24）． In some〃ldki−s of Nanbu−
han，1ivestock was fed in stable during winter by peasants． However， horses were rounded up
in autumn like the other〃uαki−s（Teikoku Keiba Kyokai，1928， III，214−7）． In the〃urki・s
of Akita・加n and Shinjo・han where snow falls heavily in winter， animals might be fed in
stable in winter． Most of maki・s were located in the area which is free from heaVy snowfall．
So， even if insufficient， the grass to graze was not exhausted． Yasuda（1958a）argues that the
distribution of〃uαki・s where animals were put to graze at all seasons was determined by
such a climatic condition．
By comparison with the distribution of them stated in Engi Shiki， these maki−s are fbund
in even remoter regions． It is noteworthy that some〃utkt’・s’ were set up in Hokkaido at the
end of the Tokugawa Era． The islands in the Seto Inland Sea， where〃mki・s were set up in
ancient times， might be brought under cultivation before the l 7th Century． Maki−s of the
Tokugawa Era were set up on other small uninhabited islands． In the Kanto Plain and at the
foot of Mt． Fuji， there were several〃utkt’・s organized by the Shogunate． The lands where
they occupied are unsuitable for agriculture， especially paddy rice cultivation． Extensive
diluvial terraces in the Kanto Plain and volcanic slopes as on the foot of Mt． F両i were
available only for grazing．
As shown in the Table， most of official〃utki・s in the Tokugawa Era were located at hills，
terraces or volcanic slopes． Mountains were rarely utilized as〃uαki・s． In mountains， it is
difficult to erect and maintain a fence or a dyke as in the case of Ono・〃urkt’of Mito・han．
Furthermore， complicated land fbrms made it difficult to manipulate the stud． In addition，
the Shogunate and han・s were able to requisition easily the lands which had been utilized for
various purposes like taking green manure and firewood by peasants． Thus， official〃mkt’・s
occupied law lands suitabe for grazing．
These〃2αんゴ・s were almost put out of use at the Meiji Restoration and confiscated by the
new government． After that， a considerable part of terraces and hills which had been utilized
as〃η窺一s was converted to cropland． Early in the Tokugawa Era， some part of makゴーs of the
Shogunate in the Kanto Plain was brought under cultivation． But it was prohibited to do so
freely fgr the horse−breeding（Yasuda，1959b）． After the Meiji Restoration， the government
encouraged cultivation of them． Thus， the rest of them was rapidly converted to arable land
（Shirahama，1963）． At present， these lands are urbanized swifUy as suburbs of Tokyo． The
land of fbrmer Ono−〃utki of Mito一加ηwas also confiscated by the new government． But it
was soon sold to the Tokugawas who had been the lord’s lineage of Mito−han and utilized、as
grazing land（Namatame，1969）． At present， it is aff6rested systematically． In the land of
f（）rmer Sakurano−〃utki， a dairy farm was set up after the Meiji Restoration（Kidota et al，
ed．，1973，14−5，69−86）． A．considerable part of the fbrmer〃2α短一s of Satsuma・加ηwas
brought under cultivation， too（K neko，1935）． These facts denote that some officia1
〃takt’−s had prevented the development of agricultural landscape．
It should be noted that some〃vaki−s exerted an influence on the landscape around them．
Near Ono・maki of Mitohan， peasants had to fence arable land against its escaped horses as
stated above． After that， the fencing system like this was inherited． Peasants raised livestock
in an open range until fifteen years ago． In Kitano−〃mkt’ of Nanbu・han，no fence was erected
to enclose it． Peasants around it had to defend crops with fence（Mori，1969，1，1252−61）．
In Oshima of Izu Islands， peasants raised in an open range horses and cattle． They erected
＿37一
dyke around arable land． This dyke remains almost unchanged．
SUMMARY
In this article， a type stock raising in Japan was discussed． This type of stock raising
which had been managed mainly by state or local powers can be regarded as a kind of
ranching． Animals raised in semi−wild state were captured by round・up like in that of the
New World．
The ranching in Japan had been a part of traditional stock raising system in contrast to
that in庫e New World， where it is an important type of modern stock raising． In Japan， the
ranching was abandoned with the collapse of the traditional stock raising system． Most of
the official maki−s were put out of use at the Meiji Restoration． At the present， only the
Misaki・〃uαkゴof the fbrmer Takanabe・han is maintained by peasants． But it is now a sight・
seeing place for its famous semi・wild horses．
The ranching system in Japan was imported from China． Its techno−environmental
features were in consistent with the socio・economic conditions． Although the ranching is
frequently associated with the New World mode of stock raising， it could exist under
completely different techno−environmental and socio・economic conditions in East Asia．
In this sense， state ranches like in Japan might exist in states which had been modelled after
China， f6r example， in Korea and Vietnam．
The role of the ranching in the formation of cultural landscape in Japan is similar to that
in the New World as a whole． Ranches had been set up in the marginal areas and had
prevented the development of agricultural landscape to a certain extent．
This article is dedicated to Prof． Saburo Noma who encouraged the author’s studies on
stock raising．
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Takigawa， M．（1939）：Milk and milk production of ancient Japan． in Takigawa：ハ「ih6n shakOi keizaishi
ronko． Tokyo，249−89．＊
（1957）：Maki−s on the sides of river Yodo in Acient Age． Seikei Ronso（Kokugakuin Univ．），6，
1−30．＊
Tani， M．（1972）：、4∫如めノon horse adn励istrationゴn the〃Ming Period． Oriental Research Seτies， Kyoto，
26．＊＊
Teik・k・K・ib・Ky・k・i・d・（1928）・Nih・・bU・・’謝働’9馴・fh・rse・admi・i・t・ati・n・f」a卿ノ． T・ky・，
5vols．＊
Urakawa・maki ikken（Documents on Urakawa・maki）．（19th c．）， in Ono ed．（1969）：Kinsei／t’kOta keizai
∫雇リノo．Tokyo，6，27−161．＊
Wheatley， P．（1965）：Anote on the extension of milking practice into Southeast Asia during the first
millenium A． D． Anthroρos，60，577−90．
Yamaguchi， A． ed．（1958）：Hirato・han h orei kishiki shusei rA co〃θc’わn of la ws and regUlatio〃∫qプ」Virato−
hanノ． Nagasaki，3vols．＊
Yasuda， H．（1955）：Historico−geographical study of the Nine Pastures of Nanbu−han in recent times．
ノ4nnals o∫〃le T（）hoku Geograρhical／4 ssociation，8，2，69−76．＊＊
（1958a， b）：Historico−geographical study on the Okitsuke grazing in the Tokugawa Era in Japan
（1）・（2）・Bu”etin of the Faet〃tjソρノLiberal Arts， Fukushi〃la 伽か．，9−1，25−54．，．Anna’s qプthe
Tohoku（｝eographical Associa tion，11，7−11．＊
（1959a）： Histolico−geographical study on grazing of ancient Japan． Bu〃etinρブthe、Faculリノ｛ガ
Liberal！4rts，・飽κπ∫伽2θ伽v．，10−1，1−18．＊
（1959b）：Historico−geographical study on the cultivation of Koganehara， Shimofusa Province． in
Ka〃llatsu ni kansuru（〕h ilゼ8ピaku’ekゴsho〃zo〃dai． Sendai．17−25．＊
（1960a）：Horse l）reeding in south Tohoku district． in Chihoshi Kenkyu Kyogikai ed．， Nihon
sangyoshi ttガkei． Tokyo，3，188−96．＊
（1960b）：On the so called Myoken Shinba no Maki， in Soma of Tohoku district． Bu〃ε伽qf the
Faeu’ty ofLゴわε雇肋3， Fukushima Univ．，11−1，1−13．＊
＊in Japanese＊＊ in Japane se with EngliSh abstract
一40一
＿41一

Chapter 7 The Mongols

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