JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics
JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and
Linguistics
Phonology & Phonetics (4)
Phonological Rules
A phoneme (or a sequence of phonemes)
may be realized in different ways (as different
phones/sequences of phones).
The alternation between allophones is
generally conditioned by phonological (or
morpho-phonological) rule.
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules refer to phonological
contexts (surrounding the target phoneme)
only.
E.g. “A voiceless stop sound becomes
aspirated when it occurs in the initial position
of a stressed syllable (in English)”
–
/p/, /t/, /k/ ⇒ [ph], [th], [kh]
Phonological Rules
Morpho-phonological rules refer to specific
expressions or classes of expressions.
E.g. The plural marker -s /z/ is realized as:
–
–
[əz] when it follows (a noun that ends with) /s/, /z/,
/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, or /ʤ/ (aces, quizzes, churches)
otherwise:
–
[s] when it follows a voiceless consonant (chips, kicks)
otherwise:
[z] (sofas, kegs)
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
#1 Devoicing Rule
1. A high vowel (/i/ or /ɯ/) is voiceless when (i)
it follows a voiceless consonant and (ii)
either it precedes a voiceless consonant or
it occurs at the end of a word
2. Otherwise, it is voiced.
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
くさ: /kɯsa/ → [kɯsa]
くま: /kɯma/ → [kɯma]
くし: /kɯsi/ → [kɯʃi]
きし: /kisi/ → [kjiʃi]
キス: /kisɯ/ → [kjisɯ]
ストライク: /sɯtoraikɯ/ → [sɯtoɾaikɯ]
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
#2 Nasal Assimilation
1.
/N/ is realized the nasal sound that shares the
same place of articulation as the immediately
preceding consonant.
2.
When /N/ is not followed by any consonant, it is
realized either as [ɴ] or [ŋ]
“Assimilation” is a phenomenon whereby a
phonetic feature (p-o-a, voicing, etc.) extends to a
neighboring sound.
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
本 (ほん) /hoN/ ⇒ [hoɴ] (～ [hoŋ])
散歩 (さんぽ) /saNpo/ ⇒ [sampo]
引退 (いんたい) /iNtai/ ⇒ [intai]
天気 (てんき) /teNki/ ⇒ [teŋki]
こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ ⇒ [konjnjiʧiwa]
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
#3 Alveolar Alternation (1)
1.
/t/ is realized as [ʦ] when it is followed by /ɯ/.
2.
/t/ is realized as [ʧ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/).
3.
Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [t].
#4 Alveolar Alternation (2)
1.
/s/ is realized as [ʃ] when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/).
2.
Otherwise, /s/ is realized as [s].
#5 Alveolar Alternation (3)
1.
/z/ is realized as [ʒ] (or [ʤ]) when it is followed by /i/ (or /j/).
2.
Otherwise, /z/ is realized as [z] (or [ʣ]).
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
ik-ɯ (行く; u-verb)
–
–
–
–
行かない: ik-ana-i ⇒ ikanai
行きます: ik-imas-ɯ ⇒ ik(j)imasɯ
行く: ik-ɯ ⇒ ikɯ
行けば: ik-eba ⇒ ikeba
kat-ɯ (勝つ; u-verb)
–
–
–
–
勝たない: kat-ana-i ⇒ katanai
勝ちます: kat-imas-ɯ ⇒ kaʧimasɯ
勝つ: kat-ɯ ⇒ kaʦɯ
勝てば: kat-eba ⇒ kateba
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
kas-ɯ (貸す; u-verb)
–
–
–
–
貸さない: kas-ana-i → kasanai
貸します: kas-imas-ɯ → kaʃimasɯ
貸す: kas-ɯ → kasɯ
貸せば: kas-eba → kaseba
判ずる (はんずる, infer) [hanzɯrɯ] vs. 判じ物
(はんじもの, puzzle) [hanʒimono]
[asi] vs. [aʃi]; [azi] vs. [aʒi]
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
堺 (さかい) [sakai] vs. 社会 (しゃかい) [ʃakai]
–
–
堺: /sakai/
社会: /ʃakai/ (option 1) or /sjakai/ (option 2)
田 (た) [ta] vs. 茶 (ちゃ) [ʧa]
–
–
田: /ta/
茶: /ʧa/ or /tja/
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
#6 「ハ行」 Alternation
1. /h/ is realized as [ɸ] when it is followed by
/ɯ/.
2. /h/ is realized as [ç] when it is followed by /i/
(or /j/).
3. Otherwise, /t/ is realized as [h].
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
[hɯ] vs. [ɸɯ]; [hi] vs. [çi]
判 [haɴ] vs. ファン [ɸaɴ]
–
–
判: /haN/
ファン: /ɸaN/ (option 1) or /hwaN/ (option 2)
履く [hakɯ] vs. 百 [çakɯ]
–
–
履く: /hakɯ/
百: /çakɯ/ (option 1) or /hjakɯ/ (option 2)
(Morpho-)phonological Rules in
Japanese
#7 Conjugation Rules (morpho-phonological rules)
–
Verbal roots ending with a consonant (ru-verbs; 一段動詞)
–
Verbal roots ending with a consonant (u-verbs; 五段動詞)
–
借りる (kari-rɯ), やめる (jame-rɯ), 助ける (tasuke-rɯ), …
書く (kak-ɯ), 待つ (mat-ɯ), 知る (sir-ɯ), 買う (kaw-ɯ), …
Irregulars
来る
する(, 批判する, 勉強する, …)
7-1. plain present (non-past) form
The sequence of a verb root (VR; 語幹 (ごかん)) and
the present marker (morpheme) /rɯ/ is realized as:
1.
[VR + rɯ] when the verb root ends with a vowel;
2.
[VR + ɯ] when the verb root ends with a
consonant.
Pairs (tuples) of forms like [rɯ] and [ɯ] are called
allomorphs.
Similar pairs of allomorphs
–
–
–
–
–
[na] (tabe-na-i) and [ana] (kak-ana-i)
[ɾeba] (tabe-ɾeba) and [eba] (kak-eba)
[sase] (tabe-sase-ɾɯ) and [ase] (kak-ase-ɾɯ)
[ɾaɾe] (tabe-ɾaɾe-ɾɯ) and [aɾe] (kak-aɾe-ɾɯ)
[mas] (tabe-mas-ɯ) and [imas] (kak-imas-ɯ)
7-2. plain past form
The sequence of a verb root (VR) and the past
marker (morpheme) /ta/ is realized as:
1. [VR + ta] when the verb root ends with a
vowel;
2. Otherwise …
If the root ends with a velar consonant (/k/ or
/g/) or /s/, insert /i/ after it (insertion)
If the root ends with a sequence of a velar
consonant and /i/, delete the velar consonant
(deletion)
–
–
–
/kak+ta/ → /kaki+ta/ → /kai+ta/ ⇒ [kaita] (書いた)
/ojog+ta/ → /ojog+da/ → /ojogi+da/ → /ojoi+da/ ⇒
[ojoida] (泳いだ)
/hanas+ta/ → /hanas+i+ta/ ⇒ [hanaʃita] (泳いだ)
If the root ends with /t/, /r/, or /w/, replace it with /Q/ (trw→Q)
–
–
–
/kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った)
/kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った)
/kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った)
If the root ends with a voiced consonant, change /ta/ into /da/
(voicing)
If the root ends with /b/, /m/ or /n/, replace it with /N/ (bmn→N)
–
–
–
/job+ta/ → /job+da/ → /joN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (呼んだ)
/jom+ta/ → /jom+da/ → /joN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (読んだ)
/ʃin+ta/ → /ʃin+da/ → /ʃiN+da/ ⇒ [jonda] (読んだ)
A note on /Q/
If the root ends with /t/, /r/ or /w/, replace it with /Q/
(trw→Q)
–
–
–
/kat+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った)
/kaer+ta/ → /kaeQ+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った)
/kaw+ta/ → /kaQ+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った)
If the root ends with /r/ or /w/, replace it with /t/
(rw→t)
–
–
–
/kat+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (勝った)
/kaer+ta/ → /kaet+ta/ ⇒ [kaetta] (帰った)
/kaw+ta/ → /kat+ta/ ⇒ [katta] (買った)
A note on /Q/
Why do we want the phoneme /Q/?
–
–
いっぱい [ippai]: /ippai/ or /iQpai/?
いったい [ittai]: /ittai/ or /iQtai/?
an alternative rule: a sequence of two
occurrences of the same consonant is
realized as a single long consonant.
*[iptai] (cf. captain [cæptən])
coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/}
A note on /Q/
Transformation Rules: change a phonemic
representation into another phonemic representation
(→)
Realization Rules: connect a phonemic
representation and a phonetic representation (⇒)
(e.g. /si/ ⇒ [ʃi])
The サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ハ行 alternation rules & the nasal
assimilation rule are “realization rules”
The final phase of transformations should not
contain a syllable ending with a consonant other
than /Q/ or /N/.
Rule orderings
trw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion
/job+ta/ → (voicing) /job+da/ → (bmn→N)
joN+da/
/job+ta/ → (bmn→N) /joN+ta/ → (voicing)
/joN+da/
Rule Orderings
-
insertion should apply before deletion
/kak+ta/ → (deletion) (n/a) /kak+ta/ →
(insertion) /kak+i+ta/ ⇒ *[kak(j)ita]
/kak+ta/ → (insertion) /kak+i+ta/ → (deletion)
/ka+i+ta/ ⇒ [kaita]
Rule Orderings
-
voicing should apply before insertion
insertion should apply before deletion
/ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (deletion)
/ojoi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a) /ojoi+ta/ ⇒ *[ojoita]
/ojog+ta/ → (insertion) /ojogi+ta/ → (voicing) (n/a)
/ojogi+ta/ → (deletion) /ojoi+ta/ ⇒ *[ojoita]
/ojog+ta/ → (voicing) /ojog+da/ → (insertion)
/ojogi+da/ → (deletion) /ojoi+da/ ⇒ [ojoida]
Alternative past tense formation rules (from
Yookoso):
–
–
–
–
–
–
If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it.
If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/.
If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/.
If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put /Qta/.
If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and put /Nda/.
If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.
Alternative past tense formation rules:
–
–
–
–
–
–
If the root ends with a vowel, put /ta/ after it.
If the root ends with /k/, delete it and put /ita/.
If the root ends with /g/, delete it and put /ida/.
If the root ends with /w/, /t/, or /r/, delete it and put
/Qta/.
If the root ends with /n/, /m/, or /b/, delete it and
put /Nda/.
If the root ends with /s/, put /ita/.
Lessons
The purpose of a reference grammar (a
grammar for learners) is to help learners
acquire ability to speak the language.
Theoretical linguistics, on the other hand,
seeks to identify grammatical rules that are
stored in speakers’ minds. (e.g. Are there
such things as phonological transformational
rules?)
cf. coach vs. physiologist
A practical application?
trw→Q, voicing, bmn→N, insertion, deletion
#1, #2, #3, #4, #5 (Dialect A)
#1, #2, #3’, #5 (Dialect B)
#1’, #2, #3’, #4, #5 (Dialect C)
#1’, #3’, #6 (Dialect D)
Sequential Voicing (連濁)
小 ko + 太鼓 taiko → 小太鼓 kodaiko
竹 take + さお sao → 竹ざお takezao
鼻 hana + 血 ʧi → 鼻血 hanaʒi (hanaʤi)
狸 tanɯkji + 汁 ʃiɾɯ → 狸汁 tanɯkjiʒiɾɯ
(tanɯkiʤiɾɯ)
本 hoɴ + 箱 hako → 本箱 hombako
旅 tabji + 人 çito → 旅人 tabjibjito
草 kɯsa + 笛 ɸɯe → 草笛 kɯsabɯe
/s/ → /z/
/t/ → /d/
/k/ → /g/
/h/ → /b/
s → z/ʣ
ʃ → ʒ/ʤ
t→d
ʧ → ʒ/ʤ
ʦ → z/ʣ
k→g
h→b
ç →b
ɸ→b
Constraint #1: The SV rule applies only when
the second member of a compound is a
native word (和語), rather than a SinoJapanese word (漢語) or a loan word (外来
語).
–
–
–
貧乏神 (びんぼうがみ) vs. 貧乏性 (びんぼうしょう)
安部屋 (やすべや) vs. 安ホテル
Exceptions: 貿易会社 (ぼうえきがいしゃ), 歌ガルタ,
山ギャンプ (?)
Constraint #2 (Lyman’s law): The SV rule
does not apply when the second member of
a compound has a voiced stop, fricative, or
affricate.
–
–
不思議 (ふしぎ) + 蜥蜴 (とかげ) = ??
不思議 (ふしぎ) + 花 (はな) = ??
Constraint #3 (Right Branching Condition):
The SV rule applies only when a potential
target is in a right branch constituent at the
lowest level.
8
4
1
2
3
5
6
7
[[塗り + 箸] + 入れ] vs. [塗り + [箸 + 入れ]]
ぬり
ばし
いれ
ぬり
はし
いれ
[ふしぎ + とり]?
–
[ふしぎ + [とり + もち]]?
–
大干し芋
[[きちょう + ほん] + たな]?
–
不思議鳥もち
[おお + [ほし + いも]]?
–
不思議鳥
貴重本棚
[[なま + こめ] + はこ]?
–
生米箱
Constraint #4: The SV rule does not apply
when two members of a compound are
semantically juxtaposed.
–
–
草木 (くさき) vs. 草笛 (くさぶえ)
田畑 (たはた) vs. 田亀 (たがめ)
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