JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics
JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and
Linguistics
Phonology & Phonetics (3)
Phonemically (Phonologically) …
Phonemes (vowels) in American English:
–
–
–
/i/, /u/, /ɝ/, /eɪ/, /oʊ/, /ɔɪ/, /aʊ/, /aɪ/(, /ju/)
/ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʊ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ/, /ɔ/
/ə/
Phonemes (vowels) in Japanese:
–
–
/a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/
Some scholars consider /a:/, /i:/, /ɯ:/, /e:/, /o:/ (as
in おばあさん, イースター, etc.) distinct vowel
phonemes.
Phonemic inventory of consonants in
General American English:
–
–
–
–
–
/p/, /t/, /k/; /b/, /d/, /g/
/m/, /n/, /ŋ/
/f/, /θ/, /s/; /v/, /ð/, /z/
/ʧ/, /ʤ/
/l/, /r/; /w/, /j/
Phonemic inventory of consonants in Japanese
There are opposing ideas, in particular in relation to
the treatment of 拗音 (ようおん)
–
–
直音 (ちょくおん): カ・キ・ク・ケ・コ
拗音 (ようおん): キャ・キュ・キョ
To identify the set of phonemes in a language is not
a trivial matter. The “ground rules” are:
1.
2.
To minimize the number of phonemes
To minimize the number of phonological rules
Option 1 (assumed by Tsujimura)
Step 1
Each 行 (ぎょう) in 50音図, except for ア行,
corresponds to one consonant. (拗音’s and
“ん”, ”っ”, “ー” are put aside)
カ・ガ・サ・ザ・タ・ダ・ナ・ハ・パ・バ・マ・ヤ・ラ・ワ
/k/, /g/, /s/, /z/ ([z], [ʣ]), /t/, /d/, /n/, /h/, /p/, /b/,
/m/, /j/, /r/ ([ɾ], [l], [r]), /w/
Step 2
The following sounds are realized by
phonological rules (there is good evidence to
believe that such phonological rules exist)
–
–
–
–
[ʃ] in シ (an allophone of /s/)
[ʤ] in ジ (an allophone of /z/)
[ʧ] in チ, [ʦ] in ツ (allophones of /t/)
[ç] in ヒ, [ɸ] in フ (allophones of /h/)
Step 3
additional phonemes for 拗音’s
/kj/, /gj/, /nj/, /mj/, /rj/ (class 1; palatalized
consonants)
–
–
–
–
–
客 (きゃく), 急 (きゅう), 今日 (きょう)
逆 (ぎゃく), 牛丼 (ぎゅうどん), 業界 (ぎょうかい)
蒟蒻 (こんにゃく), 入院 (にゅういん), 女房 (にょうぼう)
ミャンマー, ミュージック, 茗荷 (みょうが)
略す (りゃくす), 竜 (りゅう), 旅館 (りょかん)
/ʧ/, /ʦ/, /ʃ/, /ʤ/, /ç/, /ɸ/ (class 2)
–
–
–
–
–
–
茶 (ちゃ), 注意 (ちゅうい), チェス, 調子 (ちょうし)
おとっつぁん, ツァーリ, カンツォーネ
車庫 (しゃこ), 週末 (しゅうまつ), シェーク, 商売 (しょうばい)
じゃこ, 十 (じゅう), ジェスチャー, 女性 (じょせい)
百 (ひゃく), 日向 (ひゅうが), 氷河 (ひょうが)
ファイル, フィン, フェリー, フォーク
[ʧ] in チ is a phonetic realization of /t/, while [ʧ] in チャ,
チュ, チェ, チョ is a phonetic realization of /ʧ/
Similarly for /ʦ/, /ʃ/, /ʤ/, /ç/, /ɸ/
Option 1’
Consonants in キ・ギ・ニ・ミ・リ too are
phonetically palatalized (like those in キャ・
ギャ・ニャ・ミャ・リャ, etc.).
–
–
木々 (きぎ) [kjigji]
二ミリ (にみり) [njimjirji] ([ɲimjirji])
In other words, [kj], [gj], [nj] ([ɲ]), [mj], [rj] can
be either (i) phonetic realizations of /k/, /g/,
/n/, /m/, /r/ or (ii) phonetic realizations of /kj/,
/gj/, /nj/ (/ɲ/), /mj/, /rj/
Option 2
(Step 1 and Step 2 are the same as before)
Step 3
拗音’s have phonemic representations of the form:
/CjV/, where
–
–
–
C ∈ {k, g, s, z, t, d, n, h, p, b, m, r}
V ∈ {a, ɯ, (e,) o})
e.g. 客 /kjakɯ/
Additional rule:
–
–
CjV → CjV (where Cj is the palatalized counterpart of C)
kja → kja
Modification of an existing rule:
–
s → ʃ / ___ i or j
–
C[+p]jV → C[+p]V (where C[+p] is a palatal or alveo-palatal consonant)
–
sja → ʃja
ʃja → ʃa
(similarly: t → ʧ, d → ʤ, h → ç)
The number of phonemes can be largely reduced; namely, we
can dispense with /kj/, /gj/, /nj/, /mj/, /rj/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/, /ç/.
/ʦ/ and /ɸ/ are still needed.
/ɸ/ can, however, re-analyzed as /hw/:
–
hwV → ɸV (e.g. hwa → ɸa)
Special phonemes
/R/ (corresponds to “ー”)
/Q/ (corresponds to “っ”/“ッ”)
/N/ (corresponds to “ん”/ “ン”)
/R/ (引く音): realized as lengthening of the preceding
vowel:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
ラーメン /raRmeN/ ⇒ [ɾa:meɴ]
お母さん (おかあさん) /okaRsaN/ ⇒ [oka:saɴ]
お爺さん (おじいさん) /oziRsaN/ ⇒ [oʣi:saɴ]
空気 (くうき) /kɯRki/ ⇒ [kɯ:kji]
お姉さん (おねえさん) /oneRsaN/ ⇒ [one:saɴ]
名刺 (めいし) /meRsi/ ⇒ [me:ʃi]
狼 (おおかみ) /oRkami/ ⇒ [o:kamji]
砂糖 (さとう) /satoR/ ⇒ [sato:]
/Q/ (つまる音): realized as lengthening of the
following consonant:
–
sustained closure
–
一杯 (いっぱい) /iQpai/ ⇒ [ippai]
一体 (いったい) /iQtai/ ⇒ [ittai]
一回 (いっかい) /iQkai/ ⇒ [ikkai]
ブッダ /bɯQda/ ⇒ [bɯdda]
バッグ /baQgɯ/ ⇒ [baggu]
エッジ /eQzi/ ⇒ [edʣi]
sustained stricture
必死 (ひっし) /hiQsi/ ⇒ [çiʃʃi]
/N/ (はねる音; 撥音 (はつおん)): realized in various
ways depending on what sound follows it:
–
uvular nasal
–
coarticulatory nasals
–
本 (ほん) /hoN/ ⇒ [hoɴ] (～ [hoŋ])
散歩 (さんぽ) /saNpo/ ⇒ [sampo]
引退 (いんたい) /iNtai/ ⇒ [intai]
天気 (てんき) /teNki/ ⇒ [teŋki]
こんにちは /koNnitiwa/ ⇒ [konjnjiʧiwa]
nasailized vowels
新鋭 (しんえい) /siNei/ ⇒ [ʃiẽei] (～ [ʃiɴei])
恋愛 (れんあい) /reNai/ ⇒ [ɾeãai] (～ [ɾeɴai])
Phonemes in Japanese (Summary)
Option 1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
/a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/
/p/, /t/, /k/; /pj/, /ʧ/, /kj/
/b/, /d/, /g/; /bj/, /ʤ/, /gj/
/m/, /n/; /mj/, /nj/
/s/, /h/, /ɸ/; /ʃ/, /ç/
/z/; /ʒ/
(/ʦ/)
/r/
/j/, /w/
/N/, /Q/, /R/
Phonemes in Japanese (Summary)
Option 2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
/a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/
/p/, /t/, /k/
/b/, /d/, /g/
/m/, /n/
/s/, /h/(, /ɸ/)
/z/
(/ʦ/)
/r/
/j/, /w/
/N/, /Q/, /R/
Syllables and moras
Adjacent phones can form a group.
The most well-known unit of grouping is
“syllable”.
A syllable consists of:
–
–
–
onset: 0, 1, or more consonant
nucleus: 1 vowel (mono-, bi-, or tri- phthongal)
coda: 0, 1, or more consonant
strikes [stɹaɪks]
–
–
–
onset: [stɹ]
Nucleus: [aɪ]
coda: [ks]
owe [oʊ]
–
–
–
onset: φ
nucleus: [oʊ]
coda: φ
Phonotactics
Possible and impossible syllables (phonotactics)
–
–
In English, the sequence of [s] and [t] (in the onset) is
possible, while it is not in Japanese.
In English, sequences like [ts], [ɹt], etc. are not allowed in
the onset (star vs. tsar; tree vs. rtee).
As a ground rule, sonority of sounds must increase
as they approach to the nucleus.
–
stops < fricatives < nasals < approximants (< vowels)
Syllables in Japanese
(Phonologically)
onset (option 1): {φ, C}
onset (option 2): {φ, C (other than /j/, /w/)} +
{φ, /j/, /w/}
nucleus: {V} + {φ, V, /R/}
coda: {φ, /N/, /Q/}
/V/, /VV/, /CV/, /CjV/, /CjVR/, …
Syllables in Japanese
(Phonetically)
onset: {φ, C}
nucleus: {V, VV, V:}
coda: {φ, C}
C in the coda of a word-final syllable must be
a nasal:
–
–
胃 (い), イー, 木 (き), キー, トン, トーン
ひっ.し, げっ.ぷ
胃 (い)
藍 (あい)
イー
木 (き)
キー
トン
トーン
ひっ.し
げっ.ぷ
/V/
/VV/
/VR/
/CV/
/CVR/
/CVN/
/CVRN/
/CVQ.CV/
/CVQ.CV/
[V]
[VV]
[V:]
[CV]
[CV:]
[CVC]
[CV:C]
[CVC.CV]
[CVC.CV]
Moras
“Mora” is a unit larger than phone, but
smaller than syllable.
A syllable consists of one or more mora.
A syllable with more moras is said to be
heavy(er).
E.g., beat is heavier than bit.
Japanese is said to be a mora-timed
language (Each mora has equal length).
English: stress-timed language (A stressed
syllable occurs periodically).
Spanish: syllable-timed language (Each
syllable has equal length).
Each upper case kana, “ー”, and “っ” corresponds to
one mora:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
胃 (い): one syllable, one mora
序 (じょ): one syllable, one mora
貝 (かい): one syllable, two moras
キー: one syllable, two moras
謝意 (しゃい): one syllable, two moras
章 (しょう): one syllable, two moras
案 (あん): one syllable, two moras
作家 (さっか): two syllables, three moras
サッカー: two syllables, four moras
Haiku
5-7-5 (ご・しち・ご):
–
こがらしや 海に夕日を 吹き落とす
(夏目漱石)
–
涼風 (すずかぜ) の 曲がりくねって 来たりけり
(小林一茶)
字余り:
–
すずめの子 そこのけそこのけ お馬が通る
(小林一茶)
–
旅に病 (や) んで 夢は枯 (か) れ野を かけめぐる
(松尾芭蕉)
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