SOUTH-SOUTH TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
LOW CARBON BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES
MARKET ASSESSMENT REPORT
MALAWI
SEPTEMBER 2014
"This material has been funded by UK aid from UK Government’s Department for
International Development under the Knowledge Partnership Programme (KPP).
However the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government’s
official policies”.
We regret any errors or omissions that may have been unwittingly made.
© Maps, photos and illustrations as specified.
Feasibility study undertaken by:
Technology and Action For Rural Advancement, India
Supported in Malawi by:
Centre for Community Organization and Development, Lilongwe, Malawi
Enterprise Development Holdings, Lilongwe, Malawi
Eco Bricks Limited, Selima, Malawi
Indian High Commission at Malawi
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Malawi
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It would not have been possible for the project team of Technology and Action for
Rural Advancement (TARA), Development Alternatives Group; to undertake the
feasibility study for introducing energy efficient and environment friendly building
material technologies in Malawi without the active involvement and assistance of a
number of individuals and organizations.
The Feasibility team would, in particular, like to acknowledge the unflinching support
given by all the staff and management of Centre for Community Organization and
Development (CCODE), Lilongwe, Malawi; Eco Brick Limited, Selima and Enterprise
Development Holdings, Lilongwe, Malawi. We would like to express our sincere
thanks to Peter Schramm, Siku Nkhoma, Cynthia Phiri and Wonderful Hunga, for
supporting us beyond means to undertake the assessment study. Their constant
aspiration of supporting Malawi to explore efficient construction through building
material production inspired the team to achieve the same.
The team gratefully acknowledges the support from various Departments and
Ministries, Government of Malawi especially. National Construction Industry Council,
Ministry of Land, Housing and Urban Development, Ministry of Natural Resources,
Energy and Environment for their interest shown in the feasibility study. Their
interest to take out time and discuss possible means of cooperation with the
implementation team shows their keen support for dissemination of cleaner building
material production technologies for Malawi.
At the end and certainly not because they were the least important, TARA would like
to highlight the crucial role played by building material manufacturers of Malawi in
helping us understand the current situation, identify key issues, estimate the
immense potential for modernization of the brick sector and chart out the way
forward. The openness and alacrity with which they shared information and ideas
was truly remarkable.
Last but not the least, TARA gratefully acknowledges the support provided by
Department of International Development, India and IPE Global, New Delhi for the
assessment study undertaken.
We do hope that the feasibility study will encourage the introduction of new and
sustainable building material technologies in Malawi to build up resilience to cope
with environmental effects in future.
Technology and Action for Rural Advancement
2
FOREWORD
Given the strong South-South Cooperation development dialogue and India’s long
standing presence in assisting development in various regions of the world, DFID
has identified a new model for increased cooperation support to India. The
Knowledge Partnership Programme aims to step up collaboration around ideas,
knowledge, evidence, accountability, technology and innovation, impacting the
delivery of global public goods and services and leverage Indian experiences to
reduce poverty in LDCs.
Development Alternatives Group has been working for the last 3 decades in
developing energy efficient and environment friendly technologies creating
sustainable livelihoods. Technologies developed, tried and tested have been
transferred to many countries in South Asia and Africa. Thus DA Group has
acquired capabilities of re-engineering, home-grown technologies to suit the
developmental needs for South-South countries. In light of this, the Development
Alternatives Group is working a South-South technology transfer assignment for
green building material technologies to Malawi.
The Centre for Community Organization and Development (CCODE) is a non-govt.
organization which works in alliance with Malawi Homeless People’s Federation to
provide affordable housing to all. Over the last decade the construction of houses
has been costly and thereby not affordable at all for the homeless. This has been
mainly due to irregular shape and poor quality bricks, the use of which consumes
high cement from large mortar joints and plastering. Over the last decade CCODE
has been looking at low cost technologies to produce good and affordable quality
building material so that the homeless can live in safer and better conditions.
This assessment conducted by the DA Group in collaboration with Centre of
Community Organization and Development (CCODE), examined the feasibility of
introducing green building material production techniques and methods like the
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln, Micro Concrete Roofing Tiles, RCC Door and Window
Frames etc. in Malawi. It showed that all pre-requisites to transfer this technology to
Malawi exists and the project would have the support of most institutions in the
Malawian housing sector. These low carbon building technologies within the
portfolio of DA Group have potential to deal with the dual challenge of mitigating
GHG emissions while catering to the housing demand through livelihood creation for
poverty alleviation.
3
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CCODE
Centre for Community Organization And Development
DA
Development Alternatives
DEA
Department of Environmental Affairs
DFID
Department for International Development
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GoM
Government of Malawi
GoI
Government of India
IPEG
IPE Global, New Delhi, India
ILLOVO
Illovo Sugar (Malawi) Limited
INR
Indian Rupee
MBS
Malawi Bureau of Standards
MFIs
Micro-finance Institutions
MHC
Malawi Housing Corporation
MIPA
Malawi Investment Promotion Agency
MITPSD
Ministry Of Industry, Trade And Private Sector Development
MWK
Malawian Kwacha
MLHUD
Ministry of Lands, Housing And Urban Development
MNREE
Ministry of Natural Resource, Energy And Environment
NCIC
National Construction Industry Council of Malawi
TARA
Technology And Action For Rural Advancement
TEVETA
Technical Entrepreneurial, Vocational Education And Training Authority
VSBK
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln
4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A land locked country in Southern Africa, Malawi with a population of around 15
million, has one of the highest rate of urbanization at 5.22%. This high rate of
urbanization puts tremendous pressure on the entire building material sector. With
constraints in supply of material both the quality of material and the application in
housing has degraded to an alarming extent resulting in poor quality and increasing
construction costs. It has been estimated that with the current rate of urbanization, a
minimum of 21,000 housing units are required to meet the urban housing
demand.Only looking at walling demands, Malawi will require around 1.7 billion units
of burnt clay bricks annually. If the rural housing demand is also considered then the
annual material consumption will be much more.
There is a rising concern on resource scarcity voiced by both the Malawian
Government and the building material industry. As wood is the prime source of
energy (both domestic and for brick firing), there is immense pressure of
deforestation on the fast depleting forests. Current brick production will required
around 850,000 MT of wood each and every year. At this rate of wood use, entire
Malawi will be deforested within 25-30 years only from brick activity. The increase in
demand will accelerate the deforestation, currently at approximately 1% per annum;
threatening to wipe out all forests in the near future.
The current state of housing has put an immense pressure on the low cost housing
sector. Most often it has reached beyond the means of common beneficiaries. With
constraints in supply of material and demand far outstripping supply, both the quality
of material and the application (house) has degraded to an alarming extent. This has
resulted in poor quality and increasing construction costs. Thus there is a need to
bring about change in the business as usual scenario.
Thus an assessment study was undertaken to study the current status of the market
and the feasibility of introducing cleaner production technologies in the construction
sector in Malawi, espcially for the brick sector.
Housing in Malawi ranges from traditional thatched huts to elaborate multi-roomed
dwellings with running water and satellite television. Most rural homes are made of
unbaked brick (adobe’s) and grass thatched roofs. As we move towards urban
spaces baked-brick homes with metal roofs begin to make an appearance. Only a
third of current urban housing is built of permanent materials It is important that the
Malawian cities do not simply extend the current technologies and systems of
production as different ones are available and may be more appropriate and
sustainable.
The main walling material in Malawi in urban settings is “burnt clay bricks”,
especially for owner driven housing. Poor quality bricks characterised by low
compressive strength and inconsistency in shape, size and colour drastically
impacts the quality of construction and the standard of living. The poor quality leads
to use of excessive mortar, increasing the cost of construction. Use of alternate
materials is sparse, limited only to subsidized construction activities. There is a slow
shift towards the use of concrete blocks spurred on by the proliferation of developer
led construction.
In Malawi, competition in the housing sector is limited and operates under a weak
institutional framework. On account of this, the informal sector plays a vital role in
5
urban housing though difficult to quantify. The informal sector dominates the
construction and housing industry in Malawi, like many developing countries. There
is a small formal sector that caters to some of the high end demand.
The housing and infrastructure sector in Malawi, the prime users of building and
construction materials has a small set of direct stakeholders. The three main sets
are the Government, the private sector and the home owners. The housing sector
currently is dominated by the Government. Even with the advent of private players in
the arena, the Malawi Housing Corporation remains the single largest player in
housing development and construction. The government plays a largely regulatory
role, with MHG taking on the execution responsibility.
The private sector in increasingly becoming an important part of the construction
value chain in Malawi. Moving away from just being material or service providers,
they are now taking on the role of developers. The home owners play an important
role in the sector as they are the largest consumers of building materials. However
they have limited say in the quality and pricing of products. Besides the Government
of Malawi, there is also interest among the international multi and bi lateral
community to work on the housing concerns in Malawi. A priority geography for
many agencies, Malawi with its rapid urbanisation rate has ignited interest in its
housing and construction sector.
With the need to adopt cleaner brick production technologies evident in the country,
the team explored the market potential of the Verticla Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK). The
basic criteria’s used to select the technology were based on production capacity,
fuel type, product quality, investment capacity and ability to tap the carbon market.
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln technology is the most energy efficient technology available
globally till date. Greenhouse gas emissions are also enviably less making it an
obvious choice for the carbon market. VSBK is versatile and can be adapted to any
scale of production. It produces consistent quality bricks with higher returns than
clamp brick production.
From the technical viewpoint there are no issues for designing and construction of a
VSBK in Malawi. However during the initial couple of years, the design and
construction of the VSBK has to be under expert supervision.
Preliminary economic and financial analysis of the VSBK technology shows that it
can be an alternate technology to replace the clamp kilns and stop use of fuelwood.
Although the capital expenses in the range of 8.5-15.5 million MK (depending on the
number of shafts) are much higher compared to clamp (no capex required) kilns, the
payback period will be around 2-3 years (considering 1 year as stabilization and
training period). Even though the price of the VSBK bricks at 15 MK is higher than
the 5 MK clamp bricks available, market intelligence suggests that there is a
willingness to pay among consumers due to the better quality standarized bricks on
offer.
If there are constraints in capital investment or uncertainty in volumes that can be
marketed, an entrepreneur can start with a single-shaft VSBK and add shafts as his
business grows. Moreover the flexibility of the VSBK can meet any production
capacity. For smaller production requirement the shaft size can be changed to suit
the requirement. Thus VSBK is expected to have its own niche market amongst all
the brick production capacities thereby promoting the growth of SME sector in
Malawi. It is also expected that the attractiveness of the VSBK will be more to new
6
entrants in the brick business since reluctance is expected amongst traditional brick
makers until and unless forced by Government policies.
Promotion of VSBK technology will also be a good financial business for financial
institutions and the banking sector. It is estimated that more than 1000 VSBK (single
shaft) are required to replace the clamp technologies only in urban areas. These will
require financing and hence a profitable business. However this requires extensive
support and policy changes from the Malawian Government and bilateral agencies
as the sector is very nascent.
The formal market is small and cannot meet the demands of the people. The
informal market has a cost and convenience advantage but suffers on account of
quality due to the lack of mechanisation. There is a gap that small scale units can
fill. There is very limited evidence of this happening as the entrepreneurial
ecosystem is not well developed. Thus the technology transfer needs to be
integrated with elements of capacity building and hand holding for the enterprises.
India can support this process of technology transfer through building local
capacities to transfer the skills and know-how to local institutions and individuals.
This is essential for the long term sustianablity of the project. Also there is scope for
supporting the development of standards and codes for these bricks. In addition
there is an immense need to develop and adopt policy tools both regulatory and
fiscal to enhance the uptake of the technology among new and exitsing
entrepruners. This is another area, where lessons from India on adoption of cleaner
production technologies can be shared.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 2
FOREWORD ......................................................................................................................... 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 5
1.
MALAWI – A BRIEF PROFILE ....................................................................................... 10
2.
MALAWI BRICK SECTOR ............................................................................................. 16
3.
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 24
4.
DRIVERS AND BARRIERS ............................................................................................. 27
5.
POTENTIAL IMPACTS.................................................................................................. 30
6.
WAY FORWARD ......................................................................................................... 32
ANNEXURES
1.
BRICK MAKING IN MALAWI ........................................................................................ 35
2.
OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS IN MALAWI.................................................................. 39
3.
TECHNOLOGY PROFILES ............................................................................................. 52
List of Figures
Figure 1 : Map of Malawi ................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2: Traditional rural housing in Malawi ..................................................................... 11
Figure 3: Typical Urban House in Malawi ........................................................................... 12
Figure 4: Urbanization rate and corresponding housing needs. .......................................... 13
Figure 5 : Increased pressure on deforestation .................................................................. 14
Figure 6: Drivers of Change................................................................................................ 15
Figure 7: High Mortar Joints .............................................................................................. 15
Figure 8: Wood Fired Clamps ............................................................................................. 16
Figure 9: Forests felled for brick production....................................................................... 16
List of Tables
Table 1 : Decision making matrix for the choice of technology transfer in Malawi.............. 19
Table 2: Approximate production cost of bricks manufactured in a VSBK in Malawi .......... 21
Table 3: Cost – quality comparison of VSBK produced bricks ............................................. 22
8
Table 4: Standard Capital Cost Estimate of VSBK in Malawi (Figures in Malawi
Kwacha)........................................................................................................................... 23
Table 5: Scale of operation ............................................................................................ 23
Table 6: Summary of materials used and alternatives ................................................ 33
9
1. MALAWI – A BRIEF PROFILE
1.1. Development and Growth
The Republic of Malawi is a land locked country situated in Southern Africa (Figure
1). It is bordered by Zambia, Mozambique and Tanzania. Measuring 48,000 square
miles, it is a relatively small and densely populated country with limited mineral
resources. On the unique geographical treasures of Malawi is Lake Malawi, the 3rd
largest fresh water lake in Africa. Part of the Great African Rift Valley, Lake Malawi
is around 587 km and 84 km at its longest and widest point.
With a population of over 15 million and an average annual per capita income of
USD 268 (at current USD), Malawi is among the poorest countries in the world
(World Bank, 2012). The economy is predominately agricultural and is dependent on
substantial international assistance. In 2012, Malawi received official development
assistance and official aid to the tune of USD 1.174 billion (current US$, World
Bank, 2012).
The Human Development Index, 2013 is 0.418,
ranking Malawi at 170 out of 187 countries.
66.7% of the population live in multidimensional
poverty (MPI ‘head count’, 2010) while an
additional 23.4% were vulnerable to multiple
deprivations, leading to an MPI value1 of 0.334.
Life expectancy of 54.8 years with an average of
4.2 years of schooling put Malawi below the
average for both Sub-Saharan Africa and other
Low HDI countries. While Malawi has shown
signs of development, this development has
been very unequal. HDI when adjusted for
inequality falls to 0.287 and the 2004 Gini
coefficient is just 39.0. In addition Malawi has a
Gender Inequality Index (GII) value of 0.573,
ranking it 124 out of 148 countries reflecting
gender-based inequalities in three dimensions –
reproductive
health,
empowerment,
and
economic activity.
Figure 1 : Map of Malawi
As of 2014, Malawi ranked 128 out of 178
countries on the Environmental Performance
Index with a score of 40.06. In 2010, it had a total emission of 1,239 ktonnes CO2
emissions with a per capita figure of 0.1 metric tons CO2 emissions. (World Bank,
2012). Malawi is one of the countries with the smallest Ecological Footprints, under
0.5 global hectares (1¼ acres) which is generally too small to meet basic
requirements for food, shelter, infrastructure and sanitation (Global Footprint
Network, 2009).
In 2012, Malawi managed to attract Foreign Direct Investment worth US$1.2 billion
representing 22 percent of the FDI flows to Southern Africa. With reference to
Malawi Investment and Trade Centre records for investment pledges for the year
1
Share of the population that is multi-dimensionally poor adjusted by the intensity of deprivations.
10
2012, FDI significantly rose by 18% from US$987,458,231 recorded for 2011 to
US$1,161,432,000. This is a reflection of the improved business environment which
attracted more investors from within and outside Africa. This upward trend
commencing from 2011 was a diversion from the collapsing investment figures
traced from 2008 to 2010. Infrastructure and Energy sectors shared 62% and 33%
of the 2012 total investment respectively with tourism, services and agro-processing
having minimal contribution. Concerning the origin of the investors, China and the
United Kingdom shared 46% equally while the rest of the investors which include
South Africa, India, Pakistan and local investors, were less than 4% of the total
investors. Despite the hike in FDI in 2012, the year’s employment levels (at 4,366)
were relatively lower than those of 2011 (at 12,847).
Foreign
Direct
Investment in 2013
and
beyond
is
expected to show a
positive growth from
the current trend that
is benefiting from the
investment
friendly
economic
reforms.
The
current
government
has
liberalized
the
exchange rate and
devalued the Kwacha
which should ensure
availability of foreign
Figure 2: Traditional rural housing in Malawi
exchange
for
investment. Restored
good relations with the donor community are also expected to boost confidence in
investors. The Economic Recovery Plan is expected to put Malawi’s economy back
on track which subsequently should make investing in Malawi more secure.
Furthermore, the One-Stop investment facilitation anticipated to commence this year
is a likely determinant to increased investment.
It is seen that the Government of Malawi is planning to open up the infrastructure
sector in the next decades and create favourable investment opportunities. This is
expected to create a large demand on the building and allied materials. Moreover
increasing urbanization will place a high demand on housing and related
infrastructure. Thus there will be rapid increasing demand of building materials and
technologies creating high interest for investment and profitable business in urban
areas.
1.2. Urbanization and Housing
The capital city of Lilongwe is Malawi's largest city. Other large urban centres
include Blantyre, Mzuzu, Zomba and Karonga. Currently just over 15% of the
population is urban, which is growing at an annual rate of 4.2% (CIA, 2013).
Projections suggest that, by 2025, almost 30% and by 2050, 50% of Malawi’s
11
population will be urbanised (UN DESA, 2007). The average annual increase of
5.2% in the urban population in Malawi during the period 2005-10 is amongst the
highest in the world.
Approximately one in four urban residents officially live in poverty, one-third in
Mzuzu, constituting 6% of all the poor people in the country (Integrated Household
Survey, Government of Malawi 2005). The richest 20% of urban households
consume 40 times as much as the poorest 20% of rural households and 13 times as
much as the poorest 20% of urban households (World Bank, 2003).
Population growth patterns of Malawi’s major urban centres indicate there will be
203,600 additional households by 2020 that, with an additional 25 per cent for the
secondary urban centres, leads to a total demand for new dwellings of 254,500 by
2020. The Malawi Urban Housing Sector Profile 2010 reveals that with the current
rate of urbanization 21,000 housing units are required annually to meet the urban
housing needs over the next 10 years. In Malawi, formal housing delivery systems
account for less than
20% of the demand
and target middle and
high income people.
As a result, between
70-90% of the urban
population who cannot
afford a decent living
condition are forced to
live
in
informal
settlements – resulting
in insecure tenure,
poor quality of housing
and
overcrowding
(Habitat NI, N.D)2. This
type
of
living
conditions
often
creates human stress
Figure 3: Typical Urban House in Malawi
leading to restlessness
and unlawful activities.
In Malawi market, competition in the housing sector is limited and operates under a
weak institutional framework. Taking advantage of this, the informal sector plays a
vital role in Malawi’s urban housing though difficult to quantify. Informality increases
as one moves from urban to rural spaces. In fact one of the biggest informal housing
sector is in Likuni, on the outskirts of Lilongwe. The pre and post-independence
administrations set up the Traditional Housing Areas3 and successfully recruited the
informal construction sector’s energies to develop an affordable urban
environment.(Figure 2, 3) Unfortunately, this has withered away and the informal
sector co- operates with the formal sector in overlapping systems, but with little
government acknowledgement or assistance through policy (UN-Habitat, 2010).
2
http://www.habitatni.co.uk/docs/malawi.pdf
Traditional Housing Areas (THAs) are the official way of supplying housing to the low-income majority in urban
areas. They are provided serviced plots in the “sites and services” tradition, but with relatively tolerant standards for
the construction of the dwellings in response to the poverty of the plot holders.
12
3
The Malawian government has retained a high profile in the housing sector despite
never adopting a national housing policy. The draft National Housing Policy
recognises that housing provision is potentially a major contributor to national
economic development through its direct, and multiplier effects in job creation
(Government of Malawi, 2007). NSO data reveals that building and construction is
fourth among the nine major businesses in the country. It follows agriculture, mining
and manufacturing in terms of contribution to GDP and growth. An annual increase
in funding for construction works from MWK 11.9 million in 2003 to MWK 20.4
million in 2009 (at constant 2002 prices) was observed, highlighting the growth in
the building sector. According to the IHS, 3.9 % of the urban workforce is employed
in construction.
15%
30%
50%
2013
2025
2050
21,000
42,000
84,000
Urbanization rate
Housing needs
Figure 4: Urbanization rate and corresponding housing needs.
Note: This prediction is only for urban and does not account rural houses and other infrastructural needs
The last few years, Malawi has seen an improvement in its development and
poverty indices. As the country moves towards growth and development, people will
have disposable incomes and will invest in essentials like housing. The housing
demand is already evident and this will only grow. Estimates of a fourfold growth are
expected in housing by 2050 this will correspondingly increase the brick demand
and thus fuel consumption. (Figure 4) Building materials are estimated to contribute
to about 60% of the cost of housing as well as the major chunk of the emissions
from the sector. Bricks occupy a large share of this. Introduction of clean production
technologies for quality bricks will reduce both the cost of housing as well as reduce
the carbon intensity of the sector. Thus investing in technologies for production of
clear and better quality building material is imperative to enable the sector to grow in
a sustainable manner.
1.3. Drivers of Change
This high rate of urbanization puts tremendous pressure on the entire building
material sector. With constraints in supply
of material and demand far outstripping
Annually 850,000 MT of wood burnt to
supply, both the quality of material and the
produce bricks in Malawi
application (house) has degraded to an
alarming extent. This has resulted in poor
13
quality and increasing construction costs. This current state of housing has put an
immense pressure on the low cost housing sector4. Most often it has reached
beyond the means of common beneficiaries. Thus there is a need to bring about
change in the business as usual scenario.
The prime driver for change is the rising concern on resource scarcity voiced by
both the Malawian Government and the building material industry. As wood is the
prime source of energy (both domestic and for brick firing), there is immense
pressure of deforestation on the fast depleting forests. Current brick production will
required around 850,000 MT of wood each and every year. At this rate of wood use,
entire Malawi will be deforested within 25-30
years only from brick activity. The increase in
demand will accelerate the deforestation,
currently at approximately 1% per annum;
threatening to wipe out all forests in the near
future.(Figure 5)
Thus, the two major concerns in the Malawi
brick sector are increased deforestation due
to use of fuelwood and poor brick quality
Figure 5 : Increased pressure on deforestation
resulting in poor construction quality5. The
lack of appropriate moulding and firing
techniques results in poor brick quality. There is a huge scope in improving brick
production. In the case of red bricks there is a need to introduce improvements in
both the green brick making process as well as firing technologies. (Figure 6)
The construction quality found in Malawi is mixed. There are masons who can do a
much better job of construction. However the general tendency is to cover up the
construction by either thick pointing6 or by plastering, both of which are expensive.
This is a general habit of masons and cannot be changed immediately. The reason
of poor construction quality might be due to poor quality and irregular shape of
bricks. There is no consistency in shape, size and colour.
Thus another major driver is the demand for quality building material that can
contribute to a reduced cost of construction. Poor brick quality drastically impacts
the quality of construction and the standard of living. The poor quality leads to use of
excessive mortar. (Figure 7) One of the largest contributors to the cost of
construction is the cost of cement from these high mortar joints. These costs can be
reduced for example in walls through standardized and good quality7 bricks from
better construction and reduced use of cement mortar, Estimates peg reductions at
about 25-30% from current conventional costs. Construction with traditional bricks is
approximately 70% more than similar construction with good quality bricks. Thus
use of quality bricks can drastically bring down the cost of construction of a low cost
housing.
4
Low Cost housing while not strictly defined by the state, refers to housing for the low-income group.
Low compressive strength averaging between 15-30 kg/cm2 and irregular dimensions of the low quality bricks,
when used in construction with low skill levels result in poor quality structures.
6
Method of finishing walls after construction
7
Quality above 50-77 kg/cm2
14
5
Figure 6: Drivers of Change
Poor quality housing coupled with the increasing deforestation in the country, has
prompted the Government of Malawi to take notice of the situation and explore
alternatives. During the course of the assessment, several meetings were
conducted in Lilongwe, Malawi. The Department of Energy Affairs, Department of
Environment Affairs, and National Construction Industry Council etc. have
expressed a keen interest in promotion of such building materials like bricks and
tiles from India.
Figure 7: High Mortar Joints
15
The project intervention will introduce new
technologies
for
building
material
production that will deal with this dual
challenge of proving quality housing to
communities
while
mitigating
environmental damage caused. A further
dissemination is required to enable the
technologies introduced to have large
scale impacts on suitable development
indicators of environment, economics and
social well-being.
2. MALAWI BRICK SECTOR
2.1.
Brick Making in Malawi
The main building material that is used in Malawi in both rural and urban settings for
all building types is burnt bricks. The 2008 Population and Housing Census shows
that burnt (38.5%) and un-burnt (38.3%) bricks were dominant wall materials in
2008. In the last two decades there has been a significant shift from mud walls
(46.6% to 19.9%) mostly to bricks. Not only in urban areas, also the percentage of
dwelling units with burnt bricks has significantly increased in the rural areas from
about 10 % to almost 40 % in this duration. In some cases alternate materials have
been experimented but with limited success. Compared to burnt clay bricks,
concrete and other cement based products only account for 0.6% of all walling
materials.
A low cost house will require an estimated 20,000 burnt bricks while a high income
house will require an estimated 150,000 to 300,000 including bricks for fencing
around the house. Thus on an average 85,000 burnt bricks will be required for the
construction a single house. Therefore to meet the demand of 21,000 housing units
needed each year, a minimum of 1.7 billion
burnt bricks are required every year. This is
just the bare minimum of the housing
sector in urban areas only. If the
requirement of rural areas including
infrastructure requirements of public
investment is calculated then the estimate
of 1.7 billion per year will increase
manifold.
Majority of the bricks in Malawi are fired in
traditional clamp8 fuelled with fire wood. In
almost all the conventional type kilns wood
is being used for firing of bricks. The wood
is generally from large trees. Typically a
clamp consumes around 20 MT of wood to
fire 40,000 bricks. This puts enormous
pressure on the remaining forests in
Malawi which are already under high
pressure from domestic demand as wood
is the major source of energy for
Figure 9: Forests felled for brick production
households. (Figure 8,9) With no control
on raw materials and process the product
is extremely poor compared to the standards in other countries. Malawian clamps
have a Specific Energy Consumption of approximately 3.66 MJ/kg compared to
VSBK which operates at 0.7-0.8 MJ/kg.
Figure 8: Wood Fired Clamps
8
The clamp is really an arrangement for firing bricks exactly without a kiln. The clamp consists of a large stack of
bricks, with stack sizes varying from between 10,000 to 3 million bricks upto a maximum stack height of 4 metres,
and which tends to taper slightly towards the top. The bricks are essentially placed closely together to allow for the
direct transfer of heat.
16
Given the pressure on forests and firewood, there is a keen interest of the
government in the building materials sector. They are contemplating a ban on use of
firewood for brick kiln firing and promoting concrete blocks. However, in absence of
viable options, banning the use of forest resources is not possible.
2.2. Economics of Brick Making
Virtually all brick activity in Malawi can be classified on technical grounds into two
categories:


Burnt bricks
Cured brick products
o Compressed earth blocks
o Hollow concrete blocks
It has been seen that the non-traditional building materials e.g. cured products are
being used sporadically only in urban areas of Lilongwe and Blantyre (only
accounting for 0.6% of walling materials). These products are not commonly
produced and remain the preferred choice of funding agencies. It has been seen
that they are not being economically viable compared to the burnt bricks only from
the production cost. The major reason for high production cost is due to cement.
Almost all the cement in Malawi is imported and made available at MWK 5,000 per
bag which makes the business of producing cured bricks unsustainable. Thus in the
following analysis only traditional burnt clay bricks were being considered.
Traditional commercial kilns in Malawi produce 100,000 to 1,000,000 bricks per
year. However there are also kilns of 20,000 – 40,000 capacity being used for own
construction by house makers. Since these are traditional clamp kilns thus no
investment is required or being made. Virtually all of the kilns seen in Lilongwe and
Blantyre area were made without any investment of hard capital. Even the land
being used is from the Government with no formal payment system.
In the clamp kilns there was no system of keeping track of finance. With the
information gathered from workers, a green brick costs around MWK 2. Similar
expenses are incurred for firing also. Thus the production cost of a small size brick
is around MWK 4. These include labour expenses paid on piece rate basis. Thus an
entrepreneur makes a profit of only around MWK 1 per brick which as per standard
survival conditions is too low. It has been reported that a family requires around
MWK 60,000 per month for basic minimum survival.9 Thus brick making is not a
profitable business. However it is a good proposition for making some quick money.
On the other hand there are instances where in organized production (based only on
2 factories present) the selling prices of bricks are much higher. The approximate
selling prices of bricks are given below:



Traditional clamps MWK 5 per brick
Yam Construction, Lilongwe MWK 15 per brick
Terrastone Brick Factory, Blantyre MWK 25 per brick.
Thus there are instances where good quality bricks are in demand and sold at
higher prices.
9
For more information please see the Basic Need Basket Data published by Centre for Social Concern, Malawi
17
No information was available on the existence of a tax regime for bricks.
Entrepreneurs did not report the need to pay taxes to the Government or charge any
such surcharge from their customers.
2.3. The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln
The choice of technology to be transferred to Malawi was critical. The choice was
made on the basis of technical suitability and performance economics. The selection
criteria included production capacity, fuel type, product quality and investment
capacity among others.
The decision making matrix in Table 1 shows the process of selection. It portrays a
comparison between wood fired clamps dominant in Malawi and various alternatives
including the VSBK.
18
Table 1 : Decision making matrix for the choice of technology transfer in Malawi
Criteria
Brick firing technologies
Wood
fired
clamp
Coal
fired
clamp
Improv
ed
clamp
Scoved
kiln
MK Kiln
Up
draught
kiln
Down
draught
kiln
Zig Zag
kiln
Habla
kiln
BTK
Hoffma
nn
VSBK
Tunnel
kiln
Roller
hearth
Bench
mark
Malawi
Capacity of kiln
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
High
High
High
High
High
High
Variable
High
High
Type of fuel
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Fixed
Variable
Variable
Fixed
Variable
Variable
Fuel switch facility
Homogeneity
of
temperature
Energy requirement
/kg brick
Heat recovery for
drying
Capable to produce
Roofing tiles
Hollow bricks
Solid bricks
Floor tiles
Emissions
to
atmosphere
Workplace emissions
Possibility of fulfilling
emission norms
Requirement
of
quality green brick
Product quality
Monthly production
Yes
Low
Yes
Mod
Yes
Mod
Yes
Mod
Yes
Low
Yes
High
Yes
High
No
High
No
High
Yes
High
Yes
High
No
High
Yes
High
Yes
High
Low
Variable
Fixed Coal
No
High
High
High
High
High
High
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
High
Mod
V. low
High
High
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
High
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
High
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
High
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Low
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
No
Yes
Yes
No
Low
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mod
NA
Yes
Yes
NA
V. Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Mod
Low
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
High
Mod
Mod
Mod
High
Mod
V. high
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Med
Low
Good
Low
Good
High
Good
High
Good
High
Good
High
Good
High
Good
Variable
Good
V. high
Good
V. high
Land requirement
All year operation
Production losses
Investment
Low
No
High
Low
Low
No
High
Low
Low
No
High
Low
Low
No
High
Low
Low
No
Mod
Low
High
High
Low
High
High
High
Low
High
High
High
Low
High
High
No
Low
High
High
No
Low
High
High
High
Low
V. High
Low
High
Low
High
High
High
Low
V. High
High
High
Low
V. High
Good
Low
Mod
Low
High
Low
Low
19
Low - V.
Low
High Mod
Return on investment
Organisational
requirements
Availability of replicas
Local capacities for
construction
Availability
of
materials
for
construction
Experience
of
implementation
Total positive points
20
Fast
Low
Fast
Low
Fast
Low
Fast
Low
Fast
High
Med
High
Med
High
Med
High
Med
High
Med
High
Med
High
Med
High
Slow
High
Slow
High
Fast
High
Easy
Yes
Easy
Yes
Easy
Yes
Easy
Yes
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Difficult
No
Easy
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
7
7
7
7
6
5
5
5
8
5
7
14
5
5
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology is the obvious choice for small scale
brick making in Malawi. Although new technology requires a considerable amount of
training and capacity building, still it scores over the traditional clamps in energy
consumption, environmental emissions and return on investment. There might be
comparison with clamp on the initial investment required, but VSBK has the ability to
produce consistent quality of bricks getting higher returns.
The VSBK technology developed in China and adapted by Development
Alternatives is an energy efficient, environment friendly and economically viable
alternative means to produce quality bricks, especially for mid range brick makers,
producing 10 to 40 lakh bricks per year. It consists of one or more shafts located
inside a rectangular brick structure. The shafts are 1 to 1.25 metres wide with
nominal lengths of 1 m, 1.5m, 1.75m or
2.0 m. In India, shaft heights have been
Adoption of VSBK technology would
varied to hold from 8 to 13 batches. The
result in savings of 850,000 –
inside surface is a brick wall, often lined
1,000,000 tonnes of wood per year in
with refractory fireclay bricks. The gap
Malawi.
between the shaft wall and outer kiln
wall is filled with insulating materials clay and rice husk, etc. (see diagram). Provision for peep-holes and thermocouple
probes are provided along the shaft height to monitor the position of fire as well as
temperature profile of the kiln.
The shaft is loaded from the top in batches of green bricks. Each batch typically
contains four layers of bricks set in a predetermined pattern. The stack of bricks rest
on square support bars (which can be removed or inserted) and supported in turn by
a pair of horizontal beams across the arches in the unloading tunnel. For evacuation
of exhaust gases, typically, two rectangular chimneys are provided at opposite
corners of each shaft. Lids are provided to cover the shaft top, which direct the
gases to the chimney through the flue system.
2.4.
Business Economics - VSBK
The price at which bricks were being sold in Malawi ranged from MWK 4 to MWK 6
per brick. Apart from the normal spread in pricing on account of variation in rates at
which entrepreneurs are selling bricks to customers, there is only one main factor
that determine price: Quality
Good quality bricks are in high demand for high end and Government construction
since traditionally people prefer exposed brick work. Thus even a 5 times price
escalation is not an issue provided the bricks are of good shape and quality. This
high price is also somewhat offset from the reduced cement costs from thinner
mortar joints. Table 2 below shows the approximate breakup of production cost of a
VSBK.
Table 2: Approximate production cost of bricks manufactured in a VSBK in Malawi
(All figures are in Malawian Kwacha unless otherwise specified)
21
Parameters
VSBK
1 - shaft
VSBK
2 - shaft
Bricks manufactured
1,215,000
2,430,000
Raw material for green brick
1,215,000
2,430,000
Green brick making charges
850,500
1,701,000
Green brick transportation
486,000
972,000
External fuel
1,944,000
3,888,000
Internal fuel
2,673,000
5,346,000
Firing labour expenses
972,000
1,215,000
Machine and kiln maintenance
486,000
364,500
Overheads
486,000
486,000
91,125
121,500
Damage due to unseasonal rains
Unforeseen expenses
Sub total
516,375
486,000
9,720,000
17,010,000
Direct cost per 1000 bricks
Marketing costs
Cost of Capital (annualized)
8,000
7,000
486,000
850,500
700,000
980,000
TOTAL EXPENDITURE
10,906,000
18,840,500
Net Cost per 1000 bricks
8,980
7,750
Exchange rate: 1 USD = 250 MWK
There is sufficient evidence to indicate that the brick market in Malawi is robust
enough to encourage higher pricing if quality bricks are being produced. This will
result in relatively predictable revenue for brick makers which will increase over time
with demand. Input costs are also likely to be stable and increase gradually in pace
with general inflation.
Table 3 below shows the comparison between cost and quality of VSBK produced
bricks in comparison to bricks produced in clamps in Malawi.
Table 3: Cost – quality comparison of VSBK produced bricks
(All figures are in Malawian Kwacha unless otherwise specified)
Comparative parameters
VSBK
1 - shaft
VSBK
2 - shaft
Clamp
Length
230 mm
230 mm
180 – 300 mm
Breadth
110 mm
110 mm
70 – 120 mm
Height
70 mm
70 mm
55 – 90 mm
Shape
Good with sharp
edges
Pleasing
Poor
Appearance
Good with sharp
edges
Pleasing
Ring
Metallic
Metallic
Dull
Colour
Bright red
Bright red
Brownish
Uniformity
Uniform quality
Uniform quality
Non-uniform
Compressive strength*
> 100 kg/cm2
> 100 kg/cm2
< 40 kg/cm2
Water absorption
10-15%
10-15%
> 20%
Efflorescence
Nil
Nil
Nil
Production cost per 1000 bricks
MK 9,000
MK 7,750
MK 4,000
Selling price** (expected)
MK 15,000
MK 15,000
MK 5,000
Poor
Exchange rate: 1 USD = 250 MWK
* Depending upon soil quality and made in soft mud moulding machine
** Normally equivalent quality bricks are sold between MK 15 – MK 25.
The economic feasibility of VSBK Technology in Malawi is predicted upon its viability
in the urban areas of Lilongwe and Blantyre. No absolute prediction can be made at
this stage by comparing the VSBK Technology Package against existing brick
production technologies i.e. the traditional clamps. Once pilot kilns are operational
22
more definite figures can be calculated. However an indicative cost is given in Table
4. Thus table 5 gives an idea on the scale of operation of a single and a double
shaft VSBK.
Table 4: Standard Capital Cost Estimate of VSBK in Malawi (Figures in Malawi Kwacha)
Parameters
VSBK 1 Shaft
VSBK 2 Shaft
Materials
Construction Materials
Refractory bricks & mortar
MS Steel
GI Sheet Roof
2,582,513
1,259,200
530,981
617,630
5,165,026
2,518,400
1,061,962
1,235,260
Equipment
Exhaust System
Unloading Screw
Unloading Trolley
Trolley Truck
Conveyor Belt
Metal Stair Case
Misc.
378,000
312,000
468,000
20,000
1,300,000
100,000
127,550
756,000
624,000
936,000
40,000
1,300,000
100,000
255,100
285,000
240,000
570,000
480,000
25,000
15,000
15,000
50,000
30,000
30,000
8,275,874
8,500,000
15,151,748
15,500,000
Labour
Skilled
Unskilled
Fabrication Charges
Shuttering & Scaffolding
Transportation
Total
Total (Rounded Off)
Key economic parameters used to make the analysis are: Scale of operation,
Investment, Annual Expenditure, Annual Revenue and Overall Business
Performance. Given that the VSBK is modular in nature, two sizes – a 1-shaft
VSBK and a 2-shaft VSBK are being recommended.
Table 5: Scale of operation
Parameters
Daily output (bricks)
Days of operation
Annual capacity (bricks)
Capacity utilization
Annual production (bricks)
Investment
Selling Price
ROR
VSBK
1 - shaft
4,500
300
1,350,000
90 %
1,215,000
8 million
15 MK / Brick
~3 years
VSBK
2 - shaft
9,000
300
2,700,000
90 %
2,430,000
15 million
15 MK/ brick
~2 years
It is evident that VSBK technology is suitable for small to medium scales of brick
manufacturing. It matches the capacity expectations of most entrepreneurs and is
modular. If there are constraints in capital investment or uncertainty in volumes that
can be marketed, an entrepreneur can start with a single-shaft VSBK and add shafts
as his business grows. Moreover the flexibility of the VSBK can meet any production
capacity. For smaller production requirement the shaft size can be changed to suit
the requirement.
23
3. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
The housing and infrastructure sector in Malawi, the prime users of building and
construction materials has a small set of direct stakeholders. The three main sets
are the Government, the private sector and the home owners.
3.1. Government
The housing sector currently is dominated by the Government. Even with the advent
of private players in the arena, the Malawi Housing Corporation remains the single
largest player in housing development and construction. The government plays a
largely regulatory role, with MHG taking on the execution responsibility. In the
overall construction space however it occupies only a 10-20% share. Most
residential construction is carried out by home owners themselves.
Agencies like TEVETA (Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and
Training Authority) are involved in capacity building and skill up gradation of masons
and other construction workers.
While housing is apriority area for the government, there are no dedicated schemes
or plans to meet the deficit or take the programme further. They recognize the need
to introduce cleaner production technologies for building materials especially bricks
due to the increasing pressure of natural resources like wood and timber. Thus the
technology transfer programme proposal was met with a lot of encouragement from
departments as diverse as Energy Affairs, Environmental Affairs and Housing.
However beyond just the technology transfer for production technologies, there is a
need to work on policy level interventions to introduce codes and standards for the
newly introduced materials. There is also needed a policy push to move away from
the traditional low quality high energy building material towards cleaner low carbon
options among the users.
3.2. Private Sector
The private sector in increasingly becoming an important part of the construction
value chain in Malawi. Moving away from just being material or service providers,
they are now taking on the role of developers.
3.2.1. Brick Manufacturers
Brick production in Malawi is a small scale activity. Brick making activity is scattered
throughout the country depending on demand and need. Temporary clamps dot the
sides of roads. It is mainly undertaken by unemployed youth and farmers after
harvesting their crops. The bricks are then sold from the site itself or very often used
for personal consumption. Often people take up contracts to produce a fixed number
of bricks for a particular construction assignment. The same contractor might
undertake the brick production as well as the construction. It is very often done
directly on the site of the future construction. However there are certain areas that
have concentrated activities due to the presence of good quality clay and their
proximity to fast growing urban centers.
24
Only 2-3 entrepreneurs have been identified who produce bricks on a larger scale,
in permanent kilns. Compared to clamp bricks there is a considerable improvement
in quality of these bricks.
There is a recognition present among the entrepreneurs but they are unable to
adopt mechanized production due to the lack of access to both information and
technology. They however expressed interest in adopting simple mechanized
devices is easily available. The barrier of access to finance however remains.
Also important are the construction service providers who use these materials.
While adept at using the available materials and making the best of it, there is a
severe dearth of skilled labour who can take on new technology applications. Hence
the need for capacity building and agencies like TEVETA is imperative.
3.2.2. Developers
With the increased demand for housing coupled with inadequate supply of poor
quality bricks another interested stakeholder group is the developer. Private
developers are mushrooming in urban areas like Lilongwe and Blantyre. Moving
away from the traditional housing practices of owner driver construction, they are
providing already constructed homes. Majority of these however deal with higher to
middle income groups. Public private partnerships enable the smooth functioning of
these developers, with the government playing the role of a facilitator.
With respect to the materials and technologies used however, there is still a
resistance to try out innovations. While the transition from burnt bricks to concrete
blocks for walling is being made, they are reluctant to experiment with roofing
technologies. The only difference is the cost and quality of material used. For e.g.
Harvey tiles will be used instead of corrugated sheets.
This is however a stakeholder group that is fast gaining influence in the sector and it
is important to seed them with innovations at this time.
3.2.3. Financial Agencies
Access to finance is one of the largest barriers to industry in Malawi. This also
applies to the construction sector. With interest rates exceeding 30%, it is difficult for
entrepreneurs to invest capital in their businesses. In addition the risk taking ability
of local entrepreneurs is not very high.
Most businesses in the country are owned by ex-pats who invest equity. This is not
a luxury afforded to many local entrepreneurs. Thus in order to ensure the
widespread adoption of new technologies among new entrepreneurs, it is imperative
to improve access to finance.
3.3. Home Owners
The home owners play an important role in the sector as they are the largest
consumers of building materials. However they have limited say in the quality and
pricing of products. The options range between low cost-low quality and high costhigh quality products, often making quality affordable housing a dream. They
unfortunately have very little say in this as the market is controlled from the supply
side. Introduction of new technologies and new players in the market will help the
market grow and let the consumer have better decision control over their choices.
25
3.4. International Cooperation
Besides the Government of Malawi, there is also interest among the international
multi and bi lateral community to work on the housing concerns in Malawi. A priority
geography for many agencies, Malawi with its rapid urbanisation rate has ignited
interest in its housing and construction sector. This set of stakeholders is also
responsible for introducing materials like SSBs and Concrete Blocks. However high
costs of these materials keep most other users at bay.
26
4. DRIVERS AND BARRIERS
The successful introduction and large scale proliferation of the VSBK in Malawi is
governed by a multitude of factors. In order to achieve impact, there is a need to
create an enabling environment focussing on capacities (knowledge & technology
base), finance (market & economics) and policy (regulatory & institutional
framework). This section analyses these key aspects to develop an understanding
on the different drivers and barriers in the context of Malawi.
4.1.
Market and Finance
4.1.1
Growing demand for construction drives the material production sector
The growing demand for construction due to increasing populations and
urbanisation offers a huge potential market for different building materials. Malawi is
urbanizing at a rate of over 4% per annum. The demand for housing is growing and
this is tried that is predicted to continue. This demand will spur growth in the building
materials sector.
Concern over burning firewood the most common fuel for firing bricks is encouraging
entrepreneurs and end users to explore alternate opportunities. The current trade-off
is between quality and cost. Good quality building material is expensive. Building
material that is used in affordable housing is often sourced from the informal sector
and is of poor quality. With environment and cost being priorities, investing in
technologies for production of clear and better quality building material is seen as a
good opportunity.
4.1.2
Private sector has displayed an increasing interest in investing
It has been pointed out that there is a growing interest by the private sector in
investment in the building material sector. There is a growing entrepreneurial spirit
among the local people. With political stability and the country opening out to the
global economy, the risk taking ability of people is enhanced. Recognizing the
demand of the market, they recognize the potential of investing in the sector.
Existing entrepreneurs are keen to grow their business from manual home operated
businesses to small semi mechanized enterprises.
4.1.3
Lack of support systems retard growth in the sector
While there is an expression of interest in the market, it has not resulted in a many
enterprises on the ground. This is primarily due to the lack of support services
available to the potential and existing entrepreneurs. Adoption of these technologies
involves capital expenditure. While small, it will still require a debt component.
Access to finance is a serious concern in Malawi. The banking sector has average
lending rates of over 30%. This enhanced risk dissuades interested people from
investing in the sector.
In addition there are no incentives available for entrepreneurs investing in cleaner
technology units. There is little or no support provided to new entrepreneurs in terms
of market linkages to reduce the risk to the enterprise. There is thus a great need for
27
handholding support to the first few enterprises that adopt a new technology to
ensure a critical mass of successful enterprise are set up to seed scale up.
4.2.
Capacities
4.2.1
Low or negligible levels of skill
There is currently no skill available to operate and manage new technologies. It has
been observed that the lack of skilled workers is one of the most severe barriers
faced by enterprises espcially new enterprises. While there are technical training
institutes available in the country, they are currently not aware of these new
technologies.
It is imperative to get them on board. A positive sign is the presence of these
organisations like TEVETA and their mandate of training. However there is a need
to conduct large scale skill trainings to ensure a large enough cadre of skilled
workers are available. While this project touches upon this aspect, a far more
intensive appraoch is required to create a large enough pool of resource.
4.2.2
Lack of technology solutions
While entrepreneurs expressed interest in investing in technology for cleaner and
better quality production, they have no access to information about these
technologies. There are no technology providers available in the country that can
cater to the needs to enterprises that adopt this technology.
The technology transfer project does address this issue. However there is a need to
identify focal points of dissemination in the country. Technology service providers
that can facilitate entrepreneurs in establishing their enterprises using the new
technology are required. This set of stakeholders does not currently exist in the
country and needs to be created.
4.3.
Policy
4.3.1
Keen interest from decision makers
Most of the Government bodies in Malawi are well aware of the fact that the building
material sector needs to change, especially the burnt brick sector. The major
concerns expressed by most of the Government Departments visited are the use of
wood and quality of the bricks being produced. In general it was felt that there is a
strong knowledge gap between the current situation and the present technologies
being adopted in other countries. Thus they encourage this technology transfer
initiative.
It was also communicated that there was a
In 2012 a proposal was
move by the Cabinet, Government of Malawi
submitted to the Cabinet to
on banning the use of wood in making of burnt
ban burnt clay bricks.
clay bricks. However the major questions
raised were the alternative options available
that Malawi needs to adopt. Since no suitable option was presented, thus the ban
was deferred.
28
4.3.2
Lack of quality assurance and control
Quality of building materials is recognized as a concern by the government,
entrepreneurs and users alike. There are certain national codes and standards for
building material. However due to lack of technical support, the quality being
produced are not upto national working standards. It was requested that quality
control labs and capacity building be supported by India. This is especially for
transferring knowledge and should be anchored within Malawian Universities and
Technical Institutes. Also, product standards for some of the new technology options
need to be defined to check energy intensive and polluting manufacturing practices.
There is potential of knowledge transfer in this area also to provide technical
support.
4.3.3
There are no government schemes to help build the programme
Government agencies have pledged univocal support to the programme. However
there are no schemes or programmes that support the development of the sector.
While there is recognition of the need for action and there are no concrete steps
taken by the government for the same. They welcome the initiative and promise
support, however there needs to be more intensive engagement to imbibe it within
the national agenda.
Thus there is a positive mindset in improving the industry. However adequate
information and means should be made available by the civil societies and
entrepreneurs working on introducing cleaner production technologies to provide an
alternative to the current type of building material production. There is a demand for
quality building materials. There is an understanding of accepting cleaner production
systems. There is a buy-in from the public and private sector. Thus the stage seems
set for the introduction of new technologies. However it is a new government and a
nascent market. There is a need for intensive support in terms of policy, finance,
technology and capacity building for the new technologies to take root and be
accepted and adopted in the local context. This requires engagement over a number
of years to embed these skills in the local people and businesses.
29
5. POTENTIAL IMPACTS
The various meetings and workshop conducted in Lilongwe on the VSBK technology
has created a substantial interest amongst all major stakeholders in Malawi. The
Department of Energy Affairs, Department of Environment Affairs, National
Construction Industry Council etc. has taken a keen interest in the VSBK technology
with options of suggesting VSBK as a replacement to clamp kilns. It is expected that
entrepreneurs will be interested in adopting the same due to enhanced profits and
compliance with Government regulations. Workers will be willing to contribute due to
enhanced incomes and favourable working conditions. Regulatory agencies will be
interested in enforcing the same since deforestation will be arrested.
Thus if VSBK is adopted only in the urban cities replacing clamps, then it will result
in:
Environmental Impacts



Saving of 850,000 tonnes of fuelwood annually due to fuel replacement
to coal
Saving of 1,500,000 tonnes of CO2 annually
Reducing the embodied energy in housing, thereby pioneering the path
of energy saving in Africa
Economic Impacts



Recurring income of USD 9 million worth of foreign exchange annually
Creation of more than 1,000 small to medium scale enterprises in the
SME sector and ancillary industries
Recurring use of 50,000 tons of coal creating a business of USD 10
million within the country thereby promoting inclusive growth.
Social Impacts




Creation of more than 20,000 sustainable “GREEN JOBS” thereby
helping in reducing poverty
Provision of healthy working conditions for kiln workers due to reduced
exposure to smoke and other exhaust gases working in a VSBK.
Yearlong production ensures stable, steady and enhanced source of
income for entrepreneurs and workers also
Improving the quality of housing in Malawi and incurring a saving of
around 40% from bricks and mortar alone
To get the benefits of VSBK it is expected that the Government of Malawi will have
to play a critical role through a “carrot and stick” approach. On one hand it should
provide the stick through stringent laws and stricter enforcement. On the other it
should also provide the carrot through easy financing, subsidies, awareness and
promotional events.
New approaches to operational practices requires a paradigm shift from the
conventional practices and the mentality amongst entrepreneurs of conducting
regular business thereby integrating the whole process innovations with new
30
technology process and re-engineering of existing methods. Change in mentality,
technology innovations and trained human resources are the most valuable asset of
improving the environment and benefitting the society in a business-like manner.
However the advantage of all this can only happen if all the brick industry
stakeholders are ready to change its mind set and working habit. All this requires
extensive awareness, widespread demonstration, intensive training and long term
technology support and making both workers and entrepreneurs learn, practice and
adopt improved technology options.
The above is the key to the success of pilot demonstration initiatives and can only
be achieved in time. In the absence of learning, the work force simply repeats the
old practices and therefore, continuing learning and commitment to re-learning are
crucial for overall improvement in the brick sector especially with regards to stopping
use of fuelwood, energy conservation, minimizing pollution and better quality of
brick.
Thus it is recommended that a pilot demonstration of VSBK be initiated for
demonstrating technical viability and creating awareness. The pilot demonstration is
to be seen as a compliment to initiate a larger demonstration initiative in all the
major cities and towns of Malawi with attractive business opportunities and
enhanced environmental benefits.
31
6. WAY FORWARD
The increasing housing demand exerts pressure in the current building materials
market both formal and informal. The formal market is small and cannot meet the
demands of the people. The informal market has a cost and convenience advantage
but suffers on account of quality due to the lack of mechanisation. There is a gap
that small scale units can fill. There is very limited evidence of this happening as the
entrepreneurial ecosystem is not well developed. Thus the technology transfer
needs to be integrated with elements of capacity building and hand holding for the
enterprises.
6.1.
Strengthening the Value Chain for VSBK
While the current environment is conducive to the introduction of new technologies
and the need for such transfer is ripe, this is just the beginning. The technology
transfer programme is observing positive signs in terms of acceptance among the
government and support from bi-lateral agencies. However, in order to achieve
impact at scale it is important to tie up the technology transfer initiative with support
particularly from the policy and finance end.
Policy support in the form of codes and regulations for new materials is one of the
first steps in mainstreaming these technologies. Policy research also needs to
explore and understand how these materials and technologies can be incentivized
for the users through fiscal and regulatory measures. Till the market is mature
enough to innovate, policy needs to provide support to new technologies and
developments. This area currently lies in vacuum.
Another aspect is building capacities of local people to take on these technologies.
This needs to be done at various levels ranging from establishing new
entrepreneurs to workers at the enterprise as well as masons during construction.
The lack of skilled workforce can be met through introducing vocational training
courses. This skilled workforce is a key ingredient in promoting the technologies and
achieving scale.
Finance as an enabler cannot be ignored. While the technology transfer has been
met with positivity, the impact of the initiative will be seen only when more and more
entrepreneurs adopt the technology. The current financial landscape defies this
movement. The lack of access of capital and the limited risk taking ability of locals is
a deadly mix to retard the good progress a pilot technology transfer can make. Thus
it is important to seed and provide hand holding support to the first set of enterprises
that will be created. There is a need to move beyond the first enterprise to create a
critical mass of enterprises to demonstrate the potential for change both for the
entrepreneur and the local economy.
A longer term support program is imperative to achieve scale and impact that the
technology transfer pilot envisions. With the backdrop of these assumptions, we can
chart a course of widespread impact in the lives of the local Malawi home owners
and entrepreneurs.
India can support this process of technology transfer through building local
capacities to transfer the skills and know-how to local institutions and individuals.
This is essential for the long term sustianablity of the project. Also there is scope for
supporting the development of standards and codes for these bricks. In addition
32
there is an immense need to develop and adopt policy tools both regulatory and
fiscal to enhance the uptake of the technology among new and exitsing
entrepruners. This is another area, where lessons from India on adoption of cleaner
production technologies can be shared.
6.2. Spin Off Ideas
The market assessment and engagement with both public and private stakeholders
in Malawi revealed a very high interest for technology transfer of cleaner brick
production technologies. However the intervention has also resulted in an
expression of interest from the neighbouring countries to undertake similar exercises
to explore the potential of technology transfer. Some of the countries from where
interest has been received include Mozambique, Kenya, Ethiopia, Zambia and
Tanzania. It is worth to note here that the interest has come from the private sector
in these areas. The drivers here also reflect an interest in a technology that provides
an affordable quality product while causing minimal environment damage as a
secondary cause.
Based on the observations in the field and the interactions with stakeholders, the
team uncovered potential for the adoption of other green building materials in
addition to the VSBK. The summary of presently used building materials and
alternatives suggested in Table 6. The detailed report is in the Annexure.
Table 6: Summary of materials used and alternatives
Sectors
Roof
Wall
Frames
Floor
33
Building materials presently
used

Thatched materials

Metal sheet roof with false
ceiling

Concrete flat roof

Tiled roof with false ceiling

Concrete sloping roof with
decorative tiles

Adobe bricks

Burnt clay bricks fired in
clamps

Stabilized soil blocks

Concrete Blocks

Wood

Steel

Skreet Concrete

Tiles

Pavers for roads
Alternative proposed
Benefits

Micro concrete roofs
with and without false
ceilings

Low cost, versatile, load
bearing, easy to produce

Low construction time

Flat roof with filler
materials

Low material consumption

Durable and aesthetically
pleasing

Planks and joists

Funicular shells

Vertical Shaft Brick
Kiln for burnt bricks

Better quality of product

Less use of mortar

Mechanized Concrete
Blocks

Durable and aesthetically
pleasing

Reinforced Cement
Concrete

Durable as compared to
wood

Less construction time but
fits into existing practices

Less cost, easy to produce,
versatile

Low cost

Versatile and easy to
produce

Durable and aesthetically
pleasing

Semi-mechanized
medium and heavy
duty pavers
ANNEXURES
34
Annexure I
1. BRICK MAKING IN MALAWI
Brick making in Malawi is essentially a small scale informal activity. The process of
making bricks is elucidated below.
1.1 Green brick Production Process
The main raw materials in brick making are top soil and fuel for firing. Due to its
topographical variations different types of soil were found in the various brick making
clusters of Malawi. All types of soil occur in vast quantities. Soil depth is quite
appreciable in many areas. However soil dug upto more depths contains increasing
amount of coarser particles making it unsuitable for brick making. However
acceptable quality soils are found upto a depth of 2-3 metres.
Fig. 1: Soil depth
An essential part of brick making is the
ability of a skilled moulder to mix soil with
other raw material and water, age the mix
and form a good green brick with proper
compaction. All of these processes need
to be continuous and work in unison to
produce a high quality green brick.
Principally Malawi follows the normal hand
moulding way of producing green bricks
similar to Asian countries. However Malawi
follows the slop moulding process
compared to the sand moulding technique
followed in other countries e.g. India.
The soil is mined locally from in-situ fields by moulders. It is watered, wet mixed and
aged for 24 hours. More ageing is not done due to silty nature of the soil. After
ageing, the moist soil is again mixed in the wet state before moulding. Various types
of moulds are used in Malawi. Starting with double moulds even four brick gangmoulds are used. Although there are standards for moulds and bricks, they are not
followed and not enforced also. Shrinkage is also not calculated since there are no
fired brick sizes. Moulds are poorly made of wood with variations in dimensions
within a single mould. There is no tapering given in the moulds to facilitate easy
release.
Various types of green bricks are usually moulded. They range from 300 to 180mm
in length and 50-80mm in height. Generally a single person can lift and carry the
mould for demoulding.
In the entire country two instances of mechanization were observed. They use a
disintegrator for grinding coarse soil particles. They are then aged and mixed in a
two stage U-shaft mixer. The mixed soil is mechanically transported by a conveyer
belt to a vacuum extruder producing perforated bricks of acceptable quality.
However the optimization of the process and the resultant quality needs to be
improved and optimized to a considerable proportion.
35
Commercial brick firing in Malawi
takes place only around 6 months due
to a long rainy period. The green brick
making process is also, seasonal;
mainly confined to the months of dry
season between May and November,
spilling over to December in some
cases.
Almost all the green bricks are made
in the open and left to dry in the
atmosphere. Thus, from November
due to onset of the rainy season it is
difficult to produce bricks. Variable
green brick quality has been observed
in most of the kilns. As per Indian
experience this depends on skill levels
of moulders and their ability to ensure
quality at relatively high levels of
productivity. However no specialized
skills were seen based on the fired
brick quality of moulders to produce a
good quality brick. This might be due
to the slop moulding process and the
quality of the soil being prepared. The
brick dimension ranged from 300mm x
150mm x 80mm to even 180mm x
70mm x 50mm. The green brick weight
varied fr om 4kg to even 2.25 kg.
Although drying is not considered
important by most brick producers, it is
still one of the most critical processes
for getting an appropriate fired brick
quality. Drying in brick making
commonly refers to the process of
removing moisture under atmospheric
drying to yield a solid product. The
brick drying in Malawi is normally done
in the field. To avoid green shrinkage
cracks they are covered with biomass
in most of the cases. After that they
are just dumped in heaps for further
drying. No proper drying technique is
being followed.
Fig. 2: Process of green brick making
36
One of the most surprising aspects
was the total absence of any stacking
method after nominal drying in the
atmosphere. This is due to the inability
to make a proper stack and the
knowledge with the poor quality and finish of green bricks. With these green brick
quality a stable stack cannot be made. On the other hand the two visited sites with
mechanized brick making with proper shape and size, a very well established drying
method was observed which is normally followed in Asian countries. These are in
areas with permanent and well established drying areas. In these cases also the
brick stacks are covered with plastic sheets to avoid cracking and damage due to
sudden rainfall.
Since the bricks are made in-situ thus there is no requirement of green brick
transportation. Thus no green brick transportation mechanism or equipment was
seen at brick production facilities also. During kiln loading they are transferred
manually by hand from a short distance. In most cases clamps are constructed near
the green brick moulding sites only to reduce transportation.
1.2 Firing of Green Bricks
Firing bricks in a clamp is not only the oldest firing method, but is also the technique
that has been in continuous use the longest of all. This is the firing method that is
found everywhere in the countries of Africa, Asia, South America. It is still even used
in parts for Europe, for example, in Belgium for specialized brick production. In
South Africa, the brick clamp is still currently the backbone of the brick
manufacturing industry. So firing bricks in a clamp can at all costs be regarded as
one of the alternative methods that has to be taken into consideration.
The clamp is quite commonly referred to as a clamp kiln or field kiln, but this is not
strictly correct because the term “kiln” invariably implies a construction that has been
erected to house a permanent firing installation. In fact, on the contrary, the clamp is
really an arrangement for firing bricks exactly without a kiln. The clamp consists of a
large stack of bricks, with stack sizes varying from between 10,000 to 3 million
bricks upto a maximum stack height of 4 metres, and which tends to taper slightly
towards the top. The bricks are essentially placed closely together to allow for the
direct transfer of heat.
In Malawi except clamps no other firing technologies were seen. Two types of kiln
designs were observed. They are generally classified into two categories as per the
design used.


Traditional - Scotch kiln
Conventional - Scoved kiln
In almost all the brick producing units observed, the conventional, single storey firing
small dimensions with a capacity ranging between 20,000 to 40,000 per firing. In
more advanced production scale varieties a permanent outside wall (scove) is made
of burnt bricks in clay mortar. These types of conventional kilns have firing tunnels
placed at regular intervals along the base. On one side generally four to eight firing
chambers are provided and are built through. This is dependent on the length of the
kiln being built and the number of bricks being fired.
37
All the types of kilns
observed uses similar style
of firing. In almost all the
conventional
type
kilns
wood is being used for firing
of bricks. The wood is
generally from large trees.
Typically a clamp consumes
around 20 MT of wood to
fire 40,000 bricks. To cater
to the reducing supply of
wood, the clamp owners
also use dried biomass to
augment the firing process.
They are placed at every
third layer to help in
maintaining the fire. There is
no specialized workforce for
clamp firing. Same person
who moulds green brick is
also responsible for firing.
The brick quality in Malawi
is extremely sub-standard
compared to other countries
where similar techniques
are followed. This is mainly
due to the soil quality and
the poor quality of the green
brick being made. The firing
temperature is also very low
producing even under fired bricks. In a single clamp various types and qualities of
bricks were also seen due to poor fire control. Results are inconsistent as seen by
the variable colour of the bricks in each stack. Some of the bricks are yellow in
colour, indicating low and improper firing temperature. Some of the bricks are red in
colour denoting proper firing. Even in a single stack over fired bricks were also
observed. No class difference is made during selling of the bricks.
Fig. 3: Clamp firing bricks in Malawi
38
Annexure II
2. OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS IN MALAWI
2.1 Housing in Malawi
Housing is a very personal and an important part in the lives of people in Malawi.
Housing in Malawi ranges from traditional thatched huts to elaborate multi-roomed
dwellings with running water and satellite television. Most rural homes are made of
unbaked brick (adobe) and grass thatched roofs. As we move towards urban spaces
baked-brick homes with metal roofs begin to make an appearance. Only a third of
current urban housing is built of permanent materials It is important that the
Malawian cities do not simply extend the current networks and technologies as
different ones are available and may be more appropriate and sustainable (UN
Habitat, 2010).
Fig.. 1: Traditional dwelling in Malawi in semi-urban areas
Traditionally, government agencies like the Malawi Housing Cooperation (MHC)
provide the infrastructure for housing, but they are not necessarily fulfilling
expectations. Their pace of delivery is slow and quality less than expectations. They
are now more or less defunct for want of able administration and capital infusion.
Small-scale private and household sector initiatives provide most of the dwellings,
while there is an increasing focus on a few civil sector actors especially for creating
a sustainable affordable housing stock for both owning and rent. Compared to other
Asian and European countries, the housing sector is not viewed as a good business
proposition by private players and housing companies. The market is small and
credit rates from banks very high making large scale business unviable.
39
Even with this slower-than-expectation pace of delivery of houses the building
material scenario is quite different than in India.
Share of a typical housing
cost in India
Tax &
Duties,
10%
Tax & Others,
0
Duties,
Land,
5%
5%
Others,
5%
Land,
25%
Labour,
25%
Share of a typical housing
cost in Malawi
Labour,
30%
Material
s, 35%
Material
s, 60%
Fig.. 2: Comparison of housing costs in India & Malawi
It is apparent from the above representation that building material costs occupy the
highest share of a house cost in Malawi. This is because land is available at much
cheaper rates compared to India. However for Malawi the scenario is different in
rural areas where lands are owned and need not be purchased.
Figure 9 gives an idea of the quality of construction of houses in Malawi. Typically
an average quality of construction in India would require low cement and sand
compared to bricks. In case of Malawi this is entirely different. The high proportion of
cement and mortar cost is indicative of poor construction practices. Another factor of
high mortar costs is due to the poor quality of bricks being used in terms of shape
and size. To make a uniform quality wall, with irregular brick shape and sizes the
mortar consumption is extremely high.
Thus there is ample scope of improving both the quality of building materials and
also the construction practices concurrently to achieve a quality house at an
affordable cost.
The price difference between the formal sector building (~MWK 1.7 million for a 40m2
dwelling) and the informal sector (~MWK 30,000 for a 40m2 dwelling) is almost 60-fold. The
median household consumption of about MWK 195,111 (USD 1,400) per year leads to a need
for most housing to cost around MWK 976,000 (USD 6,970), including plot and servicing The
annual need for 21,000 dwellings costing around MWK 976,000 each generates a need for
MWK 20.5 billion (USD 146 million) per annum of housing investment against a current
government housing budget for Malawi of MWK 949 million (USD 6.8 million) (UN Habitat,
2010).
40
2.1.1
Informality in the Sector
The building material market is completely dominated by the private sector. The
important distinction here is between the formal and the informal sector. There are a
few large companies that provide materials especially for roofing and flooring.
However almost the entire walling and about 60% of the other product market is
accounted for with the informal sector.
The informal sector dominates the construction and housing industry in Malawi, as is
the case in many developing countries. The informal sector has various scales of
operation starting from a two member team having set up their enterprise on a busy
highway. The largest concern with the informal sector is the quality of the product
manufactured as there is no control over material use and composition. In addition
the process is completely manual introducing aspects of variability in the product
range. Cement based products are manufactured without vibration or compaction
severely impacting the quality.
There is a small formal sector that caters to some of the demand. These are
generally large public private partnerships. The Guonji Dream Town project of the
MHC in partnership with Chinese companies is the only example being executed
presently. Here the construction is being undertaken by the MHC, while the project
is primarily financed through the Chinese. However this is also mainly for use by
Chinese expats and workers serving in Lilongwe, Malawi.
Fig.. 3: Materials and housing typologies in Malawi
With respect to materials, steel and cement are sourced from the formal sector, but
most other materials e.g. bricks come from the informal manufactures. The informal
sector makes use of labour-intensive, local technologies and materials costing very
little or nothing (e.g. adobe bricks made from the site soil). There is a strong tradition
of manufacturing and building with burnt bricks, and similar materials available
locally. Cement products like tiles, grills, sills are available along the major roads
leading into the urban centres. This is a typical small scale household production
system followed in most part of Africa. However the quality of these products is
extremely variable. The high-end housing segment uses mainly imported materials
including cement, steel and roofing elements.
The report looks at materials for housing in terms of three elements i.e. the Roof, the
Superstructure and the Floor. Figure 11 explains the assessment frame. Each was
then further divided on the basis of the material used. The observations and analysis
has been presented below in a similar fashion.
41
Roof
Superstructure
Floor
Wall
Basic
Frames
Finishing
Sheet
Understructure
Ceilings
Fig.. 4: The Assessment Frame
2.2 Building Materials for Housing
2.2.1
Roof and Roofing Materials
Houses in Malawi predominantly have sloping roofs, as it is the preferred choice of
people not only in Malawi but in majority of Africa (Figure 12-15). However internally
they aesthetically demand flat
ceilings especially in urban areas.
Thus the assessment looks at the
Roof in these two parts.
Fig.. 5: Thatched roof in rural settings
Fig.. 6: Cement based decorative tiles in urban areas
42
In rural areas grass thatch is the
most common material used. These
need to be replaced or repaired
annually thus adding to maintenance
costs and effort. However this is also
an inexpensive option, most often
undertaken by family and friends
without hiring external experts. As
income levels rise, people aspire to
move beyond thatch to a more
permanent roof. The permanent roof
is also seen the first step towards a
better quality of life through housing.
Thus households are increasingly
moving towards steel sheets. There
was also observed some isolated
presence of asbestos roofing sheets
in some of the older constructions.
In urban areas, steel sheets are the
most common roofing material used.
They account for about 80-90% of
the market. All steel is imported
since there are no steel producing
factories in Malawi. Most of the
import is from South Africa –
especially for the large companies
like MAC steel and Safintra. There
are also a fair number of smaller
retailers who import the sheets into
Malawi from South Africa and other
neighbouring
countries.
This
informal sector accounts for 4060% of the market based on
estimates by different stakeholders
in the industry.
Fig.. 7: Concrete tiles roof in per-urban settings
Fig.. 8: Clay tiles roof in urban areas
While the metal is mined and
refined abroad, the profiling does
take place within Malawi. There
are various profiles of steel sheets
available. The most common ones
are corrugated sheets. These were
among the first steel sheets
introduced in the country. They
cater primarily to the low income
households. This is the first step in
the move towards the permanent
roof and subsequently house.
About 50-70% of the market is
occupied by them. As the prices of
the profiles increases, the market
share decreases both in terms of
volumes and amount, while the
socio-economic status of the target
consumer increases.
Middle income household prefer
IBR (inverted box rib) profiles
accounting for 20-30%. While the
bold angular appearance of this
profile makes it a very attractive
choice, it provides optimum load
span consistency. The deep and
broad flutes of the IBR profile also
ensure
excellent
drainage
Fig.. 9: Corrugated metal sheet roof in urban areas
capacity. The IBR profile can
furthermore be factory cranked,
curved and bull-nosed to a wide range of radii to suit specific requirement thus
offering variety to the consumer. The remaining 10-20% is filled in by Tile profiles
catering to the high incomes households. They mimic the aesthetics of tiles while
43
providing the ease of installation of steel sheets. Each of these categories also have
an option for introducing colours in the products, of course at a premium cost.
Table. 1: Comparison between Available Roofing Options
Materials
Cost
Life Response Availability
Trend
Ease
years to hazards
over last of Use
5 years
(m2)
Raw
Production Marketin Quality
Material Concerns
g
Percepti
Concerns
Concern
on
s
Steel
5000
25 Med
High
Up
High
Cost
None
Tiles
Concrete
4000
10 Low
Med-Low
Down
Low
Cement
cost
Weight /
Cost /
installation quality
60 High
-
-
Low
Cement
cost
Precast
Concrete
None
Cost /
trust
High
Low-Med
High-Med
A small market share of about 10% is occupied by cement tiles. While there is a
very strong aesthetic appeal and aspiration for tiles, the challenges with
implementation have retarded its growth. They were used for a while after
Independence; however have increasingly lost favour to steel sheets. The biggest
problem with cement tiles is the installation. With no availability of skilled labour,
poor installation leads to leaks and lack of insulation, compromising on the quality of
comfort. The informal sector is more prominent in this space, with very few
companies investing due to lack of skill among carpenters. Some outfits import
skilled labour from Mozambique, to ensure quality roofing delivery. However this is
still not a common trend. Besides tiles, there is negligible use and demand of
cement based roofs both cast in situ and pre-cast. There is reluctance among
developers to consider cement based technologies due to the high costs and lack of
skill and expertise in executing these technologies. Table 6 and Figure 21 present a
comparison on options available.
14000
12000
10000
Aspirational level versus affordability
of roofing elements
8000
C2i
6000
4000
2000
0
Thatched roof
Metal roof
RCC roof
Clay tiles roof
MCR roof
Fig.. 10: Procurement cost of various types of roofing materials showing cost versus aspirational levels
In order to support the desired sloping roofs, an under structure needs to be
erected. The most commonly used material for this is timber. There are various
concerns that are raised due to the use of timber. It increases the pressure on
deforestation and with the expected demand for housing, this will have serious
44
consequences. Also if the timber is not adequately treated which is often the case,
the quality of the construction suffers. Industrial construction has shifted to steel
under-structures; however this is not seen in residential homes due to the costs
involved. Industry watchers do predict that the shift to hollow steel purlins will take
place in the next 5 years with good quality timber becoming scarce and expensive.
There is also a latent movement towards newer lighter materials to fill this space.
In addition to the roof, most houses have flat false ceilings. These are made of
boards. Depending on the affordability of the household, the range various from
plywood ceilings to the much more expensive gypsum boards used in luxury homes.
2.2.2
Superstructure and Walling Materials
The superstructure consists of the envelope of the building. Besides the wall, we
have also looked at the frames for doors and windows.
Wall and Related Materials
A low cost house will require an estimated 20,000 burnt bricks while a high income
house will require an estimated 150,000 to 300,000 including bricks for fencing
around the house. Thus on an average 85,000 burnt bricks will be required for the
construction of a single house. Therefore to meet the demand of 21,000 housing
units needed each year, a minimum of 1.7 billion burnt bricks are required every
year.
The main walling material in Malawi in urban settings is “burnt clay bricks”,
especially for owner driven housing. If the requirement of rural areas including
infrastructure requirements of public investment is calculated then the estimate
Adobe or Sun-dried bricks are the most common rural walling material. Both
materials are produced locally, often by the homeowners themselves or by small
teams of 1-4 brick manufacturers.
Currently, brick production in Malawi is highly decentralized and unorganized. The
entire Malawi brick industry uses open clamps for firing. With no control on raw
materials and process the product is extremely poor compared to the standards in
other countries. Due to poor quality of green (unfired) bricks, clamps are not stacked
high enough. There is no control over the firing process in the clamps. Fuel used in
firing bricks in Malawi is fuelwood. It is estimated that around 850,000 tonnes of
fuelwood will be required to produce around 1.7 billion bricks if alternate
technologies are not adopted. At this rate of fuel wood consumption, the entire
country will be deforested within 25-30 years only from the brick industry. No waste
materials are used in green brick making for use as body fuel. Besides fuelwood,
fuel in the form of leafy biomass is also used to provide additional energy. However
the quantity and quality is not suitable to provide additional heat to uniformly fire the
upper layers of the clamp
45
Breakup of cost for 1m3 of
wall in India
Breakup of cost for 1m3 of
wall in Malawi
Labour,
27%
Sand,
18%
Labour,
8%
Sand,
8%
Cement,
17%
Bricks,
48%
Cement,
66%
Bricks,
8%
Fig.. 11: Cost Comparison for walls in India and Malawi
The compressive strength of brick is very poor. There is no consistency in shape,
size and colour. This drastically impacts the quality of construction and the standard
of living. The poor quality leads to use of excessive mortar, increasing the cost of
construction.
From the analysis of the cost of a wall (Figure 22) it is seen that in India majority of
the cost is of the bricks with cement and labour having equal share. However the
scenario is just the opposite in Malawi. Maximum cost of a wall in Malawi is from the
cement. This is due to the large and thick mortar joints and extra cement consumed
to make a uniform plastering.
Thus if the various stakeholders can concentrate on reducing the cost of cement in
construction, then the overall cost of a wall will be drastically reduced. This can be
done by use of good quality and uniform bricks. Thus the Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln
will be a useful technology to adopt in Malawi for production of uniform and good
quality bricks. Even if the bricks are priced at a higher cost compared to normal
clamp bricks, still the cost of wall made with these bricks will be cheaper.
Table. 2: Comparison between available Wall Options
Materials
Cos
t
Cost
for
1m2
Availabilit
y
Trend
over last
5 years
Raw
Material
Concerns
Productio
n Process
Concerns
New Skill
requireme
nt
Marke
ting
Conce
rns
Qua
lity
(Per
cept
ion)
Burnt
Brick
6
3837
High
Stable
None
Wood
Fired
Low
None
Low
SSB
80
3629
Med
Up
None
Quality
Low
Cost
High
HCB
400
4306
Low-Med
Up
Cement
cost
Manual
Low
Cost
High
VSBK
25
4270
Low
-
Coal
New
Low
None
High
Hydrafor
m
150
6238
Low-Med
Up
Cement
cost
Manual
Med
Cost
High
Use of alternate materials is sparse, limited only to subsidized construction
activities. Funder driver construction prefers the use of Stabilized Soil Blocks
46
(SSBs). This is also the material of choice for the MHC, as they move away from the
use of burnt bricks. These blocks are produced manually on site with simple
machines. Current production systems do retard the chances of this material helping
plug the vase housing gap. The reason for the preference is the large scale
environmental damage and deforestation on account of firing clay bricks. The
recognition of this impact has led funding agencies to promote the cleaner SSBs.
There is a slow but steady shift over the last 2-3 years towards the use of concrete
blocks. This has been spurred on by the proliferation of developer led construction.
The local availability of stone and quarry dust and aggregate has encouraged
entrepreneurs to come up with these products. Though cement is expensive
developers are increasingly choosing this over burnt bricks for quality reasons. This
is still however a trend restricted to high end housing and institutional buildings.
The manufacturing of these concrete blocks is split between the formal and informal
sector. There is limited evidence of larger companies supplying machine made
blocks. Large developers also manufacture their own blocks using hydraulic or
manual machines. Concrete blocks are increasingly being manufactures by informal
vendors who hawk their wares on the street sides. The quality of the product is a
concern especially for the informal street vendors as the process if manual and the
compaction and compression forces are not uniform. Table 2 presents a comparison
of the options.
Door & Window Frames
Frames though a small part of the house are very important. Table 3 has a
comparison on different frames available. Traditionally, wooden frames are used in
Malawi. These are the cheapest available option especially when the wood is
untreated. However the life of these frames is not very long. They start rotting and
decaying within a matter of 3-5 years. Treated wood frames have a much longer life
but are also more scarce and expensive.
In urban spaces, steel frames have dominated the market. The frames in the
informal sector are much cheaper and comparable in cost to good quality treated
wooden frames. But most good quality steel frames are very expensive. Steel
frames are available along most major roads leading into the urban centres. Small
welding and fabrication units have sprung up to cater to the growing demand.
Table. 3: Comparison between available Frame Options
Materials Cost
MK
Availability Trend
over
last 5
years
Ease
of Use
Raw
Production New Skill
Material
Process
requirement
Concerns Concerns
Marketing Quality
Concerns (Perception)
Wood
12000
Med-Low
Down
High
None
Wood Fired
Low
None
Low
Steel
23000
High
Up
High
None
-
Low
Cost
High
-
-
High
Cement
cost
Technology
Low
-
High
Concrete 10000
While window frames have almost completely made the transition, people still prefer
wooden frames for doors. Steel door frames give a prison like feel and the
aesthetics of the wooden door are appreciated.
47
The idea of concrete door and window frames was introduced to both users and
developers. Though they had not heard or seen it before, there was limited
reluctance for the approach. The cost was the major concern.
2.2.3
Floor and Associated Products
The floor of the house receives the least attention when upgrading from a temporary
to a permanent home. Most rural homes have mud floors. As economic and
aspiration levels rise there is a movement towards screed concrete flooring.
Currently, this is the most common material in urban areas. In order to enhance
aesthetics sometimes colour is added in to the concrete while laying the floors.
The next step in the aspiration
hierarchy is tiles. These can be
concrete, ceramic and wood in
increasing order of magnitude of
prices. Concrete tiles are
manufactured by few large units
(Figure 22), but are most
commonly locally produced and
sold on street sides, Ceramic
tiles are generally imported from
India and China. This is fast
becoming a middle class market
demand. There is also some
instance of tiles being imported
from Italy, but these cater to a
very high end niche market. Wood tiles are imported generally from South Africa
and neighbouring countries.
Fig.. 12: Various types of flooring and other materials
While internally concrete dominates in form of screed, external pathways are made
of concrete pavers. While this is not a market for affordable housing, high end
construction makes use of them. These again are supplied by both formal and
informal setups.
2.3 Market Assessment of Building Materials
An estimate of the quantity of building materials required in Malawi has been
calculated based on the requirement of housing in urban areas only. These are the
minimum requirement during the stated period since additional building materials
from rural areas and infrastructure has not been considered. To estimate the market
it is assumed that the walls will be made of bricks and roof with MCR tiles. The floor
of the rooms might be made with paving blocks.
48
Table. 4: Requirement of building materials in Malawi
Sl.
Materials
Year
2013
1.
2025
2050
Roofing materials
1a.
MCR Tiles
2.
3 million
6 million
12 million
Walling materials
2a.
Burnt clay bricks
1.7 billion
3.5 billion
7 billion
2b.
RCC Door frames
0.2 million
0.4 million
0.8 million
8 million
16 million
32 million
3.
Flooring materials
3a.
Paving blocks
Note: For all materials requirements are based from urban needs only. Rural and infrastructural
requirements have not been considered.
Presently all the materials are being produced from either local materials or
imported. To produce the above building materials, following are the number of
technology units required in the future (Table 10).
Table. 5: Requirement of technologies for production of building materials given above for Malawi
Sl.
Materials
Year
2013
1.
2025
2050
Roofing materials
1a.
TARA Micron
2.
50
100
200
600
1200
2400
20
40
70
30
60
120
Walling materials
2a.
Vertical shaft brick kiln
2b.
TARA Green Cast
3.
Flooring materials
3b.
TARA Green Cast
In the above estimations, it is assumed that the building materials will be produced
from the technologies mentioned below.




Micro-concrete roofing tiles
Burnt clay bricks
RCC door frames
Paving blocks
- TARA Micron
- Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln
- TARA Green Cast
- TARA Green Cast
Capacity of production of various technologies based on yearly (250 days per year)
production:
1.
2.
3.
4.
TARA Micron
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln
Green cast (door frame)
Green cast (paving block)
- 60,000 tiles per year
- 25,00,000 per year
- 12,500 per year
- 2,50,000 per year
Thus it is seen from Table 5 that the requirement of technologies over the near
future are large and makes business sense for undertaking and demonstrating
technology transfer programme.
49
2.4 Recommendations
2.4.1
Roof
The aspiration of the home owner towards a tiled look is the major driver in this
element. The lack of appropriate technology helps fuel the common perception of
low quality in this technology option. Lack of adequate skill in installation and the
monopoly of the steel industry are other barriers.
Technologies like the TARA MCR technology enable the local production of
concrete tiles using cement and available stone dust to produce low cost, high
quality aesthetically appealing roofing tiles. This is a technology that can be
transferred profitably in the short term. Care however needs to be taken in
simultaneously transferring skills needs to install the roof.
Comparison of the production cost of the various products suggested that in case of
MCR tiles it is cheaper in comparison to roof with metal sheet. For a m2 of roof metal
sheet cost is MK 5000 and MCR is MK 4000. The cost of the MCR tiles is based on
raw material cost, labour required and overheads including investment in machine
and working capital. Although the profitability of the MCR tile has not been
calculated and will depend on the business of the enterprise, the production cost of
a tile has been calculated as MK 130 per tile.
Malawi however is seeing a slow trend towards multiple storied structures. Sloping
roofs will have to make way for flat roofs. In the medium term, options for precast flat
roof construction options should be explored. There are available options like
precast ferrocement members, planks and joists, etc. However, this needs a change
in mindsets from the aesthetic appeal of the sloping roof as well as confidence and
skill building in concrete based construction techniques.
2.4.2
Superstructure
The recognition of the low quality afforded by the existing burnt bricks and the
excessive amounts of cement mortar required to compensate is the prime mover for
the sector. The government supports a move away due to environmental
considerations. New products like SSBs and concrete blocks provide evidence to
this fact, they are however held back by the high costs.
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) is a great opportunity to overcome these
barriers. There is a lot of traction from the Government of Malawi for the technology
as well as interest expressed from entrepreneurs willing to invest in the technology.
The large affordable housing market can absorb the supply very quickly, creating an
existing market for the new product.
Concrete blocks also offer considerable potential. There has been some informal
technology transfer from neighbouring countries. Caution however to the quality of
products manufactured.
For the frames, there is opportunity available in the precast RCC door and window
frames. Manufactured on a vibrating table, they require little energy to produce a
quality and affordable product. They offer a cost advantage over the steel and
quality advantage over the wood frames while enabling livelihoods to be created
through the units set up.
50
The TARA Green Cast technology is suitable for producing both door and window
frames and paving blocks. The vibrating table being used for production is common
to both the technologies. The production capacity is dependent on the capability of
investment to be made. The variable investment is from the number of moulds of
frames and blocks. At present the investment cannot be calculated since the
equipments are being imported from India. Once they are produced in Malawi then
the actual investment can be calculated. However basic production cost calculated
show that the RCC door and window frames are much cheaper than existing
products. An RCC door frame of 2100mm x 710mm (single leaf) costs MK 5500
compared to MK 10,000 for wooden frames and MK 18,000 for steel frames (made
from 3mm thick sheets).
Production cost of hollow blocks in Malawi made by high end automatic machines
could not be accessed. These are mainly made by Chinese firms. On the other hand
a normal hollow concrete block made on the roadside sells at around MK 50.
Compared to these hollow concrete blocks made by Indian technologies will cost
around MK 40. Moreover the quality will be much superior since they will be
machine made and not by hand.
2.4.3
Floor
There are very few products available to cater to this housing element. However
with increasing aspirations there is a market opening up. A Medium term option
could be to look at cement based pavers and tiles. The availability of aggregate and
stone dust make this an interesting opportunity.
2.4.4
Concrete products
There is an increasing market for concrete products like window grills and sills,
decorative elements, etc. This demand is currently being met by the informal sector
with suspect quality parameters. The vibrating table affords the opportunity of
diversifying the product portfolio to include other elements based on demand.
A summary of recommendations presents the following view
Table. 6: Summary of Recommendations
SHORT TERM
MEDIUM TERM
51

VSBK

Precast Frames

MCR

Concrete Pavers

Precast Roofs
Annexure III
3. TECHNOLOGY PROFILES
3.1 Firing Technologies
Wood fired Clamp
These types of clamps use wood as the major fuel. Wood burning clamps have
large firing tunnels placed at regular intervals, passing through the base of the
clamp. These are large enough to allow for the
size of wood fuel available, and are usually two
bricks wide by eight brick layers high. They are
two bricks apart, and have corbelled arches at
the top, where two layers of brick come in to
create the top of the arch. The tunnels can be
split in two by placing bricks across the centre of
the clamp. This is done if the clamp is large, and
therefore has a wide base, or if the fuel is
provided in cut lengths. This prevents crossdraughts blowing through the clamp, and improves the central drawing capabilities
of the clamp, all better for fuel combustion.
Coal fired Clamp
Coal fired clamps are constructed on a spaced brick floor, so that air can be drawn
in under the whole clamp area. A band of coal,
20 to 30 cm thick, is laid right across the base
of the clamp, being contained within walls of
pre-fired brick, with the green bricks laid on
top. This does result in the slumping of the
clamp during firing, but makes the kiln easier
and faster to construct. The clamp is lit with
gas or kerosene burners, applied to small
ignition tunnels at regular intervals down both
sides of the kiln, or with small wood firs, placed
in larger ignition tunnels.
Internal fuel brick firing (improved) Clamp
Coal fired clamps with coal/ fuel added brick are modern types of clamps. This
means only the hearth is filled with coal and the remainder of the fuel, around 70%,
is added to the clay as an additive at the mixing stage.
Scove Kiln
Scove kilns are built at places where there are
prolific deposits of raw materials, that is,
adequate for covering a number of years of
production. The kilns consist of a pugged clay
wall or a wall of unfired green bricks –
although more usually consisting of two
opposite facing walls. Through the firing
52
process these clay walls gradually hardened and become a complete solid brick
wall. Because the walls have an insulating effect, the outer surface of the bricks
inside the kiln is fired well. At the base of the wall or walls, depending on whether
firing was single or double channelled, stoking holes are included at certain intervals
for introducing and igniting the fuel. The bricks to be fired are positioned in such a
manner that between the stoking channels the hot burning gases remained free, and
into which the fuel is stocked.
MK Kiln
The MK kiln has been developed in Mexico and is an enhancement of existing
clamp kilns. It is usually fired with similar
fuels in clamp kilns i.e. either wood or coal.
The performance improvement of the MK
design over conventional kiln is due to two
main effects. The first is better control of
combust ion due to higher temperatures in
the kiln and controlled airflow within the kiln.
The second is clay filtration of the effluent
through unfired brick product where the
effluent heat and energy is recycled.
Up-draught Kiln
Around the year 1540 the first totally arched up-draught kiln was built, and so with it
the first closed-in firing chamber. This allowed for a far
greater improvement in the heating efficiency of the kiln.
The vault also has openings to allow the flue gases to
escape, just as if these are small chimneys. Because
the fuel gases in the firing chamber rise upwards to
escape through the roof, the kiln is therefore referred to
as an “up-draught kiln”. The temperature close to the
base of the hearth is naturally much higher than the
temperature in the upper part of the kiln.
Downdraught Kiln
These kilns may be either circular or rectangular with fire holes in the circular wall or
in the two sidewalls. In these kilns the
combustion gases from fire hole rise from
behind the back walls into the crown of the
kiln and then descend through setting of
bricks to the openings in the kiln floor
through which they pass into flues and then
to the chimney. The size of the kilns varies
considerably, capacities ranging from 10,000
to 1,00,000 bricks. Fuel consumption
depends largely upon the conditions of the
kiln, the manner of setting the bricks and the
control of firing process. These kilns are comparatively much efficient than the
clamps.
53
The Zig-Zag Kiln
The Zig-Zag kiln has a very long firing channel (upto 200 m) that can be built into a
relatively limited size base area. The normal Zig-Zag kiln has only one opening from
chamber to chamber, the cross firing Zig-Zag kiln has openings spread through the
entire wall, and the fire comes in contact the whole width of the new chamber wall.
Habla Kiln
The Habla Zig-Zag kiln provides a unique, low
emission process which substantially reduces
gas emissions. It features a long fire zone,
advanced by a low horsepower induced draft
by an axial flow fan, moving through stationary
bricks. The unique, long zigzag fire zone
allows even the most inferior fuels to be used.
Heat is recycled in a continuous process.
Once the bricks have been burnt, the heat is
reclaimed and used to accelerate the predrying of green bricks.
Fixed chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln
This circular or elliptical shaped kilns are constructed on dry land, by digging a
trench, 6 – 9 m wide, 2 – 2.5 m deep and 100 – 150 m long. An alternative method
is to build up the sides of the kiln with bricks, especially where drainage is a
problem. Gaps are left in the outer wall for easy access to the trench during setting
and drawing of the bricks. The green bricks to
be fired are set in rows, 2 – 3 bricks wide, with
holes in between that allow feeding of coal and
a sufficient flow of air through the setting. On
top of the bricks, two layers of bricks, covered
with ash or brick dust, seal the setting. A large
piece of canvas, paper or metal sheet is placed
vertically across the brick setting to block air
from entering from the wrong side of the
chimney. The trench contains 200 – 3, 00,000
bricks at a time. The firing in a Bull’s trench kiln is continuous, day and night. The
fuel saving is achieved by reusing part of the energy that is otherwise lost in periodic
kilns. Daily output is 15,000 – 25,000 bricks.
Hoffman Kiln
The Hoffman kiln is a series of batch process
kilns. Hoffman kilns are the most common kiln
used in production of bricks and some other
ceramic products in developed countries. The
first Hoffman kilns were in the form of a great
circular ring chamber, with massive walls and a
large chimney at the centre, to which
underground radial flue converged from the
inside walls of each of the twelve chambers.
54
The barrel-arched chambers (like a railway tunnel) have several small feed holes in
the roof arches through which fine coal could be fed into spaces made among the
bricks to be fired.
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)
The VSBK (EcoKiln) technology is based on vertical shaft principles. It is the most
energy efficient and environment friendly burnt
brick production technology available globally.
“The EcoKiln” is not merely a firing technology
but encompasses an entire brick production
system. Use of carbonaceous waste materials
in green bricks is an integral part of the
technology. Benchmark operation of EcoKiln
can save more than 40% energy consumed
with reduction in environmental emission by
more than 80% compared to traditional firing
technologies available in India and most Asian countries.
The Tunnel Kiln
A continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is a long structure in which only
the central portion is directly heated. From
the cool entrance, ware is slowly transported
through the kiln, and its temperature is
increased steadily as it approaches the
central, hottest part of the kiln. From there,
its transportation continues and the
temperature is reduced until it exits the kiln
at near room temperature. A tunnel kiln is
the most energy efficient, because heat
given off during cooling is recycled to preheating zone.
The Roller Hearth Kiln
Unlike the tunnel kiln, where the ware is transported through the firing zone on
trolleys, in the roller kiln it is stacked directly,
or on an under laying covering, onto a
conveyor roller. The roller kiln is a fast-firing
technique that many had come to regard as
the successor to the tunnel kiln. The first of
this type of kiln was built in Germany in
1989. the passage through the kiln (from
cold to cold) takes from 3.5 – 4 hours,
depending on the brick format.
55

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