Vector-borne Diseases Animals and Changing Patterns Dr. William B. Karesh Executive Vice President for Health and Policy, EcoHealth Alliance Technical Director, USAID Emerging Pandemic Threats - PREDICT President, OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases 16 September 2014 Local conservation. Global health. Vector-borne Diseases Animals and Patterns Dr. William B. Karesh Executive Vice President for Health and Policy, EcoHealth Alliance Technical Director, USAID Emerging Pandemic Threats - PREDICT President, OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases 16 September 2014 Local conservation. Global health. 593 Unique Mammal Viruses Unknown 4% Vectorborne 29% Not Vectorborne 67% From K. Olival, et al., in Prep NIAID Category A Priority Pathogens (4/18)                   Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) Clostridium botulinum toxin (botulism) Yersinia pestis Variola major and other related pox viruses Francisella tularensis Arenaviruses Junin Machupo Guanarito Chapare Lassa Lujo Hantaviruses causing Hanta Pulmonary syndrome, Rift Valley Fever, Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Dengue Ebola Marburg NIAID Category B Priority Pathogens (8/34)                  Burkholderia pseudomallei (melioidosis) Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) Brucella species (brucellosis) Burkholderia mallei (glanders) Chlamydia psittaci (Psittacosis) Ricin toxin (Ricinus communis) Epsilon toxin (Clostridium perfringens) Staphylococcus enterotoxin B (SEB) Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii) Diarrheagenic E.coli Pathogenic Vibrios Shigella species Salmonella Listeria monocytogenes Campylobacter jejuni Yersinia enterocolitica Caliciviruses                  Hepatitis A Cryptosporidium parvum Cyclospora cayatanensis Giardia lamblia Entamoeba histolytica Toxoplasma gondii Naegleria fowleri (new in FY14) Balamuthia mandrillaris (new in FY14) Microsporidia West Nile virus (WNV) LaCrosse encephalitis (LACV) California encephalitis Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) Western equine encephalitis (WEE) Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) NIAID Category C Priority Pathogens (13/23)  Nipah virus  Hendra virus  Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome virus (SFTSV),  Heartland virus  Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever virus,  Alkhurma virus,  Kyasanur Forest virus  Tickborne encephalitis viruses  European subtype  Far Eastern subtype  Siberian subtype  Powassan/Deer Tick virus  Yellow fever virus  Tuberculosis, including drugresistant TB  Influenza virus  Other Rickettsias  Rabies virus  Prions  Chikungunya virus  Coccidioides spp.  SARS-CoV  MERS-CoV  other highly pathogenic human coronaviruses OIE Terrestrial Vertebrate Pathogens (20/80)                                         Anthrax Bluetongue Brucellosis (Brucella abortus) Brucellosis (Brucella melitensis) Brucellosis (Brucella suis) Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever Epizootic haemorrhagic disease Equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern) Foot and mouth disease Heartwater Infection with Aujeszky's disease virus Infection with Echinococcus granulosus Infection with Echinococcus multilocularis Infection with rabies virus Infection with rinderpest virus Infection with Trichinella spp. Japanese encephalitis New world screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) Old world screwworm (Chrysomya bezziana) Paratuberculosis Q fever Rift Valley fever Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) Tularemia Vesicular stomatitis West Nile fever Caprine arthritis/encephalitis Contagious agalactia Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia Infection with Chlamydophila abortus Infection with peste des petits ruminants virus Maedi-visna Nairobi sheep disease Ovine epididymitis (Brucella ovis) Salmonellosis (S. abortusovis) Scrapie Sheep pox and goat pox African swine fever Infection with classical swine fever virus Nipah virus encephalitis  Porcine cysticercosis    PRRS Swine vesicular disease Bovine anaplasmosis    Bovine babesiosis Bovine genital campylobacteriosis Bovine spongiform encephalopathy    Bovine tuberculosis Bovine viral diarrhoea Enzootic bovine leukosis    Haemorrhagic septicaemia Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis Infection with Mycoplasma mycoides    Lumpy skin disease Theileriosis Trichomonosis    Trypanosomosis (tsetse-transmitted) Contagious equine metritis Dourine    Equine encephalomyelitis (Western) Equine infectious anaemia Equine influenza    Equine piroplasmosis Glanders Infection with African horse sickness virus    Infection with equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) Infection with equine arteritis virus Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis    Avian chlamydiosis Avian infectious bronchitis Avian infectious laryngotracheitis    Avian mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma gallisepticum) Avian mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma synoviae) Duck virus hepatitis    Fowl typhoid Infection with avian influenza viruses Infectious bursal disease (Gumboro disease)    Newcastle disease Pullorum disease Turkey rhinotracheitis USAID PREDICT Novel Pathogens to date (8/15/14)                        Adenovirus Astrovirus Coronavirus Dependovirus Flavivirus Hantavirus Herpesvirus Orbivirus Paramyxovirus Polyomavirus Arenavirus Rhabdovirus Seadornavirus Bocavirus Enterovirus Retrovirus Alphavirus Poxvirus Influenza virus Papillomavirus Picornavirus Phlebovirus Rotavirus 730 novel and 148 previously described viruses USAID PREDICT Novel Pathogens to date (8/15/14)                        Adenovirus Astrovirus Coronavirus Dependovirus Flavivirus Hantavirus Herpesvirus Orbivirus Paramyxovirus Polyomavirus Arenavirus Rhabdovirus Seadornavirus Bocavirus Enterovirus Retrovirus Alphavirus Poxvirus Influenza virus Papillomavirus Picornavirus Phlebovirus Rotavirus 730 novel and 148 previously described viruses USAID PREDICT Novel Pathogens to date (8/15/14)                        Adenovirus Astrovirus Coronavirus Dependovirus Flavivirus Hantavirus Herpesvirus Orbivirus Paramyxovirus Polyomavirus Arenavirus Rhabdovirus Seadornavirus Bocavirus Enterovirus Retrovirus Alphavirus Poxvirus Influenza virus Papillomavirus Picornavirus Phlebovirus Rotavirus 730 novel and 148 previously described viruses USAID PREDICT Novel Pathogens to date (8/15/14)       Flaviviruses Orbiviruses Rhabdoviruses Seadornaviruses Alphaviruses Phlebovirusesota s 730 novel and 148 previously described viruses Analysis of Emerging Zoonotic Viruses (n=86) From C. Kreuder Johnson, et al., in review  40% of viruses transmitted from wild animals to humans involve vectors  Most zoonotic viruses with wild bird hosts were vector-borne, (avian hosts were 15 times as likely to involve vectors in pathogen transmission than those with non-avian hosts, P<0.001).  Vector-borne viruses had 3 times the host range compared to non-vector-borne viruses Host Breadth – Mammal viruses (from 593 Unique Mammal Viruses) From K. Olival, et al., in Prep Scaled number of zoonotic EID events (n=180) per transmission route categorized by the primary driver of disease emergence for each pathogen. From E. Loh, et al., VBZD, in Review Schmallenberg virus (SBV) • RNA virus (Bunyaviridae family) discovered in Germany in 2011 • Now reported in majority of European nations • Insect vector: Found in biting midge (several Culicoides spp.) • Low prevalence reported: 0.25% (Elbers et al. 2013); differing values of cycle threshold in vector pools • Passive (wind-mediated) spread (Sedda and Rogers 2013) Wikipedia Wikipedia Schmallenberg virus (SBV) Schmallenberg virus (SBV) • Non-zoonotic infection, primarily reported in ruminants • Typically not apparent in adults; can cause fever, reduced milk yield, diarrhea, abortion; recovery within a few days • Animal malformation and stillbirths • Domestic dogs: SBV detected in mother and puppy after neurological disorder and death in dog litter (Sailleau et al. 2013) • Serological evidence: Alpaca, water buffalo, elk, bison, red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, muntjac, chamois. Schmallenberg virus (SBV) • Prevention measures: • Vector control • Inactivated vaccines sold in some countries • Breeding before/after vector season • Impact of potential expanded vector range/season? (Whittmann et al. 2000; Wernike et al. 2013 ) Schmallenberg virus (SBV) • Economic impacts: • 15 % of ewes had lambing problems, 2% mortality of ewes (Dominguez et. al., 2012) • Doubling of rate of abortions (6.7 % vs 3.2 %) (Saegerman et. al., (2013) • 5-fold increase in malformations (10.1% vs 2.0%) (Saegerman et. al., (2013) • 11% - 20% decline in semen exports (~9 M dose decrease) • 20% decline in breeding animal exports (€115M decrease) West Nile Virus in Animals • Landscape factors: Higher prevalence in orchard habitat than vegetable/forage crop and natural habitat • Nectar at orchard sites provides food source for adult mosquitoes • Orchards provide nesting and feeding sites for robins and house sparrows • Climate factors: Lower prevalence in areas with higher precipitation • Dry conditions may support mosquito survival (benefits larval development and reduces predation/competition) • Mosquitoes and birds may congregate around water source in dry conditions Crowder DW, Dykstra EA, Brauner JM, Duffy A, Reed C, et al. (2013) West Nile Virus Prevalence across Landscapes Is Mediated by Local Effects of Agriculture on Vector and Host Communities. PLoS ONE 8(1): e55006. West Nile Virus in Animals Avian, Sentinals, Vet rpts. 2003 Mosquito Avian, Sentinals, Vet rpts. 2013 Mosquito http://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/; Lindsey NP, Lehman JA, Staples JE, Fischer M. (2014) West Nile Virus and Other Arboviral Diseases — United States, 2013. MMWR;63 West Nile Virus Surveillance – U.S • 1999 • WNV introduction into U.S. • 1999-2004 • Reported in all 48 continental states • 2005 • All 50 states report WNV surveillance and control infrastructure • 2004 - 2012: • 61% reduction in CDC Epi. and Lab. funding for WNV • Impact on states and cities/counties operating via cooperative agreements • 2012: • Highest number of human cases since 2003 • Limited early detection capacity Hadler JL, Patel D, MPH, Bradley K, Hughes JM, Blackmore C, Etkind P, Kan L, Getchell J, Blumenstock J, Engel J. (2014) National Capacity for Surveillance, Prevention, and Control of West Nile Virus and Other Arbovirus Infections — United States, 2004 and 2012. MMWR; 63(13);281-284 Figure: Changes in WNV surveillance over past five years reported by 50 states and six city/county CDCfunded jurisdictions (Hadler et al. 2014) Tick-Borne Diseases  10% tick species are vectors for pathogens causing human and/or animal disease (Jongejan and Uilenberg 2004) • Major impact to livestock industry (Minjauw and McLeod 2003) • 80% global cattle population affected, predominately in resource-limited subtropics/tropics • Global economic impact of ticks/TBDs on cattle: $13.9$18.7 billion - Leading animal disease priority for Africa • Concern over food and livelihood security Jongejan F, Uilenberg G. (2004) The global importance of ticks. Parasitology. 129:S1, S3-S14;Minjauw, B. and McLeod, A. (2003) Tick-borne diseases and poverty. The impact of ticks and tickborne diseases on the livelihood of small-scale and marginal livestock owners in India and eastern and southern Africa. Research report, DFID Animal Health Programme, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK. Lyme Disease Prevalence in Dogs – U.S. 2001 - 2007 Bowman D, Little SE, Lorentzen L, Shields J, Sullivan MP, Carlin EP. (2009) Prevalence and geographic distribution of Dirofilaria immitis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia canis, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in dogs in the United States: Results of a national clinic-based serologic survey. Veterinary Parasitology. 160; 138-148. 2010 - 2012 Little SE, Beall MJ, Bowman DD, Chandrashekar R, Stamaris J. (2014). Canine infection with Dirofilaria immitis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma spp., and Ehrlichia spp. inthe United States, 2010–2012. Parasites and Vectors. 7:257. Seroprevalence in dogs: 11.6% in Northeastern U.S • Some clusters as high as 44.1% Seroprevalence in dogs: 13.3% in Northeastern U.S. Tick-Borne Diseases Consider control costs in context of population poverty (per UNDP 1997 estimates), e.g.: • India: >50% earn less than US$1/day • Malawi: >40% earn less than US$1/day Minjauw, B. and McLeod, A. (2003) Tick-borne diseases and poverty. The impact of ticks and tickborne diseases on the livelihood of small-scale and marginal livestock owners in India and eastern and southern Africa. Research report, DFID Animal Health Programme, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK. Temporal patterns of reported cases for selected introduced vector-borne pathogens (red) and endemic or long-established diseases (blue) From Kilpatrick and Randolph, The Lancet, 2012 Understanding Rift Valley Fever in the Republic of South Africa William B. Karesh, EHA Janusz Paweska, NICD-CEZD Melinda K. Rostal, EHA Parviez Hosseini, EHA Assaf Ayamba, USRA/NASA Markus Hofmeyr, SANParks Alan Kemp, NICD-CEZD Veerle Msimang, NICD-CEZD Pierre Nel, Free State DETEA Paul van der Merwe, RSA Defence David Zimmerman, SANParks Photo by: M. Rostal  Outbreaks are periodic • In Kenya every 7-15 years  Low or no activity during inter-epidemic periods  Associated with heavy floods http://www.marinphotoclub.org/images/98%20Awards/images/mpc-15.jpg  Aedes mosquitoes • Transmit RVFV through their eggs Number of cases 100100 90 80 80 70 Sylvatic cycle 60 60 50 40 40 30 20 20 10 0 0 -28 -21 -14 Culex spp Subclinical wild and domestic animal cases Domestic animal outbreak Human outbreak Viral amplification Human Outbreak Aedes spp -7 http://agnews.tamu.edu/westnile/graphics/Image1.jpg 0 Days 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 2008 2009 2010 2011 Mètras et al. 2012 Possible Effect of Immunity Number of cases 100100 90 80 80 Culex spp Aedes spp 70 Sylvatic cycle 60 60 50 40 40 30 20 20 10 0 0 -28 -21 -14 0 7 Low-7 immunity Days Subclinical wild and domestic animal cases Domestic animal outbreak Human outbreak Viral amplification Human Outbreak 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 What scale is important? Individual Single species population Mixed domestic species population Mixed domestic and wild species population 5-year project plan: Comprehensive RVFV Study in RSA Improve the epidemiological understanding of RVFV  Domestic ruminants  Wild antelope • Game ranches • Free-ranging  Mosquitoes  People Build capacity in South Africa Objectives:  Determine how immunity to RVFV changes over time in sheep  Determine the herd immunity in wildlife and domestic animals  Understand the ecology of the virus in the mosquito vector  Determine the immunity level in people working on the study farms and detect new infections Objective 1: How Does Immunity to RVFV Change Over Time in Sheep?  Three flocks • Vaccinated with the inactivated vaccine • Vaccinated with the modified live vaccine • Not vaccinated Individual  Sample each sheep every three months for 5 years Photo by M. Rostal Objective 2: Determine the Herd Immunity in Wildlife and Domestic Animals  Two groups of springbok (400/grp) • Modified-live vaccine (simulates infection) • Not vaccinated • We will test ¼ of each group each year  Provides population level herd immunity data on springbok and sheep over 5 years Single species populations Objective 2: Determine the Herd Immunity in Wildlife and Domestic Animals  Meta-population study of domestic animals and wildlife • Cattle, goats and sheep • Ranched game: springbok, Mixed domestic and wild species population blesbok and kudu • Free-ranging wildlife: buffalo, kudu Objective 3: Understand the Ecology of the Virus in the Mosquito Vector  Determine how mosquito abundance relates to weather and vegetation  Use NASA satellite data • Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) • How green does the landscape get? • Vegetation transects • Microclimate data • Ground temperature • Wind direction • Ground salinity/pH • Water temperature etc. Objective 3: Understand the Ecology of the Virus in the Mosquito Vector  Determine how mosquito succession in South Africa in relation to climate and vegetation • Repeat the methodology of Linthicum (‘80s) • Collect larvae from flooded pans • Identify them by species or genus  Determine the abundance of adult mosquitoes at all sites people or animals are sampled. Study Area RVF animal infection locations |----------------------------------200 Km ----------------------------------| Objective 3: Understand the Ecology of the Virus in the Mosquito Vector  The percentage of mosquitoes carrying RVFV  On which ruminant species mosquitoes feed http://agnews.tamu.edu/westnile/graphics/Image1.jpg Objective 4: Determine the Immunity Level in People and Detect New Infections  Work with the local ranching communities in the Free State  Collect blood samples annually from the herders of our sheep and springbok groups • Look for new infections Photo: M. Rostal Objective 4: Determine the Immunity Level in People and Detect New Infections  Collect blood from ranchers during the metapopulation survey years • Understand the prevalence in people at high risk interfaces Photo: M. Rostal Pulling it all together  Herd immunity  Data on the individual, population and metapopulation levels KENYA: Cattle Pastoralist: Cattle Commercial: Wild Buffalo: Aedes Mosquitoes:  Use this data to develop better vaccination and mitigation methods Photo: M. Rostal Partners Vector-borne Diseases Animals and Patterns Dr. William B. Karesh Executive Vice President for Health and Policy, EcoHealth Alliance Technical Director, USAID Emerging Pandemic Threats - PREDICT President, OIE Working Group on Wildlife Diseases 16 September 2014 Local conservation. Global health.