Was haben alle Kulturen gemeinsam? Diese Frage - Die Zeit

Anhang
1
Was haben alle Kulturen gemeinsam? Diese Frage versuchen Universalienforscher zu
beantworten. Sie stellen Listen auf, in denen Dutzende Gemeinsamkeiten verzeichnet sind –
und streiten dann über die Details. Wir dokumentieren im folgenden einige bekannte
Universalienlisten. (Quelle: Christoph Antweiler, „Was ist den Menschen gemeinsam“,
WBG)
George Peter Murdocks Universalienliste von 1945
(mit Kommentaren von Christoph Antweiler)
(S = sehr spezifisch, HS = Bezug zur biologischen Definition des Homo sapiens,
hist. = historisch nicht universal; vgl. # x = Überschneidungen mit anderen
Universalien)
Murdocks Bezeichnung und
alphabetische Ordnung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Age grading
Athletic sports
Bodily adornment
Calendar
Cleanliness training
Community organization
Cooking
Cooperative labor
Cosmology
Courtship
Dancing
Decorative art
Divination
Division of labor
Dream interpretation
Education
Eschatology
Ethics
Ethnobotany
Etiquette
Faith healing
Family
Feasting
Fire making
Folklore
Food taboos
Funeral rites
Games
Gestures
Gift giving
Government
Greetings
Hair styles
Hospitality
Housing
Hygiene
Incest taboos
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
Inheritance rules
Joking
Kingroups
Kinship nomenclature
Language
Law
44.
Luck superstitions
Kommen
tar
S
S, hist.
HS
vgl. # 14
hist.
HS
S
hist.
S
vgl. # 8
S
HS
S
A
S
HS
hist.
hist.
HS
HS
hist.
HS
Meidung
HS
A
HS
S
Deutsche Entsprechung
Altersgruppendifferenzierung
Sport
Körperschmuck
Kalender, Zeitrechnung
Sauberkeitserziehung
Gemeinschaftliche Organisation
Kochen
Kooperative Arbeit
Kosmologie
Liebeswerben
Tanzen
Bildende Kunst
Wahrsagerei
Arbeitsteilung
Traumdeutung
Erziehung
Eschatologie
Ethik
Ethnobotanik, emische Botanik
Etikette
Wunderheilglaube
Familie
Feiern, Feste
Feuergebrauch
Bräuche
Nahrungstabus
Beerdigungsrituale
Spiele
Gesten
Geschenke
Politische Führung
Begrüßungsformen, Grußsitten
Haartrachten
Gastfreundschaft
Behausungen
Hygiene
Inzesttabus
Erbschaftsregeln
Witze, Späße
Verwandtschaftsgruppierungen
Verwandtschaftstermini
Sprache
Gesetze (bzw. Normen und
Gesetze)
Glücksvorstellungen
Anhang
45.
46.
Magic
Marriage
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Mealtimes
Medicine
Modesty concerning natural
functions
Mourning
Music
Mythology
Numerals
Obstetrics
Penal sanctions
Personal names
Population policy
58.
59.
60.
61.
Postnatal care
Pregnancy usages
Property rights
Propitiation of supernatural beings
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
Puberty customs
Religious ritual
Residence rules
Sexual restrictions
Soul concepts
Status differentiation
Surgery
Tool making
Trade
Visiting
Weaning
Weather control
hist.
vgl. #40,
41
Hist.
HS?
hist.
hist.
vgl. # 58
HS
Hist.
A
HS
S
HS
S
HS
hist.
2
Magie
Heirat
Essenszeiten
Medizin
Schamgefühl
Trauern
Musik
Mythologie
Zahlwörter, numerische Ordnung
Geburtshilfe
Sanktionen bei Fehlverhalten
Eigennamen
Fruchtbarkeitsbegrenzung/steuerung
Geburtsnachsorge
Schwangerschaftssitten
Besitzrechte
Glaube an bzw. Besänftigung
übernatürlicher Wesen
Pubertätssitten
Religöse Rituale
Wohnfolgeordnung
Sexuelle Einschränkungen
Seelenvorstellungen
Standesunterschiede
Chirurgie
Werkzeugherstellung
Handel
Besuche machen
Entwöhnung, Abstillen
Wetterbeeinflussung
Charles Hocketts Universalienkatalog von 1973
Hocketts Liste
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Primary tools
Derived tools
Clothing (or harness)
Grooming (of body and hair)
Prepared shelter
Toilet training
Fire keeping
Fire making
Cooking
Scheduled mealtimes
Food preferences and prejudices
Language
Personal names
Kinship terminologies based (at most) on the
criteria listed on p. 200
Counting with number words
Favored numbers
Some way of keeping track of the passage of
time
Sociality and social structure
Sex and age relevant in social structure
Age Grading
Rites of passage
Physical strength relevant in social structure
accumulated information and other factors
relevant in social structure
Leadership
universal in
ethnograph
.
Gegenwart
Teil der
“human
historical
baseline”
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
almost
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
widesp.
widespread
?
X
X
?
X
?
X
widespread
widespread
?
X
?
X
X
X
widespread
often
X
X
X
?
X
geteilt mit
einigen
Tieren
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
rare
X
X
X
Anhang
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
Male dominance
males as chief hunters, fem. as chief gatherers
Collective decision making
Consultation in collective decision making
(dependent on language and its derivatives)
Informal vs. formal consultation
Moderator as type of leader
Band (or its derivatives) distinct from family
functional social groupings (i.e. clans) not
dependent on constant or frequent physical
proximity
Loose groupings of bands into “tribes”
war
Intimate property vs. nonproperty
Loose property
Inheritance rules
Social maternity = physiological maternity
Social paternity = physiological paternity
Marriage
Prohibition of mother-son incest
Further incest prohibitions, yielding exogamous
groups
Tertiary sexual characteristics devised and
exploited
A single dominant dyad in the household
One member of dominant dyad male (if not both)
One member of dominant dyad adult (if not
both)
Dyadic conflicts
Transactions in more remote (and larger) social
groupings derived analogically, by similarity or
contrast, from those inn intimate (small) social
groupings
Personality apart from social role
Personality and social role influence each other
Masking of personality (or personal identity) in
crucial public occasions
Ascribed vs. achieved status
State parameters (degrees of uncertainty,
freedom of choice, urgency, pleasantness,
anxiety (and seriosity), that characterize or
govern the actors in a dyad
Quandary (Verlegenheit)
Boredom
Sleep
Dreaming
Ritual
Play
Games
Joking
Adventure
Affection
Submissiveness
Hostility
World view
Systematic talking about world view
World view involving entities not directly
observed or observable
Curiosity about one´s own nature (not every
individual, but some in every society)
Doing something positive about death
Knowledge of relationship of sickness and death
Cherish the elderly
Care of the ill or injured
A soul theory
Sporadic cannibalism
Culture heroes
creativity
Pride of craftsmenship
Creative arts of various sorts, always including
literature
widespread
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
widespread
X
X
X
X
usually
almost
X
widespread
widespread
X
X
?
X
usually
X
X
X
X
widespread
?
widespread
widespread
?
?
X
X
X
X
? (how defined?)
X
X
probably
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
?
widespread
?
X
?
X
X
probably
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
widespread
X
X
X
X
rare
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X(?)
?
X
?
X
probably
X
X
X
X
X
widespread
X
widespread
widespread
widespread
X
almost u.
?
X
widespread
X
?
?
?
X
probably
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
?
Anhang
Donald Browns Universalienliste (1995)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
Change through time
Use metaphors
Regulate sex
Have a system of status and roles
Share cognitive organization
Regulate the expression of affect
Control disruptive behaviors
Dream
Mark time
Use space
Record numbers
Conceive of success and failure
Have standards by which beauty and ugliness are measured
Are ethnocentric
Choose pragmatically
Have followers of leaders who are apathetic, regimented, "mature," and autarkic
Believe in the supernatural
Have a range of temperaments
Categorize color
Empathize
Dominate
Foster inequality
Hold similar attitudes toward: supernatural occurrences, fear, hope, love, hate, good,
bad, beautiful, ugly, murder, theft, lying, and rape
Experience ambivalence (due to competing tendencies in human nature)
Use symmetry
Use polite expressions
Dance
Sing
Tell tales
Create literary art
Create verse that uses beats and lines
Symbolize
Recognize signs
Marry
Create and use tools
Groom each other
Solve problems using trial and error, insight, and reasoning
Establish rules and leaders to govern the allocation of important resources
Lose their tempers
Trade and transport goods
Conduct activities by dyads and groups
Supervise
Lead
Adjust joint activities to personalities
Regulate individual action by the group
Kill for retribution
Establish morals
Set expectations of responsibility
Create a sense of duty and indebtedness
Experience male sexual jealousy
Develop similar cognitive functions
Consider some aspects of sexuality private
Convey erotic, reproductive, and gender meanings using objects, actions, symbols,
signals, and sayings
Hold a conception of reproduction
Practice abortion
Think about social relations between other individuals: triangular awareness
Establish etiquette
Need novelty
Experience approach-avoid ambivalence
Express surprise
Name objects
Are curious
Raise their tonal frequency when talking to children (especially mothers)
Express emotion with their faces
Smile
Communicate contempt with the same facial expression
Interpret rather than merely observe human behavior
4
Anhang
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
Transform and elaborate the human body
lmpose order on the universe
Reciprocate (in both positive and negative [tit-for-tat] ways)
Give gifts
Establish identity
Understand concepts of the same and opposite
Establish cause
Categorize shapes
Relate cues to consequences in avoidance learning
Create a religion that holds serious moral "oughts" grounded in conceptions of the way
the world is
Associate music with ritual
Perceive pitch and musical contour
Are consciously aware of memory, emotions, experience of acting on the world, and
making decisions
Experience being in control as opposed to under control
Consult in collective decision making
Follow rules about inheritance
Equate social and physiological maternity
Display personality apart from social role
Recognize ascribed versus achieved status
Get bored
Feel hostility, altruism, pride, shame, sorrow, and need
Prohibit murder and untruth (under certain circumstances)
Offer restitution
Suffer from greater male violence and homicide than female
Believe in spiritual entities such as the soul
Experience dissatisfaction with individual culture
Deny unwelcome facts
Prefer faces that are average in their dimensions
Give hair symbolic value
Use language with a universal underlying structure
Overestimate the objectivity of our thought
Provide for the poor and unfortunate
Demand truth in certain conditions
Are unable to transcend guilt
Need to explain the world
Sacrifice one's self for one's group
Consume substances to partake of their properties
Expect women to care for children more than men do
Recognize a male need for achievement
Think men and women are different in more than only procreative ways
Intend
Promise
Experience inner states
Anthropomorphize
Employ capital punishment
Rape (and disapprove of it)
Wish to allure
Feel pride, shame, amusement, and shock
Forego present pleasure for a deferred good
Evidence negative effects on the personalities of children who have been rejected by
their parents
Use same basic color categories
Identify the same geometric forms
Confront the issue of the haves versus the have -nots
Consider the relationship of nature to culture
Acquire as children linguistic features in similar order
Think rationally
Consider morally right and wrong methods of satisfying needs
Form a personality structure that integrates needs (id), values (superego), and
executive- response processes (ego)
Establish psychological self-defense mechanisms
Attach meaning to what is essentially meaningless
Play games of skill and chance
Include homosexuals
Have juvenile delinquents
Hold male activities that exclude females
Express loyalty
Include people who attempt to cure the ill
Deceive themselves
Associate poetry with ritual
5
Anhang
136.
137.
138.
139.
Predict
Use red, white, and black to symbolize the same things
Use words whose meanings are transparent and opaque
Employ 13 semantic primes in language: I, you, someone, something, world, this,
want, not want, think of, way, imagine, be apart of, become
140. Form personalities based on solidarity versus conflict and dominance versus
submission
Wulf Schiefenhövels Inventar „transkultureller Universalien“ von 1999
kursiv = Zusätze von Schiefenhövel
zur Murdock-Liste
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Abstillen
Aggressivität, Aggressionskontrolle
Altersklassen
Arbeitsteilung
Athletischer Sport
Behausung
Bescheidenheit in Bezug auf natürliche Funktionen
Beschränkungen der Sexualität, z.B. Werbung um
Partner, Eifersucht, genitale Scham, kein Coitus
coram publico, Inzesttabus
Bestrafung von Fehlverhalten
Besuche
Bevölkerungssteuerung
Dekorative Kunst
Eigennamen
Eigentumsrechte
Empathie
Erziehung
Essenszeiten
Ethik
Etikette
Familie
Fasten
Feste, Festtage
Feuermachen
Flüche aus dem sakralen und sexuellen Bereich
Folklore
Gastlichkeit
Geben von Geschenken
Geburtshilfe
Gemeinschaftliche Arbeit
Geschlechtstypische Rollen
Gesten, Mimik, Grußsitten
Handel
Heirat, Ehe als Einheit der Reproduktion und
Produktion durch Normen geschützt
Hygiene
Kochen, beziehungsweise Garen
Körperschmuck
Kontrastierende Konzeptualisierung/ binäre
Unterscheidungen: schwarz-weiß, männlich-weiblich,
Natur-Kultur
Konzept des Glück-Habens
Kosmologie
Liebeswerben
Medizin; Betreuung von Kranken, Medikamente,
chirurgische Maßnahmen; siehe auch Religion
40. Musik, Tanz
41. Nahrungstabus
42. Naturwissenschaft: z.B. Ethnobotanik,
Ethnozoologie, Ethnomedizin
6
Anhang
43. Normen und Gesetze
44. Organisation der Gemeinschaft
45. Postpartale Fürsorge, aktive Sozialisation der Kinder,
Sauberkeitserziehung
46. Pubertätsriten
47. „Regierung“
48. Religion: „Aberglauben“, Besänftigung
außermenschlicher Wesen, Eschatologie, „Magie“,
Mythologie, religiöse Riten, religiöse Therapie,
Wahrsagung, Wetterzauber
49. Residenzregeln
50. Schamverhalten bezüglich der Körperausscheidungen
51. Schwangerschaftsgebräuche
52. Seelenkonzept
53. Spiele
54. Sprache
55. Statusdifferenzierung, Ranghierarchien
56. Trauerriten nach dem Tode einer nahestehenden
Person, Bestattungsriten
57. Traumdeutung
58. Unterscheidung zwischen eigener und fremder
Gruppe: Frisuren, Kleidung, Schmuck, Dialekt,
willkürliche Körperveränderungen usw.
59. Vererbungsregeln für materielle Güter
60. Verwandtschaftsgruppen
61. Vewandtschaftsbezeichnungen
62. Weberei
63. Werkzeugherstellung
64. Witz
65. Zählen
66. Zeitrechnung, Kalender
(Quelle: Christoph Antweiler: Was ist den Menschen gemeinsam? 22009)
7

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