Appendix I. District Agricultural Profile of Satara 1. Introduction District Satara is located in western regions of Maharashtra, between 17 0 5' and 18 0 11' north latitudes and 78° 33' and 74° 54' east longitudes. It i, surrounded by Pune district on the north, Sang Ii on the South, Solapur to the east and Ratnagiri to the west. The geographical area of the district is 10492 Sq. Km, which is 3.41 percent of the State area. The district comprises of II administrative tehsils; Satara, Koregaon, Jaoli, Wai, Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Patan, Karad, Phaltan, Khalav and Man, Satura city is the administrative headquiJrler of the district. Despite being geographically small, Satara holds a noticeable position in the State, historically, politically and also because of its agrarian change in the recent decades. 2. Physiography and climate Satara is extremely heterogeneous in its agro-ecology due to diversities in its physiographic and climatic profile(Government of Maharashtra 2004). The major mountain ranges in the district are those of Sahyadri hill ranges on the western borders of the district and Mahadeo hill .ranges passing through the northern parts. The two important drainage systems in the district are the Krishna· basin and its tributaries such as Kudali, Urmodi, Venn a, Vasana, Yerla and Tarali in the western regions and the Bhima basin and its tributaries such as Nira and Man ganga in the northern regions, Krishna, one of the major rivers of southern India, arises in Mahabalsehwar tehsil and forms the major drainage system in the district. There is an extreme regional variation in the average annual rainfall received in the district. The Man tehsil in the east receives as less as 462 mm average annual rainfall, where as the Mahabaleshwar tehsil in the mountainous region receives as high as 6182 mm average rainfall in a year, Overall the rainfall decreases from west to east and from south to north. The eastern and northern tehsils of Man, Khatav, Phaltan, Khandala are drought prone with less than 600 mm of average annual rainfalLThe rainfall is seasonal and the principal rainy season is from June to September when the rains are largely received from the south west monsoons. Almost 70 to 90 percent of average annual rainfall is rece.ived during this period, with July and August being the rainiest months, The north-eastern monsoon commences from the second half of September and the eastern regions of the district are largely benefited through them. Satara has four out of the nine agro-climatic zones(Government of Maharashtra undated-c), i. High Rai,!lal! Zone with Laterite Soils: This zone comprises of the extreme western parIS of the district including Mahabaleshwar, Western parts of Jaoli and Patan talukas. The typical characteristics of this zone are humid climatc, high annual rainfall between 2000 to 3000mm and above, with .lateritic soi.ls . 183 ii. Transifioll lOne 1: This zone runs in a narrow north-south strip running parallel to the Sahyadri ranges. The annual rainfall is between 1250 to 2500ml11. The soils here are red and black. with basalt as the parent material. This zone includes Wai, Western Satara, Karad, Eastern p,U1S of J aoli, Patan tehsil. iii. Trmlsifioll Z(J//f' 1I: This zone is that part of the district situated between transition zone I to the west and scarcity zone n to the east. The annual rainfall is 700 to 1250 mm. The soils are dark brown in colour with decc<Jn trap a5 the parent malerial. This zone includes Khandalil, Koreg<Jon, Eastern Satara and Karad tehsils. iv. Scarcity zone: This zone receives average annual rainfall below 700 mm, with calcareous greyish black lillll'Um soils. The zone includes Khatav, Man and Phaltan tehsils. 3. Irrigation facilities A major thrust on developing irrigation potentia] in the district was given by the British rulers of Salam. The objective was to promote commercial agriculture and change the traditional cropping pattern(Mohanty 2004). Six major canals and number of wells, temporary dams, water lifts, ponds. reservoirs were constmcted during the British period to increase the irrigated land to more than 7 percent of the net sown area till 1901-02 (Mohanty 2004). During the post-independence period, the irrigated area in the district increased significantly during the decades of 70s, 80s and 90s, due to the commencement of various small, medium and large irrigation projects in the district and also due to noticeable increase in number of wells for irrigation. With the advent of technology of digging bore wells to tap the underground aquifers, the number of bore wells increased from 92] in the year J980 to 7761 in the year 1998-99. The highest increase in number of wells was seen in Phaltan tehsi] and the lowest in Mahabaleshwar tehsil (See table A). Table A. Increase in number of Irrigation wells in Satara district Teh,il t970-71 Trrigatioll wells Bore wells M'war 174 Jaoli 45~ NA NA Patan 1060 Khandala 1:\27 Satam Man 2457 4312 11990.91 1980·81 NA NA NA NA l1998.99 wells Rore wells irrigation well, Bon: wells Irrigation wells Bore wells 241 2 220 44 220 676 552 33 533 ]05 561 648 1613 62 1349 451 1378 1142 1477 57 1942 211 2419 66 317:1 75 2853 590 2883 1364 5124 243 4409 970 4430 305 Irrigation 184 NA 4662 Wai Karad 5062 Kh"tav 8337 Korco.aon NA NA NA 5675 NA 3~46 PhallaJl NA 37365 TOlal 4887 43 5190 235 5192 409 5276 92 52~~ 1137 5505 50~ 9886 123 8026 1224 (3)15 918 6195 M 6242 560 6512 5640 127 9083 S06 10080 295 44064 921 45ti80 6561 45565 7767 1~81 Source: District Social and Economic Review (Various issues) The percent of irrigated area to the gross cropped area was 13.81 in the year 1960-61 and it increased to 30.29 percent in the year 2001-2002. This percentage is much higher to the state average of 16.5 percent. However there is a high percentage of variation amongst tehsils in terms of irrigation. The highest percent of irrigated area is in Koregaon tehsil (63 percent) and the lowest is in Khandala tehsil (J I percent). Well irrigation is the primary source of irrigation in the district, covering 66 percent of net irrigated area (See table B). Table B. Area under irrigation through various sources Tchsil Surface Irrigated Nel Irrigated Gross irrigated Gross cropped area Well Irrigaled area are area area (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) Mahabaleshwar 281 857 II :1H 1422 5407 13 Wai 4100 13718 17818 22902 48980 25 Khandala 2S61 8450 11311 19980 53275 11 Phaltan 23499 29025 52524 57959 91487 47 Man 3841 3525 7366 12654 45287 38 Khalav 2833 11475 14308 22272 137286 26 Korcgaon 3285 2242 5527 7580 66649 63 Salara S005 1995 7000 1000{) 78036 16 Jaoli 6454 5489 11943 13948 5687t 28 Palan 1907 12000 13907 14161 73140 48 Karad 4646 25236 29882 42930 89082 19 Disll'icl lotal 58777 I 14012 172178 225784 74550{) 30 Source: District Social and Economic Review 2003. 185 Percent of gross irrigated area to gross cropped area. 4. Modern technology and changes in cropping pattern Along with the land reforms and the irrigation expansion, there has been a considerable push through the government to modernise agriculture in the district leading to increase in cropping intensity, usage of high yielding varieties and chemical fertilisers, commercialisation of cropping pattern and mechanisation of agrarian operations. a. Land use and cropping pattern Land use pattern in Satara ( percent to total geographical area) IC Forest • Not available for cultivation o Other uncultivated . land excluding fallow o Fallow • Net sown area Source: District Social and Economic Survey Report 2003 There are two major cropping seasons in the district, Kharif the main season begins in the month of June till October. The major crops of this season are kharif sorghum, pearimillet and groundnut. The rabi or the winter begins in October and lasts till February with wheat and gram as the main crops. The area with assured irrigation also has summer season crops such as groundnut and annual crops such as sugarcane. The cropping pattern of the district has undergone several changes both during the colonial and the post-independence period. There is a notable reduction in the area under food crops, especially the area under cereals such as sorghum and Pearl millet, the main dietary ingredient of rural Salara. The area under wheat, rice has seen an upward trend (See table C). Table C. Change in cropping pattern (percent to gross cropped area) 186 Crops 1881-82 195 I -52 1980-8 I 1990-91 98-99 Rice 1.6 2_9 5.45 5.6 5.5 Khari rsorghum NA NA 14.1 12.8 9.2 NA NA 21.0 21.8 18.7 Total sor!!hulll 28.25 26.44 35.1 34.7 2H.OJ Bajra 34.2 22.7' 159 I(d 11.8 Wheat 2.7 U :u 3.5 4.8 Maize 0.08 0_2 NA 0.2 1.6 Hill Millet NA 1.02 NA o. I 0.1 Finoel' millet 3.96 1.93 NA NA 1.2 Total cereals 78.42 57. I I 62.6 62.7 54.56 Gram 3.89 2. I 7 2.0 1.8 3.2 Red gram 2.75 1.09 0.8 1.2 1.0 Green gram 0.299 0.50 NA (J.9 0.8 0.85 1.48 0.1 D.7 0.5 Wal NA NA NA NA 2.1 Kulith 2.41 NA NA NA 03 Matki NA NA 2.5 2.6 1.5 Total pulses 13.77 9.98 9.3 I 1.0 16.7 Total food "rains 92.19 69.77 71.96 73.7 71.3 Sugarcane 0.7 0_72 :1.5 4.5 6.9 Total Fruit crops 0.05" 0.93** 1.8*' 7.6*' U Cottllll 0.9 0.03 1.0 0.1 0.6 Groundnut NA 7.66 8.2 10.3 7.8 Soybean NA NA NA NA 1.5 Total Oilseeds 3.86 9. 10 9.1 I L7 10.90 Rahi sor~hurn Black ~ram ** Includes vegetable crops Source: District Social and Economic Rcview (various issues) and Satara Gazettcer 1885, 1963 Sugarcane is the most important crop of economic importance in the district and the area under this crop has conspicuously incrcased during the dccades of 70s, 80s and 90s. Out of the lotal area under irrigation in the year 1998-99, sugarcane alone occupies 23 percent area and the irrigatcd belts of Karad, Koregaon, eastern Satara and Phaltan have highest area under the sugarcane crop (Government of Maharashtra 2004). A significant growth of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables and tlowers, is seen, especially during the decade of 90s and the ongoing decade. Vegetable crops 187 such as ginger turmeric, potato, ghevda (beans), soybean have economic importance in thc district. Potatoes and beans grown in the tehsils of Koregaon and Kbatav are famous all over the state. High value commercial crops such as cutflowers and coloured vegetables, grown in protected conditions such as those of green houses and shade nets are being introduced in the district in cel1ain pockets of the Satara. The number of polyhouses and green houses have increased from 7 in the year 1994-95 to 284 inlhe year 2005-2006 (see table 0). Table D. Growth of green houses in Salara during 1994-2006 Tehs;ls 94-'15 yg·<J9 2005-06 Mahahalesh\\'ar 7 18 5 SalH!"a () /0 155 Phaltan () 7 3 Karad 0 2 6 Jaol; () 3 16 Wai 0 2 29 Man () I 15 Korc£!aon 0 I 17 Kahandala 0 I 3 PaLan () 0 24 Khat3v 0 0 I1 District total 7 42 284 Source: Compiled by the researcher through various sources. The state government is at the forefront in promoting the growth of horticultural crops through various schemes such as EGS linked horticulture scheme initiated in the year 1990 and National Horticulture Mission initiated in the year 2005 to promote the overall development of horticultural sector, including production, processing, storing and marketing (Government of Maharashtra undated-b). Thus high value, technology driven commercial horticulture is gaining a pOSition of economic importance in the district in recent years. b. Meclwl1isarioll {/lldfertiliser consumptioll. The commercialisation of cropping pattern, the increase in cropping intensity 10 128.44 in the year 1998-99 has from 107.85 in the year 1970-71 necessitated the mechanisation of agriculture. The number of tractors and irrigation engines show the highest growth in the district in this period (see table E). 188 Table E. Change in number of agricultural implements in the district Wooden plough Iron Oil Plough ('nginc-s Sug,lfCanl" for irrigalioll Electrical cng1nes for irrigation ("om)'") COOO") 1960-61 36 16 2047 1970-71 38 25 1'180-8 I 41 19'10-'1 I 2002- Y~a.r Tractor~ crushers Sugarcane crushers (Power driven) (Bullock driven) 39 411 454 NA 7950 4653 240 44 287 31 10668 17586 419 88 709 42 36 9104 17589 423 34 4185 21 19 7155 40723 171 101 7534* 20m * year 2001 Source: District Social and Economic Review, 2003 and Shinde 2002 Before the advent of chemical bused fertilisers, the primary source of plant nutrients was organic manure and other replenishing methods such as faLlowing (Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency 1884): 159). The consumption of chemical fertilisers raised conspicuollsly in the decades of70s and 80s; from 14.lkg per hectare in year 1971-72 to 84.7 kg in the year 1991-92. Table F. Trend of fertiliser consumption in Satara Year Chemical fertiliser consumption per hectare (in kg.) 1971-72 14.1 1975-76 11.9 1981-82 32.6 1985-86 51.8 1991-92 84.7 Source: Agricultural Census (Various Issues) However, the analysis of spatial pattern of fertiliser consumption and the temporal change indicates that the distribution is skewed across tehsils. It is highest in tehsils of Karad, Pha1tan and Mahabaleshwar, moderate in the lehsils of Salam, Wai and Koregaon and lowest in tehsils of Khatav, Jaoli, Patan, Man and Khandala (Shinde 2002) 5. Market and Credit 189 The development of a strong knit co-operative structure In the fields of credit, marketing and processing was another factor that led to the transformation of agrarian economy of the district. The credit system in the district is <l three tier structure consisting of the primary agriculture credit societies at the base, the district central cooperative banks at the middle and the Maharshtra state co-operative bank at the apex. Tbe state government has encouraged the development of marketing co-opcratives called the Agricultural producer's Purchuse and Sales union (kharedi vikri s[{/lgh) as a service providing body to facilitate the availability of seeds, fertilisers and pesticides. The Agriculture Produce Market Commiitte (APMC) is e.,tablished at the tehsil level with u mand<ite of regularising the sale of farmer's produce at fuir price and in a fair way. Satam has 10 APMCs ,1I1d 19 Sub APMCs that regulate the sale of various agricultural produce. The growth of co-operative credit and marketing structure in the district can be seen in table G. Table G. Growth in the co-operative credit and marketing structure Year Aoricultural credit socielies No Members ("000") Credit Growers societies Markelin!! societies No Rs on lakh Members ("ODD") Credit Rs lakh No Members (,,{}(lO") '" Credil Rs lakh 196061 682 80 NA 203 27 - - - - 70-71 773 172 1721 NA NA - NA NA - 80-81 753 247 2071 NA NA - NA NA - 90-91 811 376 6820 n 19 - 1887 232 - 20000) 910 564 84594 22 28 . 2443 467 . In Source: District Social and Economic Review, 2003 The most influential co-operative entJtles in the processing sector are the cooperative sugar factories that boosted the cultivation of sugarcane in the district. The first sugar factory was established at Phaltan in 1957 and another in Karad tehsil in the year 1961. In the year 2003-2004, there were nine co-operative sugar f:Jctories and one private sugar factory. The members of the sugar factories and their managing committees, popularly known as the 'sugar lobbies' constitute a powerful political hub and have strong intluence over the district as well as the state politics. 6. Land tenure and land holding The Maralha system of land tenure was hased on Ryotwari system, wherein the individual owner was liable to pay the land revenue. It was based on the idea that the 190 State was the sale owner of the land and it granted the right to occupy it to such persons as it pleased on various terms(Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency 1884). There were four categories of ryolwari tenure holders, the individual owners called the lIlirasdar, IIpri or casual tenure, the sheri or the garden lands and the is/ova or the rising lease tenure .The lIIirasdars or the va/alldars had a hereditar)' right of occupancy on condition of paying the govemment dues. There were two sub-classes of lIIirasdars. the palil Fawndar.\', who had the honourable position of pa/il in the village administration and held a ponion of ill (//11 or rent free land. The other class was kllllhi vatandllrs who were hereditary land owners. The non-r)'o/wari lands ' iI/oms' or the lands gifted in perpetuity were lands with fixed rent without periodical as,essmcnts or in certain cases rent free lands, granted by governments or the village authorities to individuals. The gifts were for religious purposes, as a charity or miscellancous gifts(Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency 1884). The officers immediately connected to land management were hereditary, such as the IUllil (head man), the kulkllmi (village clerk) and the challgula(assistant headman). ~ ~ During the early British period that began in 1848, the existing ryotwari system was regularised, the hereditary village authorities were continued and their position were strengthened. The survey act of 1865, abolished the differentiation between the mirasi and upri tenure and enforced a uniform occupancy tenure, aU owing the occupant to hold the land in perpetuity and be liable to pay land revenue. The stability of tenure in . the British period, gave impetus to acquiring more land and the land holding position in the year 1882-83 showed that more than 57 percent of land owners were below 10 acres (2.5 hal and the rest of the owners, ranged from different sizes from above 10 acres to more than 400 acres (Mohanty 2004). During the post-independence period, a major emphasis was laid on land reforms initiated by the Sate government that included abolition of Zomil1dari and /l1am lands except the deosthall (temple) lands. This was followed by the enactment of the Bombay Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act, 1948 and its subsequent amendment in 1956 to protect and ameliorate the condition of tenants (Mohanty 2004).The aims of these acts were to eliminate all the intermediaries between the tiller of the soil and the State and conferment of ownership rights to the cultivator. In order to make the tenancy reforms more effective and to ensure an equitable distribution of land, , Maharashtra Agricultural Land (Ceiling of Holding) Act was passed in the year 1961 that prescribed ceiling limits on land holdings and was further modified in the year 1975. Another major reform was the Bombay Prevention of Fragmentation And Consolidation of Holdings Act, 1947 to prevent fragmentation of land holdings and further promote consol idation of scattered holdings to enahle efficient land husbandry. In last few decades, the percentage of small and marginal farmers holding less than 2 ha of land increased from 60 percent in the year 1970-71 to 78 percent in the year 1998-99, whereas the percentage of large land owners owning more than 4ha of land has reduced from 20 percent to 5. 88 percent. The availahility of cultivable land per person engaged in agricultural activities has declined from 1.14 ha in the year 196061 to 0.95 ha in the year 2003-04. Out of the total number of land holdings, 8 percent holders belong to the SCheduled castes holding 5.4 percent of total area. Majority of 191 the scheduled caste land owners are small and marginal farmers owning less than 2 ha of land (Government of Maharashtra 1995) 7. \Vork and Labour In last few decades, the number of agricultural labourers in the district has increased consp.icuously with a simultaneous decline in the number of cultivators. The number of women agricultural labour has increased noticeably and the growth rate is much faster to men. Amongst the cultivators, the proportion of women came down from 70.08 percent in 1961 to 53.31 in 1991 (sec table E). Tahle E. Change in percentage of cultivators and agriculturallahourers as compared to main workers Year I Agricultural labourers Culti vators Men Women Total Men Women Total 1961 61.31 79.59 7{).08 7.53 11.99 9.67 1971 55.87 56.90 56.15 12.82 33.24 18.32 1981 51.10 56.73 52.90 12.56 30.85 18.40 1991 47.17 53.31 49.28 14.50 35.09 21.58 Source: Distr.ict census handbook of Satara, 1961 to 200 I. 192 Appendix 2 India, Maharashtra and Satara: Relational district map Map Source: http://satara.nic.in magicstatistics.com/ .. .Ilndia_Maharashtra.jpg www.mahadiscom.inlmaps/maharashtra·ipg ( Accessed on 30108/07) .:. maps not to the scale 193 Appendix 3. Satara Physical Map SATARA OlSTRICT .~ PHYSICAL -" ... ....... "", .t> " •• ,. <,.. Map Source: satara.nic.in/irnages/sacmap_phyi_new2.jpg (Accessed on 30/08/07) .:. maps not to the scale ]94 SOIL AND LAND USE CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION MAP SARANJI TAL.-SATARA OIST.-SATARA WATER SHED No.-KR-14 N ~ SCALE: 1" =20 GUNTHE. LEGEND Q SOIL BOUNOARY :::::: ROAD o ~ SOIL UNIT NI, HOUS, ~ PROflU DETAILS S,NI,I SOIL UNIT IIRD 0 (!PJ) 2I (I ~ - iIIl~~ S~ @SlID (C~)., 82 -J'it1l.O .,)10\$ ~CPA\Ql.YSIHDYII),i/j 1m' SMRE a\lmI. 1~\9Simf:' £I-eo !. '~IlIlIlll!, _ ~ IOl! ItIIII QPJ,\W.Y _lAW IEXIU 6-1a. ®(CHI) 21 02 mIlI'_ lm 02 0 SIIlHIIlAll8E LUC AREA CLASS BRIEF O,SCRIPnON -,_I -, I'ISMIIIIS!~' ""'~i!IIIIi ~"o-o.o .,1 SOISII!<IIAItII!Xru WI I_ ill ""~, laP ~~ 1"'·'00.0 .,) lIII'H aA'!tl' lOOIIll!., l·a!lOPE. 1Im.\1E ~ ~ 1~19 IO,~ §l 127.77 24.!2 f!] 142,ll 27.11 II, 132.04 25.~ . ~cr lli[.11~lJ ID1!I.BE c - CLIY 91 - SANDY L~ I - SANDY S~l PEPlH dl - 0 TO ).5 CM d2 - ).5 TO 25 CM I VERY SII!J.I.OVI I SHAllOW dJ -2STOSOCM I MEQIUM DEEP d4 - 50 TO 100 eM • DEEP d5 - IBOVE 100 CM .sw.EE I B -IT031 *" C - lTO 81 <t- O - BTO 15% - VERY DEEP £BQSJQ!j 92 - MOOERITE EROSION eJ - SEVERE e4 - VERY SEVERE WESl USE OF L1NP CI - SINGLE CROP C2 - OOlIBlE CROP W, - NON CULTURlBlE WASTE @- SURFACE SAMPl!S - 5 ~ - SOIL PROALE- 1/5 SANPLES CLISSIFICATION OF L1NP USAGE CAPACITY ClASS sue-clASS UN[ c-d5 8::eJ c·d4 B-e2 codJ B-e2 III Sc-d2 C-Il HI O-el AREA: 607,04 Hc - A DEPIRTMENT OF AGRICULTURE I GO'lE!NMOO OF MMlARlS~ Ornet OF SOIL SURVEY omc(!, PUNE OMSION, PUNE 411005 SOILINO IANO USE ClASSIFICATION MAP DROUGHT PRONE AAtA PROGl!l ME • PREUMINAAY SOIL SURv GION : K1IRU IERSa : (OREGiON D1ST.: SiTARA SC!l! : I INCH = 20 GlJIITIll SlJR\ri TE!II : SATARI MAP : PREPAIIED BY : REPORT NO. : APPROVED BY : Appendix 6 Photo Plates--Saranji Plate 1. The Mountainous Terrain . 197 \. - ~ ...!':11:""f-.«'.......,.." ~... ............ Plate 3. Paddy Fields: Bunding and Terracing across the slopes 198 Plate 5. ]ameell Klwgaille: 'Sinking lands due to erosion' 199 Appendix 7. Photo Plates Kurli Plate 6. The canal Plate 7. Bagayat: Black irrigated soils 200 Plate 8. Early drying up of village stream Plate 9. 'Bad Soil Carer': Weed infested field 201