Title
Author(s)
Citation
Issue Date
URL
Livestock Individual Identification among the Turkana : The
Animal Classification and Naming in the Pastoral Livestock
Managemen( Dissertation_全文 )
Ohta, Itaru
Kyoto University (京都大学)
1986-03-24
http://dx.doi.org/10.14989/doctor.k3449
Right
Type
Textversion
Thesis or Dissertation
author
Kyoto University
学 位 申 請 論 文
太田
Livestock lndividual
The
Animal
至
Identification
Classification
vestock
and
among
Naming in
the
the
Management
Turkana:
pastoral
Li
'
†
/
気
学
氏
位
名
審
査
報
太
田
学
学
位
の
種
類
理
学
位
記
番
号
理
告
至
博
博
第
学 位 授 与 の 日付
昭 和
年
学 位 授 与 の 要 件
学 位 規 則
第5条
研 究 科
理 学 研 究 科
(学
位
論
・専
文
題
攻
士
号
月
日
第1項
該 当
動 物 学
専 攻
目)
LivestockIndividualIdentificationamongtheTurkana:TheAnimal
ClassificationandNaminginthePastoralhvestockManagement.
(ト
ゥル カ ナ 族 の 家 畜 の 個 体 識 別
の 分 類 と個 体 名 付 与
一牧 畜 民 に よ る 家 畜 管 理 に お け る 家 畜
一)
主
査
伊
谷
純一 郎
日
高
敏
隆,野
論 文 調 査 委 員
ー
理
学
研
究
科
澤
謙
氏
名
太
田
至
(論 文 内 容 の 要 旨)
東 ア フ リ カ の 牧 畜 民 が 家 畜 に 関 す る 豊 富 な 分 類 語 彙 を も っ て い る こ と は,
1930年
代 の 古 典 的 モ ノグ ラ フ に よ っ て 明 ら か で あ る が,そ れ が 彼 らの 日 常 生
活 と どの よ うな 関 係 を もつ の か とい った 点 に 関 して 掘 り下 げ た研 究 は ほ とん
ど な か っ た 。 申 請 者 の 研 究 は こ の 点 に 着 目 し て,ケ
ニ ア北 西 部 の 乾 燥 地 域 に
住 む 牧 畜 民 ト ゥル カ ナ 族 の 家 畜 を め ぐる分類 体 系 と個 体 識 別 な らび に 命 名 の
体 系 を,彼
らの 家 畜 管 理 技 術 や社 会 生 活 との 関 連 に お い て 分 析 し た もの で あ
る。
ト ゥ ル カ ナ 族 は,家
畜 を 発 育 ス テ ー ジ に よ っ て3段
階 に 分 け,さ
ら に それ
を 性 と家 畜 種 に よ っ て30種 類 の 異 な る語 彙 に よ っ て 表 現 し て い る 。 そ の ほ か,
家 畜 の 属 性 を 分 類 す る た め の,9つ
の 基 礎 色 彩 語 彙,14の
す 語 彙,23の
の 耳 の 型 に 関 す る語 彙 を も つ 。 さ ら に ト
角 型 を 示 す 語 彙,7つ
ゥ ル カ ナ の28の 父 系 氏 族 は,そ
体 表 の 模 様 を表 わ
れ ぞ れ 独 自 の 焼 印 模 様 を も ち,そ
所 有 す る家 畜 の 右 体 表 に 焼 鎭 で 捺 す 。 ま た 彼 ら は,数
れ を 自 らが
百 頭 に お よぶ 所 有 家 畜
の す べ て の 個 体 を 識 別 し て お り,搾 乳 個 体 と駄 用 の ロ バ の す べ て に は 個 体 名
を 与 え て い る 。 申 請 者 は ・ 以 上 の よ う な ト ゥ ル カ ナ の 家 畜 分 類 と個 体 名 付 与
の 体 系 に つ い て 精 緻 な 記 載 を お こ な っ た の ち,こ
れ らの 体 系 と家 畜 管 理 や 社
会 生 活 との 関 連 に つ い て 観 察 を お こな って い る。
ま ず,一
つ の 家 族 が 所 有 す る 家 畜 は,い
ら れ て い る が,そ
る 。 ま た,日
く つ か の 日 帰 り放 牧 の 畜 群 に 分 け
の 分 割 に は 性 と成 長 段 階 の 分 類 カ テ ゴ リ ー が 重 視 さ れ て い
帰 り放 牧 に お け る 放 牧 群 内 の 存 否 の 確 認 に 際 し て,ト
は 放 牧 群 の 全 個 体 数 を そ の ま ま 数 え る の で は な く,放
ら な る い く つ か の 確 認 単 位 に 分 け て 、 そ の 中 の1頭
い う 方 法 を と る が,こ
牧 群 を数頭 ∼十数 頭 か
ず つ の 存 否 を確 認 す る と
の 確 認 単 位 へ の 分 割 は ・ 上 記 の さま ざ ま な分 類 カ テ ゴ
リ ー に 基 づ い て お こ な わ れ て い る 。 さ ら に,こ
て 扱 う反 面,た
ゥルカナ
の よ うに家 畜 を グ ル ー プ と し
と え ば 搾 乳 の た め に は 母 仔 の 隔 離 と遅 遁 を 反 復 さ せ る 必 要 が
あ る が,そ
の 際 に 家 畜 の 個 体 識 別 は 管 理 技 術 上 必 須 と な る 。 これ ら の 点 を も
と に し て,申
請 者 は,ト
ゥル カ ナ 族 の 家 畜 管 理 に は 家 畜 を あ る属 性 を 共 有 す
る 「類 」 と し て 扱 う側 面 と,独
あ る こ と を 指 摘 し,こ
自 の 「個 体 性 」 を も つ 存 在 と し て 扱 う 側 面 が
の よ うな 管 理 技 術 に お け る 二 面 性 が,ト
ゥノ
レカ ナ の 精
緻 な 分 類 体 系 と徹 底 し た 個 体 識 別 の 基 礎 と な っ て い る こ と を 結 論 し て い る 。
ま た,東
対1の
ア フ リ カ の 牧 畜 社 会 で は 一 般 に 牛 の 去 勢 オ ス と 若 い 男 性 と の 間 に1
ア ィ デ ン テ ィ フ ィ ケ ー シ ー ン が 形 成 さ れ る が,こ
の よ うな慣 習 も家 畜
の 個 体 性 認 識 と不 可 分 の もの で あ る と して い る。
家 畜 が 野 生 動 物 に 比 し て 格 段 に 豊 か な 個 体 変 異 を も ち,そ
別 を 容 易 に し て い る の だ が,そ
の こ とが 個 体 識
の 上 に 耳 切 り や 角 の 矯 正 や 焼 印 を ほ ど こ し,
さ ら に ヘ テ ロ な遺 伝 子 を もつ種 オ ス を残 す こ とに よ って 人 為 的 に 多 様 な 形 質
的 変 異 を 求 め て い る こ と を,申
請 者 は 指 摘 し て い る 。 そ し て こ の こ と は,と
く に 個 人 の 独 立 性 の 強 い ト ゥノ
レカ ナ の 人 間 性 と も深 く 関 連 し て い る と結 論 し
て い る。
氏
名
太
至
田
(論 文 審 査 の 結 果 の 要 旨)
東 ア フ リカ の 遊i牧民 が 家 畜 に 言 及 す る豊 富 な語 彙 を もって い ることは・EvancePritchardが
Gulliverも
ヌ ア ー 族 に つ い て 「あ た か も銀 河 系 の ご と き 語 彙 」 と 表 現 し,
ト ゥ ル カ ナ 族 に つ い て 同 様 な 指 摘 を お こ な っ て い る が,そ の 後 こ の
問 題 を 深 く追 究 し た 研 究 は な か っ た 。 申 請 論 文 は,ト
の 実態 の詳 細 を記 載
分 析 す る と と も に,家
ゥル カ ナ族 に つ い て こ
畜 個 体 の 類 別 と命 名 が 家 畜 管 理
技 術 や 社 会 生 活 と ど の よ う に か か わ っ て い る か を 考 察 し た も の で,独
論 文 だ と い っ て よ い.参
創的な
考 論 文 に も 見 ら れ る よ う に,申
請老 は一 貫 して遊牧
民 ト ゥ ル カ ナ の 生 態 人 類 学 的 研 究 に 専 念 し て き た が,申
請 論 文 は その 本 質 に
迫 る た め の 鍵 の 解 読 とい っ た 内 容 を も って い る。
本 研 究 を 進 め る に 当 っ て,申
請 者 は これ ま で に 誰 一 人 試 み た こ と の な か っ
た 方 法 を 採 用 し て い る。 そ れ は,霊
長 類 社 会 学 の 重 要 な 方 法 と類 似 の も の で,
家 畜 を 個 体 識 別 し て 人 々 と 家 畜 と の 関 係 を 分 析 し た と い う点 で あ る 。 申 請 者
に こ の 方 法 を と ら せ た の は,ト
ぼ る 家 畜 の 全 個 体 を 知 悉 し,類
ゥル カ ナ の 人 々 が 自 ら が 所 有 す る 数 百 頭 に の
別 し,命
名 し て い た と い う 事 実 で あ り,申
者 自 身 が 彼 ら と 同 水 準 の 家 畜 の 識 別 を 達 成 し え て は じ め て,彼
請
らの 認 知 に近
づ き う る と確 信 し た か ら に ほ か な ら な い 。
家 畜 種 ご と の 性 別 と成 長 段 階,体
分 類 の 体 系 は,す
色 や 模 様 な ど に よ る 自然 な 特 徴 に 基 づ く
べ て の 家 畜個 体 を その 体 系 の 座 標 の 上 に位 置 づ け る こ とを
可 能 に す る整 然 た る も の で あ る こ とが 示 され て い る。 さ ら に搾 乳 の 可 否 ・ 去
勢 の 有 無 に よ る 類 別 が あ り,耳 切 り・ 角 の 矯 正 ・ 焼 印 に よ る,す
な わ ち人 為
的 施 工 に よ る類 別 が あ る。 各 個 体 は これ らの 類 別 特 徴 の い ず れ か に よ って言
及 特 定 さ れ る が,搾
乳 し あ る い は 駄 用 に 供 せ ら れ る個 体 に は,人
々が そ の 各
個 体 に 呼 び か け る た め の 個 体 名 が 付 さ れ て い る 。 こ の よ うに 家 畜 個 々 体 の 個
体 差 を 顕 現 せ し め よ う と す る ト ゥル カ ナ の 性 向 が ・ 種 オ ス を 残 す に 当 っ て ヘ
テ ロ な 遺 伝 子 を も つ 個 体 を 選 択 さ せ て い る と い う事 実 が 指 摘 さ れ て い る が,
この 点 は ト ゥル カ ナ 自身 が そ れ に つ い て の 明 確 な 意 識 を も って い な い と され
る だ け に,今
後 さ らに 追 究 され な け れ ば な ら な い 重 要 な意 義 を も っ て い る。
申 請 者 は,ト
母 仔 の 隔 離,去
ゥ ル カ ナ の 上 記 の 性 向 に つ い て,放
牧 群 の 全 個 体 確 認,搾
勢 そ の 他 い く つ か の 重 要 な 管 理 技 術,家
特 定 家 畜 と 個 人 と の ア イ デ ン テ ィ フ ィケ ー シ ョ ン,そ
乳・
畜 授 受 の 社 会 的 慣 習,
して 彼 ら に 普 遍 的 な 基
本 的 人 格 と い っ て よ い と くに 強 い 個 人 の 独 立 性 な ど との 関 連 で 優 れ た 考 察 を
お こ な っ て お り,そ
れ らが 単 純 な機 能 主 義 的 理 解 を越 え た もの で あ る こ と を
示 し て い る 。 人 間 に と って,一
般 に 動 物 は 無 名 の 存 在 で あ る が,家
畜 と くに
乳 用 家 畜 と い う カ テ ゴ リー が け っ し て 無 名 で は な い と い う 実 態 を こ れ ほ ど ま
で に 鮮 明 に 画 き 上 げ,こ
の 世 界 を わ れ われ の 理 解 の 姐 上 に 乗 せ え た だ け で な
く牧 人 と 家 畜 の か か わ り を こ こ ま で 深 く掘 り下 げ た 研 究 は,本
申 請論文 をお
い て か つ て な か った とい っ て よ い 。
よ っ て 本 論 文 は,理
な お,主
学 博 士 の 学 位 論 文 と して 価 値 あ る も の と認 め る。
論 文 及 び 参 考 論 文 に 報 告 され て い る 研 究 業 績 を 中 心 と し,こ
関 連 し た 研 究 分 野 に つ い て 試 問 し た 結 果,合
格 と認 め た 。
れに
Livestock Individual Identification
The
Animal
among the
Classification
and
Livestock
Naming
in the
Management
I七aru OHTA
Laboratory
Faculty
of
of Human
Science,
Evolution
Kyoto
Dec.,1985
Studies,
University
Turkanal:
Pastoral
ABSTRACT
Thispaperanalyzes七herelationshipbe七weenmanandlives七
theexamina七ionof七helives七
〇ck七hrough
〇ckclassifica七ionsys七e皿andna皿ingof
individualanimalsa皿ongtheTurkana,nor七hwes七ernKenya.
工n七heTurkanatsmanagemen七sys七e皿,lives七
according七
〇theira七
〇ckare七rea七edaselasses
七ribu七esbasedon七heclassificationsys七em.The
no七ionofdis七inc七individua=Li七yisirrelevan七
七〇 七hiskindof七rea七
On七heotherhand,individuaユiden七ifiea七ionoflives七
no七
〇nユy七
〇 七helives七
皿en七 ・
〇ckisindispensable
〇ck皿anagementtbu七alsotomain七aining七hehuman
socia工relationship,whichismedia七edbylives七
〇ck七ransfer.
Thefor皿eraspec七isexa皿ined七hroughanalyzinglives七
〇ck
classifica七ionsys七e皿.工n七heTurkanatsclassifica七ionsys七e皿,as七ressis
puton七hefivedomains:coa七color,hornshape,earshapeincludingear
皿arkings,age-sex,andbrand皿arks.Themanagemen七
七ec㎞iquesrelevan七to
producingca七egoriesof七he工ives七
〇ckaredescribedandana工yzed.
Theme七hodisdescribed七
〇check七hepresenceof七hemembersofaherd
(195goats)whieharemanaged七
isdividedin七
〇ge七herinday一
七ripherding.The七
〇taユherd
〇severalsmal=Luni七s,and七hemembersofeachuni七are
checkedonebyone.TheTurkanaselec七ive工yapplysevera工at七ributesof
lives七
〇ckfor七heuni七for皿a七ion.Thisdivisionof七heherdcan1)e
regardedasalives七
〇ckclassifica七ioninaspecificsi七ua七ion.Af七er
beingdividedin七
〇uni七s,all七heindividualsarecheckedonebyone.工n
七hischecking,livestockaretrea七edclassedbybeingdividedin七
〇small
uni七s,andalsoasdis七inctiveindividualsbybeingcheckedonebyone.
Theaspec七
〇flives七
〇ckindividuali七yisexamined七hrough七hegiving
ofindividualnames●TheTurkanagivepropernames七
〇all七heparous
fe皿aleswhicharemilked・E七ymologiesof350namesareexamined・A■l
namesrefertocer七aina七
havemanya七
七ributesof七henamedsubjec七s.Whi=Lelives七
七ribu七es,onlyonea七
七ribu七eisreferred七
Thesignificanceofindividualiden七ifica七ioninpas七
discussed.工
〇inmos七names.
〇ralsocie七iesis
七isimpor七an七func七iona].1y,becausepeoPleshouldmake
七hepairsofmo七herandoffspringencoun七eraf七er七hesepara七ionduring
aday一
〇ck
七ripherding,formilking七hemo七herandfor七heoffspring讐s
nu七ri七ion.工ndividualiden七ifica七ionoflives七Qckhascloseconnec七ion
alsowith七hesocialrela七ionshipswhicharecrea七edandsus七ainedby
1
lives'しocktransfer.Eachtransfercanberegardedasdistinc七iveonly
wheneach七ransferredindividualisiden七ifiedasanirreplaceable
uniqueanimal・Livestockindividualityisdiscussedalsoinrela七ion
七〇 七heiden七ifica七ionbe七weenmanandca七
七leinEas七Africanpastoral
societies●
[lives七
〇ckclassification,lives七
〇cknaming,工ives七
〇ckmanagemen七,Turkana]
1.工n七roduc七ion
工、inguis七icprofusionin七hedomainoflives七
pas七
〇ckamong七heEas七African
〇ralis七siswell㎞ownbyan七hropologis七s.Evans-Pri七chard(1940:48)
poin七edou七
七ha七
七heNuerhave冒
冒agalaxyofwordsti七
〇describethe
varia七ionsincoa七colorJhornshape,earcu七andage-sexca七egories,e七c。
ofca七
七1e,and七ha七suchanenor皿ousnumberof七ermsareusedby七heNuer
in七heireverydaylife.Guユliver(1951),whos七udied七heTurkana,also
s七a七edtha七
七heTurkanahavealargenumberofdiscrimina七ing七ermswhich
enable七hem七
〇dis七inguishandmakereference七
allthesa皿e七
〇any七woani皿alswhichlook
〇Europeans.
Evans-Pri七chard(1940)s七a七ed七ha七
七heric㎞essof七ermsamongone
peopleinpar七icuユarfieldsoffers七hekey七
〇unders七anding七hedirec七ion
and.s七reng七hof七heir,in七eres七s..Tos七udysuchvocabulariesisno七merely
aユinguisticinquiryin七
〇 七hepas七
referringtotheindividual=Lives七
〇ralis七
曾s七echniquesfordescribingand
〇ck・Forpas七
〇ralis七s,lives七
onlyprovide七hemwi七h七he皿eansofユivelihood,bu七
〇cknot
七heyare七he皿ediumof
humansocialrela七ionships,and七heyplayanimpor七an七rolein七heir
religiouslifealso.Through七heexplorationsof七hevocabularies,wecan
find七heclue七
〇unders七andingman曾ssocialandreligiouslife・Since
Evans_Pri七chard,however,s七udiesoflives七
li七 七leprogressforEas七Africanpas七
Many七ermsareapPlicable七
i七fro皿
〇ralsocieties●
〇 〇nespecificindividual,discrimina七ing
〇七hersinaherd.These七ermsapPearin七hepoemsonspecific
animals,referring七
a七lea8七
〇ckvocabularieshavemade
〇 七heirdis七inc七ivefea七ures・They,however,areno七,
〇riginal].y,七heindividualnamesof七hereferen七s,bu七
七heyare
2
classifica七
〇rytermsfordescribinglives七
〇ck.Forexample,ttspo七
[cow]ttor「tgrayheron[-1ikeox]曾
「canrefer七
dependingonsi七ua七ions,bu七
七ed
〇specificindividuals
七herearemanyanimalswhichfi七
七〇these
ca七egories・Theseterms,aswellas!tblacktt)ttredtlsdo七
七edt「,1,s七riped'1,
e七c・,belongto七heclassifica七ionsystemwhiehdrawsdefini七elinesin七he
con七inuousvaria七ionsin七hecoa七colorofanimals.PeoPleclassify
livestockalsobyo七her七rai七s,suchashornshape,agetsex,e七c.
1・inguisticprofusionin七helives七
〇ckclassifica七ionamongPas七
〇ralpeoples
canberecognizedasorigina七edfrom七heco皿plica七edprocessof
classifica七ion.
Humanclassifica七ionsystemofnaturalsurro㎜dingshas七woaspec七s:
(1)Apar七
〇f七hegivendifferencebecomes七
〇berecognizedastohavesome
meaningsforhumansandclassified,and(2)humans七hemse].vesac七ively
producedifferencesin七hesubjec七sbyworkingupon七he皿
・
lives七
七han七he
〇ck,however,七hela七
七eraspec七is皿oreimpor七an七
工ncaseof
classifica七ionofwildorganismssbecausepeoplecrea七eandmain七ain
variousdifferencesinlives七
〇ckin七heprocessofkeepingand皿anaging
七he皿for七heirlife。
Eachca七egoryin七hec工assifica七ionsyste皿hasi七sdis七inct七raits,
andindividualsreceivease七
〇f七rea七men七sjus七because七heybelong七
cer七ainca七egories.Lives七
〇
〇ckclassifica七ionsys七emhascloserela七ion七
〇
七heirac七ualmanagemen七,eachca七egorybeingaccompaniedbyi七s
corresponding七rea七men七s・Aspec七
〇f'bhenclasstrcomes七
On七heo七herhand,七hereisano七heraspec七
〇flives七
animalis七rea七edasadis七inc七ive!,individual冒
namestolives七
classifica七
〇ckinwhicheach
冒.TheTurkanagiveproper
〇ck。The七ermsusedaspropernamesareoriginally
〇ry.Flrommany七ermsequallyapplicable七
individual,oneischosen七
shownwha七kindofanimala七
classifica七
〇 七hefore・
〇ry七ermsarechangedin七
differfromdescrip七ivereferring七
〇givei七
〇aspecific
七heproperna皿e.工n七henaming,i七is
七ribu七es七heTurkanacare,how七he
〇propernames,andhowpropernames
〇specificindividuals.
工n七hispaper,工describe七heTurkana「srela七ionshipwi七hlives七
inabove七woaspec七s:七hey七rea七lives七
1冒ca七egory置1,andasdis七inc七ive冒
〇ck,
〇ckasanimalsoftvclass「tor
冒individuals冒
「.
3
2・Lives七
〇ckclassifica七ion
2-1.Age_sexclassifica七ion
2-1-1.Lives七
〇ckin七heTurkanatsanimalfolkclassifica七ion
Turkanac工assify七heanimalkingdomin七
〇 七hefollowingfive
categories:
(1)i七wan(pl.ngi七unga):humans,
(2)塑(pl.ngi七iang):mammals,
(3)二
辿
こ(P]..ngikeny):birds,
(4)ibore(pl。
.ngiboro):〇
七hers,
(5)ebara・i七(pl.Pgi,1b2gggp):lives七
・ck.
Theca七egory(2)roughlycorrespondsmammals,al七houghi七include8
crocodilesanddono七includeba七swhichareclassifiedin七
〇 七heca七egory
(3).Theca七egory(4)includesa工lanimalso七her七hanhumanstmammaユs,
andbirds・Thetermfor七hisca七egory,ibore,皿eans四
七hing冒 「generally。
工ncon七ras七too七herfourca七egorieswhichareclearlydefined,七his
ca七egoryis,ini七sna七ure,acomplimen七aryse七,ex七rac七edbyexcluding
七heo七herfourca七egoriesfro皿
ca七egory(5)ofZives七
i・e・,ca七
七heuniversalse七
〇fanimals.The
〇ckincludesonlyfivedomes七icanima].species,
七le,ca皿el,goa七s,sheep,anddonkeys・Thisca七egoryis
di・ 七in・ 七f・
・m七heca七
・gQry(3)。fmamma1・.2
2-1-2.Basicclassifica七ion
TheTurkanaclassifylives七
〇ckaccording七
〇thedifferencesinsexand
developmen七als七ages・Fig。1shows七heage-sexclassifica七ionoffive
lives七
〇ckspecies.Threes七ages(工
一II工)areeducibleinbo七hma⊥esand
femalesofa=Llspecies●
Ins七age工,malesandfemalesareno七differen七ia七edandpu七
七〇ge七her.
The七ermfor七heca七egoryhasaneu七ergenderprefix・Ofcourset七he
Turkanaareawareof七hesexofeachanimalin七hiss七age,andwhen七he
discriminationisnecessary,-10kile[male]and-naberu[fema工e]areadded
七〇 七heendingof七he七ermin七hiss七age・Probably七hesexdifferenceis
no七
〇fgrea七considera七ionfor七heTurkanain七heac七ualmanagemen『
しofthe
animalsin七hiss七age●
4
Eachanimalgrowsfroms七age工
七〇s七age工
工.Theboundarybe七ween
theses七ages,however,isno七clear.Bo七hmalesandfemalesbegin七
referred七
〇by七heter皿ofs七age工
〇be
工slightlybeforesexualma七uri七y.
工tdependson七hesi七ua七ionwhe七herananimalon七heboundaryis
designa七edby七hetermofs七age工,orby七he七ermofs七age工
工.For
example,when七heissueis七herela七ionwi七h七he皿
◎七her,evenani皿alslarge
enoughtobereferredtobys七age工1七eIrmsaredesigna七edbys七age工ter皿s・
工no七herwordsp七heanima二Lsofs七age工ares皿alland/or七heyare七he
offspringinrela七ionwi七hthemo七herinques七ion.The七ermikoku(which
皿eanschildwhenapPlied七
〇hu皿ans)isusedtodefineananimaltsat七ribu七e
as「ttheoffspringofso-and-soT「.
Malesandfemalesarediscrimina七edins七age工
differen七
工,andreferred七
〇by
七ermswhichhave七hecorrespondingmasculineandfeminine
prefixes,excep七forca七
七le。Animalsins七age工
regardedby七heTurkana七
工includemaleswhichare
〇belargeenoughtoimpregna七efemales,皿ales
whieharetoos皿a工=L,femaleslargeenough七
〇bepregnan七,andfemales8七i11
七〇〇s皿all・TheTurkanadono七haveanyexac七
皿1eexpressionsclose七
七ermforsexualma七uri七y.
〇i'しistt七
〇moun七females闘formalesandtt七
〇be
moun七ednornbigenoughtobecomepregnan七ttforfemales.Wha七draw
Turkana!sa七
七en七ionare七hecopu工a七ionandresul七ingconcep七ion.
All七he七ermsfor皿alesins七age工
e七 〇u七)means七es七icle8,and1=皇
工includeL,」
一幽
」
。1迦(sing.
」
『製canbe七ransla七edastt七hosewhich
have七esticlesti.This七erInshows七ha七
七heTurkanapaya七
七en七ion七
〇 七he
malecas七ra七ion.Since七hereproducingmalesalsohave七es七icles,ユ
ユ9主 璽
皇一
皿us七bedefinedincon七ras七wi七h七hemaleca七egoriesins七age」1工
Thisca七egory,並
工・
「幽,canbes七ric七1ydefinedasttmaleswi七h七es七icles
whichisno七under七heconsidera七ion七
〇cas七ra七eorno七tt.
Incon七ras七,iwani七aiins七age工
工are七hose皿aleswhichwillbe
castra七edinfu七ure.ThedecisionisalLreadymade:七heyareno七
七〇be
selec七edasreproducingmales.Malesin七hisca七egoryareinmore
developeds七agethan七hoseof』L9一
幽ofwhom七hedecisionhasno七been
皿adeye七.Iwani七aiisusedonlyinsuchres七ric七edcon七ex七as七
〇ask
whe七her'bhedecisionisalreadymadeorno七
工鯉,on七heo七herhand,isa七erm七
discu8sionisalargemaleins七age工
Therefore,ユ
〇nnon-cas七ra七edmales.エLa_.
〇askwhe七her七hesubjec七
工工orasmallmaleins七age工
旦 「幽andiwani七aiareno七exclusiveofoneano七her・
5
〇f
工.
工ncon七ras七
七〇 七heshif七froms七age工
七〇 工工,whichdependsonarather
vaguecri七erionof七hedegreeofdevelopment
I工andI工
,七heboundarybe七weens七ages
工isc工earinbo七h皿alesandfemales;selec七ionofreproducing
malesandcas七ra七ionofo七hersinmaユes,andpar七uri七ionand皿ilkingin
females.
Thema工esins七age工
工Iarecomposedofreproducingmalesandcas七ra七ed
males.TheTurkanacas七ra七eall七hemalelives七
〇ckexcep七forafew
reproducingmales・Thereproducingmaleisaselec七edanimal,anddiffers
from七hesexuallyma七urednon-cas七ra七edmales.A七
工eas七innor七hwes七ern
Turkana,whereImadein七ensives七udy,七helnalesonceselec七edas
reproducing皿alesareno七cas七ra七edevenwhen七heygrow七
〇〇 〇ld七
〇
reproduce・Theywillbeslaugh七eredforvariousreasons,bu七no七
cas七ra七ed.3
Theyhave七hreecas七ra七ionme七hods:(1)cu七
七ingoffthese皿inalduc七s
insidebybea七ingwi七hawoodenham皿er(Fig.2),(2)removing七es七iclesand
seminalduc七saf七ercu七
。ff七heseminald・
七ingopen七hescro七umwi七h㎞ives,and(3)bi七ing
・七・i・
・id・wi七h・
・七 ・h・ddi・gbl・
・d.4
TheTurkanaenumera七e七hepurposesofcas七ra七ion:maleswillgrowfa七,
acquireresistibili七y七
andeasy七
〇 七hedrywea七herand工ackofwatertbecomedocile
〇behandled。Cas七ra七ionisalsoprac七icedfor'しhe七rea七mentof
somedi8eases(Oh七a1984).
Amonggoa七s,工observed七heTurkanacas七ra七eamalenewlyjoined七
七heherdbyexchange,inorder七
皿1eysaythatnewcomers七
〇
〇preven七i七frombeinglos七whileherding.
〇 七heherdareap七tos七raybecause'bheyare
surroundedbyunacquain七edgoa七s,and七ha七
七h60pera七i6hfunc七ions七
〇
reduce七henewcomers雪ac七ivi七ybygiving七hempain.
Theau七
〇nomousin七egra七ionofalives七
〇ckherdisconsidered七
〇be
reducedin七hebreedingseason(e.9.,Tani1976).When七heherdcon七ains
manymales,someanimalswillbelos七because七heherdwouldbedis七urbed
byru七tingmales.TheTurkanasay七ha七suchsi七ua七ionoccursonlyin
donkeyherds,and七heiropinionvariesabou七herdsofo七herlives七
〇ck
species.工nnon-breedingseasonss七hecas七ra七edmales七end七
〇graze
七〇ge七herwi七hfemalesandyoungimma七uremalesInorefrequen七ly七han
reproducingmales(Ohta1982)・Cas七ra七ionofmalesapParen七lyenhance七he
herdin七egra七ion,a七leas七,ofgoa七herds,al七hough七heTurkanadono七have
anyconsciouspurpose七
〇mQdify七heassocia七ionpa七
七ernofgoa七s.
6
Cas七rationiscloselyrela七edto七heirsociallife,in七hatonly
cas七ra七edmalesareexchangedwi七hnuユliparousfemales,and七ha七the
sacrificeinsomeri七ualsisres七ric七ed七
〇cas七ra七edmales.Someof七he
cas七ra七edmalesbecome七hefavori七eanimalsof七heowner(Gulユiver1951).
Thechiefsubjec七
〇ftiiden七ifica七ionn(Seligman&Selig1nan1932)ofaman
wi七h七helives七
〇ck,istheox,al七houghmalesofgoa七andcamelcanbeco皿e
i『しssubsti七u七es.AkiduwarIneans「
曾
七〇makeananimalasonet8favori七eonen
in七heTurkanalanguage,and七hesubjec七isreferred七
〇asttng[ox]Lo-
duwari七",ifitisanox.
Thecriterion七
〇dis七inguish七hes七age工
工Ife皿alesfrom七hoseof
s七ageI工iswhe七her七heyhavebeenmilkedorno七af七er七hepar七uri七ion.
TheTurkanadono七direc七lycon七rolanimalreproduc七ionexcep七forthema].e
cas七ra七ion,al七houghforgoa七sandsheep,theysometimeshelp皿ales
copuユa七ebyholdinges七rousfemalesdown・TheseasonaZchangeof
par七uri七iondirec'し1ydependson七hefluc七ua七ioninvege七a七iontwhichaffect
七hefemalenu七ritivecondi七ions.
Femalesinges七a七ionareclassifiedin七
〇 七hrees七ages.TheTurkanats
descriptionofeachs七ageareasfoUows:
(1)∠
幽2=gesta七ionisprovedby七heswollenbellyof七hefe皿ales.The
nipPlesandbreas七sdonQ七showapParen七changeye七.Ifabor七edin七his
s七age,七hebabyishairless.
(2)Akiwochun:thebellyofafe皿alein七hiss七ageisswollenasif七he
femaletss七
〇皿achwerefuユlevenin七hemorningbeforegrazing,whichmakes
ac].ea翌con七ras七with七hebelliesofn◎n-pregnan七
〇nes.Thenipplesbegin
七〇protrude.工fabor七edin七hiss七age,thebabyhashairson七hehead,and
at七he七ipsoflegsand七ai1.
(3)Akitaalakin:七hebellyswellslarger,aswellas七hebreas七s.The
prema七ureinfan七some七imessurvives.Thiss七agelas七s㎜
七il七henormal
par七uri七ion・
Tablelshows七hedura七ionofeachs七age.TheTurkanahave七he].unar
calendar,and七heyanswered七
〇myques七ionon七hedura七ioninfigures●
Theyhaveclearideason七heges七a七ionperiodof七heanimals.However,
七heydono七dependonfigureswhentheyjudge七heges七a七ions七age・They
classifypregnan七femalesby七heobservablephysicalsigns.
A皿ong七he七hree七ermsmen七ionedabove,塑hasthegenera].皿eaning
ofiibecomepregnan七
冒
㌔This七ermisappliedonly七
〇non-humananimals。
7
Whatise皿phasizedby七hister皿
,whenapPlied七
ges七a「bions七age,isno七
〇femalesin七hefirs七
七hes七ageitself,bu七thefac七tha七
七heconcerning
individua工ispregnan七.In七hisregard,rbhistermdiffersfrom七heo七her
七wo・
工nshor七,apregnan七femalein七heearlys七ageisdescribedonlyas
"itispregnan・
し冒
冒
.
Evenaf七ergivingbir七h,afemaleisclassifiedin七
par七uri七i。n,hav。beens七il1-bi。
〇 七hes七age工
七h,and七h。f。maユ
beingmilked,七hefe皿aleispu七in七
lives七
七beenmilk。d.5Af七
・r
〇s七age工II,evenif七heoffspringhave
died・Fordonkeys,whichareno七
isgivingbir七h七
。hasn。
工ifall
皿ilkedamong七heTurkana,七hecri七erion
〇 七hrivingoffspring.Thesterilefe皿alesofall
〇ckarecalledl⊆gakolupai(sing.akolupa七).Thisca七egoryisno七
mu七ual].yexclusivewi七hfemaleca七egoriesins七age工
工,bu七for皿sapar七
〇f
七hem.
Th・f。malesi。,七
。g。
工工1,i。
cen七ralissue,areclassifiedin七
whi・hh・sb・bi・
七hec。
。七。x七
七h。t。ilkp。
。d。 ・七i。・6i・
七h・
〇 七hefo工lowing七hreeca七egories:afemale
・andi・
エ・・七・七i・g(9!!993ugLt,pl.U・manang),7・f・mal・
whoseoffspringdiedaf七erbir七hbu七islac七ating(aarakan,P1・
naarakanin),8and・f・ma1・whi・hi・n。tl・
・七a七ing(a。nikini七,pl.
nakoonikinok).Thecri七eriaof七hisclassifica七ionaremilkingand
presenceofbabies.These七hreeca七egoriesareindependen七
Theyareapplied七
〇alllives七
ca七egoryoffemalesins七age工
〇foneano七her.
〇ckexcep七fordonkeys,andform七heinfra工工.
2-1-3.Distinctionbe七weenlargeandsmallユives七
〇ckapPearedin七he七erms
forage-sexca七egories
Theexamina七ionof七hetermsinFig.1reveals七ha七
七heTurkana
dis七inguishlalrge(ca七tle,ca皿els,anddonkeys)lives七
(goa七sandsheep)・Fors七age工
工femalest七heca七
camelsanddonkeys,whilethegoa七
dividelivestockin七
〇ckfro皿smallones
七le七er!nsareapPlied七
〇
七ermsareusedforsheep.TheTurkana
〇 七woca七egories,i・e・,largeandsmalllives七
al七hough七heydono七haveclassifica七
〇ck,
〇ry七ermsfor七hem.
The七er皿(a七aok)for七heheifersins七ageI工,whichareyoungandno七
皿ilkedye七,isapPlied七
〇ca皿elsanddonkeysof七hesames七age・
caseofcat七le,a七aokformsapairwi七hai七e(s七ageI工
工)・Incon七ras七,
a七aokmakesapairwi七h.aapolon(whichmeanst「largetl)amongcamelsand
donkeys.Evenforca七
工n七he
七1e,七heexpressionof1冒ai七ea七aokltissome'bimes
8
used・Thisexpression,however,s七resses七ha七theanimalconcernedisa
cow,butno七acamelordonkey.Whenpeoplesaysimplya七aok,i七signifies
thecowins七age工
工,andno七
七ha七
〇fs七ageI工
工.
Thesameusageof七he七ermapPearsamonggoa七sandsheep。The七erm
(akal・),whi・h。
・iginally・
七hesheepof七hesames・
・an・f・maユ
・g。a七ins七
・g・n,isaユ
・。apPlied七
しage.Akaleisthecoun七erpartof皇
些
。
皇among
goa七s,whereasi七coordina七eswithaapoloユam◎ngsheep。
Goa七sandsheeparesome七imeslumpedtoge七herwi七houtdis七ine七ion・
Thisisreflec七edintheTurkanatsgeneral七ermwhichmeansgoa七s・This
七er皿(旦ng2pg,pl.nganginei)alsoimplies七heca七egorycomposedofbo七h
goatsand8heep.Wheni七isnecessarytoindica七etha七
七heconcernedisa
goa七bu七no七asheep,七he七er皿ameo七(pl・
聾)or皇
ユ9主01皇nameo七is
employed.
2-1-4.Uniquenessofca七tleandgoa七sin七he七er皿sforage-sexca七egories
Nex七poin七is七ha七classifica七ionofca七
七leandgoa七sareunique
co皿paredwi七hthatof七heo七her=Lives七
〇ck.Termsforstage工
工fema工esof
cattleandgoa七sarecomposedofonelexe皿e,whileof七wolexemesforo七her
lives七
〇ck.
Thesameuniquenes8isshownin七hetermfors七age工1工ma工esof
ca七 七le.Bo七hreproducingandcas七ra七edmalesins七age工
工工arereferred七
〇
byonelexemeforca七tle,whileby七wo工exemesforothers.Theterm
for七hereproducingmaleofca七
七le(emaanik)isalsoapPlied七
,.
animals.Tha七is,七histermalso皿eans雪
〇wild
冒ma」Les(ofadultanimal)ltgenerally.
工七suseisres七ric七edtoadul七sbecausei七con七ainstheno七ionof
reproducing.Thereareo七herterms七
〇signify七hesexesofnewborns,
lokileformales,andnaberuforfemales(forhumans,⊥osapa七fQrmalesand
naberuf。rfemales).
Theterm(10ke七epa皇)forreproducingmalesofo七herlives七
derivedfrom21t1」,SZgRt,which皿eanslt七
〇ckis
〇moun七(fe皿ales)11,and七heterm
(幽)forcas七ra七edlnalesisaderiva七ivefromakidong[ame七hodof
cas七ra七ion,seefootno七e3]●
The七ermfor七heca七
七1eofs七age工(ユ9主
園 ≦)isa工soapPユied七
animals,meaning!ttheyo㎜gonesltgenerally.Fur七herforca七
s七age工andI工arereferred七
IIand工
〇wild
七le,malesof
〇by七hesameterm,whilei七ismalesofs七age
工工whicharecalledby七hesame七ermforo七herlives七
〇ck.
9
The㎜iquenessofgoa七classifica七ionliesin七ha七
工工andI工
七he七ermofstage
工males(ekoroi)isco皿ple七elydifferen七from七ha七
〇ffemales●
Forca皿els,sheep,anddonkeys,七hedifferencebe七weenmaletermsand
fema工etermsapPearsonlyin七hegenderprefix,wi七h七hes七emof七ermbeing
entirely七hesame.
工ntheTurkanatsmanagemen七
〇feachlives七
differencewhichwouldcorrespond七
〇ck,七hereisnoapParen七
〇 七heuniquenessofca七
七leandgoa七
classificationsys七em.In七heac七ualmanagemen七,donkeysareunique;they
areno七milkedbu七usedaspackanimals.〇
七herlives七
〇ckaredea1七wi七h
under七hesamesys七em.Theoriginofuniquenessinca七
七leandgoa七
classifica七iondoesno七havei七80riginin七hepresen七
皿anagemen七
2_2.
。
Classifica七ionofcoa七co=Lor
Do皿es七icanimalspecieswhich皿ain七aincolorvarian七spolymorphically
havewidecoa七colorvaria七ions.Thesevaria七ionsaredue七
〇 七ha七
七he
pressureofna七uralselectionhasbeenloweredunder七heartificial
condi七ionsand七hat七hela七en七gene七icalvaria七ionhassurfaced(Zeuner
1963).
TheTurkanahaveahugevocabulary七
oflives七
〇ck・They,howeversdono七havetermstosignifyttcolor!ior
'冒pa七七ern四abs七rac七ly
7∼
竺
.TheTurkanasay,whenaskingthecolorofani!na工s,
皇旦hai?!ttwhichli七erally皿eansttwha七kindofapPearance?1冒Thisphrase
alsoapplies七
say冒
〇describe七hevariouscoa七colors
〇humanappearances。When七heywan七
七〇specifyanimals,七hey
冒
∠A2M19Enga.iuru[animalfur]hai?tt
Theconcep七softtcolor「fandnpa七
七ern1tareindivisibleandcon七inuous
for七heTurkana,al七hough七heyaresepara七edforconveniencein七he
followingdescrip七ion●
2-2-1.Termsof冒
冒color冒l
Turkana七ermsofttcolorttand七hefoca1
皿anifes七a七ionofeachterm
(1)-aakwan:whi七e,
(2)-kiryoo皇3black,
(3)-991Zgl99A:red,
(4)-INeu9=yellowororanges
10
are3
(5)一!・!9XS・9・ay。
・grayi・hb・
(6)一
魍or-bok:paユereddishpurple,
(7)一
皿
(8)一
蟷
・w・,
旦3blue,green,oryellow-green,
コL:purple.
Theseninetermswi=Libereferred七
〇as曾lcolor七ermsltin七hefollowing
descrip七ions・Allof七hemareu七ilizedwhenreferring七
〇 七heanimalcoa七
color・1'しmaybecuri◎us七ha七theTurkanaapPlysuchtermsasred,blue,
andpurple七
〇 七heani皿alcoa七color.Howeverswha七isimpor七an七for
apPlica七ionofthese七ermsis七herela七ive七
〇neofcolors.Even七
〇ca皿els
anddonkeys,whosecolorvaria七ionsareno七sogrea七asamongca七
七1e,
goats,andsheep,七heTurkanaapp].yallof七henine七erms.Thechroma七ic
ex七entofeach七ermsti皿Plica七ion,a1七houghIdono七analyzei七heresis
almostthesamewi'th七hatof七heNyanga七
〇m,scolor七er皿s(Torney1973),
whoselanguagediffersfrom七ha七
〇f七heTurkanaon].ya七
ThesoZedifferenceistha七
・nimalfur・
七heNyanga七
。1。 ・(T・m・y1973),whi1・
2-2-2●Termsofl冒pa七
七hedialec七level.
〇mapPly七heterm-bokonly七
七h・Tu・k・
〇
・aapPlyi七
七・ev・
七erni冒
Therearevariouspa七ternsofcolorcombina七ionson七helives七
bodies,especiallyamongca七
〇ck
七ユe,goats,andsheepinEas七Africa.Al七hough
severalanthropologis七srepor七ed『
しheclassifica七ionsys七emsofcolor
configurationinEas七Africanpas七
〇ralsocie七ies(Evans-Pri・tchard1940,
Dyson-Hud80n1966,Torney1973,Fukui1979,Tur七
〇n1980),noneof七he皿
fullydiscussedhow七he七ermsareapPlied七
〇animals.
TheTurkanahavesix七een七erms七
〇refer七
〇co=Lorconfigura七ions●Fig.
3shows七hefocalmanifes七a七ionsofeach七erm・Iwillcall七hem7曾pa七
七ern
ter皿s「fhereaf七er.
These七ermsdono七refer七
◎ 七hespecificpar'tofbodies,bu七tothe
dis七ribu七ionofcolorsasawholeon七heanimalbody・These七ermsareused
differen七1yfrom七heexpressionsforreferring七
〇animalco=Lorbyu七ilizing
genera1七er皿sforanimalbodypar七s,whichwillbecalledt,body_七ermstt
hereaf七er.
2-2-3.Coa七colorvaria七ionandhow七
TheTurkanarefer七
・y七hing9.
〇refer七
〇animals
〇coa七coloroflives七
〇ckby'しhecolor七erms,
pa七 七ern七ermsandother七erms・Theusageof七he七ermsa七
七he七imeof
11
referring七
〇animalsaresummarizedin七
(1)。nec。1・rt・
〇nineca七egories:
・皿,
(2)co皿bina七ionofcolor七erms,
(3)・nepa七t・rn七
・rm,
(4)・
。・bina七i。n・f・
(5)・
。mbina七i・n・fpa七
。1。randpa七
七ern七
・・m,
七・rnt・rm・,
(6)combina七ionofco=Lor七ermandbody-term,
(7)combina七ionofpa七
七ern七er皿andbody一
(8)七ermswhichrefer七
(9)〇
七erm,
〇wildanimals,
七her七ermswhoseusageisres七ric七ed七
〇animalcoarbcoloronly.
Eachca七egorywillbeexplainedin七hefollowing.Al1七hereferrings七
〇
ani皿alsareaccompaniedbygenderprefix(insinguユarform,Lo-:皿asculine,
巫 」-3feminine,PL主
一2neu七er;seeDim皿endaal1983)apPropria七e七
〇the
referents●
(1)Ananimalwhosecoa七colorisuniformisdescribedbyasingle
color七er皿
・
(2)Anani皿alwhichhasuniformcoateand七hecolorfallsbe七ween七wo
ca七egoriesof七heTurkana「scolorclassifica七ion,isdescribedbya
combina七ionof七wocolor七erms.Al七houghcombina七ionofmorethan七wo
termsis七heore七ical].ypossib].e,Ididno七
〇bservesuchacase.
(3)Foranalyzing七heusageofpa七
七ern七erms,i七isnecessaryto
distinguishbe七weenfour七erms(-meri,-kori,一!!99Z9:k,and-komoliヨsee
Fig。3,A↑andA2),ando七herpa七
fro皿
〇七hers.Thepa七
七heyareapProxi皿a七e七
七ern七erms.Thefour七ermsaredifferen七
七erns8ignifiedbybo七h一
〇 七hettdo七
皿eriand-koriarethesame;
七edpa七
七ernttinourconcep七
・However,
while-meriisusedwhen七hecolorofdo七son七hewhi七egroundis一
[b=Lack],一
工型 昆[blueandgreen],and一
旦 里 工[pur'ple]㍉
colorofdo七sisraaryangan[red],一
上≡二幽
塑
蟷[yellow],一
鯉[gray】,and_
」(or_bok)[palereddishpur'ple].Thesameapplies七
迦Lエ,theformercorresponds七
一koriisusedwhen七he
〇=1}ggZgLkand一
〇-meri,and七helat七er七
〇-kori.These
fourpa七rbern七ermspar七iallyinclude七henotionof七he,「colorttinheren七ly・
Forexamp].e,七heTurkanadono七use-kori,bu七
一merifor七heco二Lorpa七
ofblackdo七sonawhi七eground・Thisusageshows七ha'し
七heTurkana
classify七hecolor七ermso七her七han-aakwan[whi七e】in七
〇 七wocover七
ca七egories:oneforwhich-meriand-llggZgLkareapplied,and七heo七herfor
12
七ern
which-koriand-komoliareapPlied
.
N◎rmally,七hesefour七ermsareaccompaniedby七hecolor七erlnwhich
signifies七hecolorofdo七sandspo七s,bu七whendo七sandspo七sare一
茎iryoon
[black]or-gaAZZaUggg[red],七hecolortermisno七added七
〇pa・ し七ern七erms.
Forexample,when七heTurkanarefer七
Prefix)一
〇anani皿aZsimplyasユ
≦≧(masculine
・komoli(Fig.3,A2),七heanimaliscoa七coloris七hespo七ted
pa七 七ernofwhiteandred.Thisusageshows七hat七heitblackttandt!redit
occupydifferentplacesfromo七hercolorsamong七heTurkana・
(4)Theco皿bina七
classifiedin七
〇rialuseofcolor七ermandpa七
〇
七ern七er皿canbe
七hree.
4A:工n七heca8eoffourpa七
七ernsabove,七heanimalisdescribedby
combina七ionofcolorandpa七
七ern七erms,when七hecolorofdo七sand
spo七sareo七her七han!lblack署
冒and館red,窟.Theorderof七ermsispa七
『
しern
七erm十color七er皿.
4B:Theabove-men七ionedfour七ermsarefollowedbytheterm-aakwan
[whi七e],when七hedo七sandspo七sareno七vivid.
4C,In七hecaseoftheotherpa七
七erns(Fig.3,B1-B12),thepa七
七erntermis
followedby七heco=Lor七ermwhichdeno七es七hecoloro七her七hanwhite。
(5)Thefourpa七
七ern七ermsmen七ionedab◎veso皿e七imesfollowo七her
pa七 七ern七er皿1s.When七hepar七so七her七hanwhi七ein七hepa七
七ernsofB1-。B12,
inFig.3,areno七uniform].ycoloredbu七spo七
七edordo七
七ed,七hefour七erms
pユay七hesamefunc七ionas七hecolortermsin4C.Forexamp工e,ananimal
describedas三
ユ鯉
里[femininegenderprefix]一
ユ塑
一merihas七hepa七
七ernof一
』[pat七ern七erm,Fig。3,B5],wi七h七hecoloredpar七being-meri[do七
七ed,Fig.
3,A1】.
(6)Colorconfigura七ionsofanimalsarealsoreferableby七hebody
七erms.Thebodypar七sreferredare:head(akou),ears(エ
(e㎞me),㎜derpar七
〇f七heneck(e七
塑
≦主),nose
〇le),breas七(eraru皿),hump(aruk),
wais七(aabor),foreleg(akuwa七)『,hindleg(amuro),and七ai].(ekosim),e七c.
Thebody七ermsareobviouslydifferen七from七hepa七
七ern七erms.Thisis
manifes七edin七he七ermusagesli・e・in七heirrela七iveposi'tionswhen七hey
arecombinedwithcolor七erms・Thebody七ermsfollow七hecolor七ermse
referringonly七
〇 七he8pecificpar七
charac七eris'bicsapPear,while七hepa七
〇f七hebodywhere七heconspicuous
七ern七ermsprecede七hecolor七erms.
Forexample,awhi七eoxwi七hablackheadcanbedescribedasよ
kiryoon[black]-akou[head],aswellasユ
≧[prefix]￡[prefix]一
13
ユ盤
」[pa七
七errlterm,
Fig・3,B5]一
迦[black]●Guユliver(1951)lis七edsomeTurkana七ermsof
anima].coa七colors,bu七hedidno七dis七inguishbe七weenpa七
body七erms,placingthepa七
Pa七tern一
七ern七ermsand
七erntermsas七
七ermsrefer七
〇refer七
〇apar七
〇fbody.
〇thedis七ribu七ionofcolorson七hewholebody,and
arealsoapPlicable七
〇 七hingso七her七hananimals.
(7)Thefour七ermsin(3)areusedin七heplaceofcolor七ermsin七he
represen七ationsexplainedin(6).Forexample,acowwi七hdo七
referred七
〇as里
七edearsis
旦[prefix]-meri[do七
七ed,8eeFig・3,A1]一
(8)Thecoa七coloroflives七
anilnals,andlives七
工塑
〇ckissome七imescompared七
〇 七ha七
・
〇fwild
〇ckisreferredtoby七he七ermsofwildanimals.Wi].d
animalswhichapPearin七herepresen七a七ionsoflives七
elephan七(e七
≦主[ears】
〇ckcoa七colorsare5
〇m),hun七ingdo9(9RgX9]tL),lion(enga七]lnXZ),spo七
七edhyena
(ebu),leopard(eris),kudu(esarishi),zebra(e七uko),Gran七tsgazelle
(麩),buffalo(ek。sowan),groundsquirrel(
puffadder(皇
.ekunyuk),七ur七
ユe(abok。),
迦),andaspeciesofsnake(aleu),e七c.The七ermusagein
thedescrip七ivereference(no七in七heindividualnames)七akes七hefollowing
七hree七ypes・
8A:The七er皿sofwildanimalsarecombinedwi七h七hetermsoflives七
〇ck
ca七egories.Forexample,七heox(e巫
〇fh㎜
≧!1g)whosecololrrese皿bles七ha七
七ingdogs(gRgZ91tL)isreferredtoas鯉g一
bealsoreferred七
〇as」L≦
些 一p塾.Thisoxcan
≧[prefix]一
一wazi(Fig。3,B12)rkiryoon[black].
8B:By七hewordkoni[look].ike],七heoxillus七ra七edin8Aeanbe
si皿ilizedas≦
ani皿
≧巫 ≧
ユ9-koni-9]29Z9;t・When七hecoa七colori七self,no七
琴1』isinconcern,七hecolor
七he
,ρf七heaboveoxisdescribedasユ
[prefix]-wazi(Fig.3,B12)-koni[looklike]一
型[huntingdo9].
Thefrequencyof七hese七er皿sin七heeverydaydescrip七ionsof
lives七
〇ck,however,isno七veryhigh,a1七hough七heyareco皿monlyfea七ured
inlives七
〇ckindividualnamesandinox-songs・
(g)Thefollowing七ermswhichrefer七
〇lives七
〇ckcoa七colorpcanfi七
七〇noneof七heabovgca七egories・
gA3-pahg1Zgrepresen七s七heagou七icolorofgoa七s(wild七ype,Searlelg68)
whichisacombina'bionofblackandbrown.
gB:一
週canbeapPlied七
〇 七hosewhohastheraaryangan[red]face・This
七ermoriginal].ymeans七hegirlstmake-upbyredclay.
gC=一
ユ9≦≧
工=胆isapPlicable七
〇thosewhoseheadisspo七
七edby-9e1Ze!199U
[red]and-aakwan[whi七e],al七houghi七se七yIIlologyisunknown.This
14
￡
七ermmaybeclassifiableasapa七tern七erm.However,whilepa七
七ern
七ermsabovemen七ionedcancombinewi七hseveralcolor七erms,七his七erm
canbefollowedonlybyraaryangan[red].工nshor七,七his七erm
signifiesonlyonekindofcolorconfigura七ion.
9D:
-siasignifies七hecolorofroan
.This七ermfunc七ionsjus七
七hesame
as七hecolor七erms,al七hough七his七ermisapPliedonly七
〇theanimal
coa七COlor.
9E=
「塑refers七
〇 七hecolorwhichcon七inuously七urnsfromblack七
brownordarkgray,from七hehead七
9F:
〇dark
〇thechest。
-a皿asignifies七hecoa七colorwhichincludesmorethan七wocolors
besideswhi七e,andformscomplica七edcolor.
All七hecoa七colorsclassifiedabovecanbeapPlied七
〇ca七
七le,goa七s
andsheep.Camelsanddonkeyshavera七heruniformcolor.Evenfor七hem,
七heTurkanaread七hedelicatedifferenceintheircoa七color,and
ex七ensivelyapply七hecolor七erms.
Thedis七ribu七ionoflives七
〇ckcoa七colorin七hepopula七ionsis
influencedby七he8elec七ionofreproducingmales・TheTurkanaselectonly
afewmalesasreproducingmales.A七
七he七i!neofselection,wha七kindof
a七 七ribu七esofmalesare七akenin七
〇considera七ion?Byin七erviews,however,
工couldno七de七ec七clears七andards.Whenasked,a1皿os七all七heTurkana
men七ioned七hebodysizeatfirs七.Maleswhi-chhavewidehaunch,wi七hlarge
bellyandhumparesui七ableforreproducing,according七
七heinforman七sanuded七
〇 七he皿.Noneof
〇 七hequalityof七hemo七her.
Someinforman七slnen七ioned七hecoa七color.Eachof七he皿said七ha七he
wasfondofsuchandsuchacolortand七ha七manyoffspringof七hecolor
wouldbegivenbir七hby七hemalesofsuchcolor.Thisexplana七ionl
however,refersonly七
〇hisindividualpreference,andi七doesno七mean
七ha七malesofacer七aincolorarequalifiedforreproducingmales
essen七ially.Judgingfrom七heirexplana七ions,七heydono七regardmalesof
anycoloras七hecommons七andardforreproducingma工es・
Howevert七hey七end七
〇choosereproducingmalessoas七
〇main七aina
highcolordiversityintheherd・Thecoa七colorvaria七ionisconspicuous
amongca七
七leandgoa七s・Forca七
七le,七heTurkanaareinclined七
〇choose,as
reproducing皿ales,七hosewhosegenesofcoa七color皿igh七behe七erogeneous
。。di。,1。d。vari。
。,recessi。
。g・nes10.F。
・g。
15
。七,,七h。
。eseem,七
。b。n。
tendency七ha七malesofanyspecificgeno七ypearechosen.Goa七herdsare
normallylarger七hanca七
七leherdsandinc二Ludemorereproducingmales。
SeeminglypeoPlechooseseveralreproducingmalesofdifferen七eolors,
whichresul七sinthediversi七y◎fcoa七eolorinaherd,al七hough七he
Turkarladono七speakofthisexplici七ly.
Th・ ・,whythec。
。七,。1。rvari。
七i。 。i。ah。rd,h。uユdb。mai。
七。i。 。d?11
TheTurkana七hemse=Lvesdono七explaini七.Oneof七hekeystoi七s
in七erpre七a七ionis七hel冒iden七ifica七ionttrela七ionship
.be七weenmenand
animals,inwhichamandevelopsspecificrela七ionswithspecificcas七ra七ed
males・Thisrelationshipisfor皿edno七
〇nlybe七weenamanandspecific
animals,bu七alsobe七weenhimand七hespecificcolorof七heiden七ified
animals.
Thereisnoexplici七rulefor七heforma七ionofthe七iebe七ween皿enand
colors.Bu七
七hereisaclear七endency七ha七full-andhalf-bro七herswho
havebeenbroughtup七
〇ge七her,choosedifferen七colorsfromoneano『
じher.
Forexample,among七wofullbro七hersand七heirhalfbro七her,identified
colorsofeachofthemarecomple七e=Lydifferen七fro皿oneano七heras
foUows:A,-aaryangan[red];B,-1uk里
皇(Fig.3,B6);C,-komoli(Fig。3,
A2).Perhapseachmaninhisboyhooddevelops七he七iewithapar七icuユar
colordifferen七from七hoseofhisbro七hers.
Usuallyonelives七
no七
〇ckherd,whichformsareproducingPopuユa七ion,is
〇wnedbyasinglemanbu七composedofanima工sofseveralmenwhoare
bro七hers.Theseveralownersjoin七lycons七i七u七eaherdinguni七.They
iden七ifythemselveswithsignifiean七lydifferen七
工七canbesaid七ha七
〇〇10rsfro血oneano・
しher.
七heTurkanachoosesuchreproducingmalesas七
animaユswith七hecolorpeculiar七
〇produce
〇eachowner.Therela七ionbe七weenmen
andanima!colorscons七i七u七esoneofthechannelsaユongwhichthelives七
〇ck
七ransferoccurs.Amancanbeghiscloserela七ivesorfriendsforanimals
ofhiscolor.
2-3.Classifica七ionofhornshapeand七hereforming七echnique
Horn七rainingofoxenamongEas七Africanpas七
〇ralis七sda七esback七
七heAncien七Egyp七ianEra(Seligman&Seligman1932)・Thecus七
〇miswidely
dis七ribu七edinSudan,E七hiopia,Kenya,andUganda(Nandi:HollislgOg/1969,
16
〇
Pokot:Beech1911/1969,Nuer:Evans-Pri七chard1938and1940,Jie:Gul工iver
1949,BariandMandari:Huntingford1953a,Karimojong=Clark1952and
Dyson-Hudson1966,Dinka:Lienhard七1961andGrunne七1962,Dodo七h:Thomas
1965,Murle:Lewis1972,Dassane七ch:Almagor1972).TheTurkanaalso七rain
hornsofcastra七edmaユesofca七
七=Leandgoa七s.
Theyhave七wen七y-six七ermsfordescribing七hehornshapesofca七
七le,
goa七s,andsheep.These七ermsareapPliedno七
horntbu七also七
〇nly七
〇ar七ificiallyformed
〇un七rainedhorns,inwhichvaria七ion80ccurna七urally・
Classifica七iorlofhornshapedoesno七necessarilyaccompany七he七raining
tec㎞iques3forexample,theMaasai,whodono七prac七icei七,classify七he
shapeofca七
七lehornsin七
。fiveca七eg。ries(Jacobs1965).Theric㎞essof
七heTurkana「svocabularyin七heirhornshapeclassifica七ion,however,seems
七〇berela七ed七
〇 七heirexerciseofhorn七raining.
Among七he'しwen七y-six七erms,e七ymologiesofeigh七
七ermsarede七ec七ed
(Table2).〇
七her七ermsdono七con七ain皿eaningfu].elemen七s;七heyarethe
very七erms七
〇signifypar七icularhornshapes.Thehornshapesare
classifiedin七
〇eigh七een,becauseso皿eofthe七ermsaresynonymsfor七he
sameshapes(Fig.4)・
Horn七rainingisconnec七ed七
〇mantsselec七ionofspecificoxenas
theirfavori七eones.Eachaduユ
七manhashisfavori七eshape,in七
〇whichhe
七rains七hehornsofhisoxen・Amandoesno七alwaysselec七
specificshape,bu七
〇nlyone
〇nlyafewhave皿ore七hanonefavori七eshape・The
selec七ionprocessdoesno七followanypar七icuユarrou七ine・Menjus七choQse
shapeswhichsui七
七heir七as七es.Hornsofcas七ra七edgoa七sarea⊥soI七rained.
The七raining七echniquesareroughlygroupedin七
(1)akira囮:七his七ermmeans!「
七〇bea七
〇 七hefollowing七hree.
四.When七hehornhasgrown七
cer七ainsize,七hepar七near七hebaseisbea七enbys七
ben七
七〇 七heailneddirec七ion七
七hehorna七
〇nesand七hehornsare
〇break七hecore.Ashallowgu七
七he七ipandas七ringis七ied七
s七ringis,七hen,七ied七
〇a
〇 七heo七herhorntor七
〇i七
七eriscuton
・Theo七herendof七he
〇 七hecu七madein七hehide,七
fix七hehornin七heaimeddirec七ion.Thecoreof'しhehorncuresin七hedue
course.
(2)幽3七hismeanst冒
㎞ivesorspears.Then七hehornbends七
七〇scrapett・Onesideof七hehornisscrapedby
〇 七heopposi七esideof七hescraped
surface,as七hehorngrows・Thismaybedue七
〇 七heabnormalgrow七hof七he
bonecellsin七hescrapedpar七.
17
〇
(3)塑3thism・ansr・
七・f。
・・n七!t.Wn・n七h・
hea七edbrandingironispressed七
resul七sin七
七ip。fah・rn・
。皿es。u七,・
〇i七topreven七grow七hof七hehorn,which
〇hornless.
TheTurkanadono七haveanygenera工
七er111forhorn七raining.The
七rainedhornsarea!waysrecognizedconere七elyby七heabove七iea七men七8・
When七hesubjec七isno七
七he七rainedhornsbu七
七heme七hodsof七he七raining,
七hetrainedhornsaredescribedaserami七ai(七rainedbyakiram),edungi七
(by幽),oremadi七
shapesini七
〇i
〇i(byaki皿ad).Eachof七he皿con七ainsseveralhorn
・These七erms,howevertdono七cons七i七u七eanyupPerca七egory
ofhornshapes.
Eachof七heabove七rea七men七sproduceseveralhornshapes・1七maybe
七en七a七ivelyviewed七ha七
七heTurkanatrainanima工hornsinelevenwaysby
variousapplica七ionof七he七hree七echniques(Fig.5).No七e,though,七ha七
七heTurkanadono七assumesuchclassifica七
〇ryrela七ionsa皿ong七he七raining
waysasispresen七edinFig.5。For七hemeach七rainingwayisindependen七.
Oneanimal,ifhorn一
七rained,receivesonlyoneof七he皿.
Each七rainingwayiscloselyrela七ed七
〇aspecifichornshapeinFig.
4.The七rea七men七so七her七han七heburningoffwi七hbrandingironare
exerciseda七2-3yearsforca七
七leanda七abou七1yearforgoa七s.A七
七he
timeof七rea七men七s七hehornsarehalfgrown.Thisshows七ha七
me'thodsare七
and七ha七
〇se七
七hedirec七ionofthehorngrow七haf七er七heopera七ion,
七heyareno七tobenddevelopedhornsor七
par七icu工arcomple七edshapesa七
〇 皿odifyhornsinto
七he七imeofopera七ion.Therefore,several
hornshapessome七imesresuユ
way一
七he七raining
七from七hesame七rainingway3sin七hecaseof
工VinFig・5・
All七hehornshapesproducedby七heway工Varecalledgenerally
冒Lkodos
,whennode七ailedc=Lassifica七ionisnecessary。Theo七herfour
七ermswhichareapplied七
〇 七hehornsproducedby'theaboveme七hod,have
defini七ee七ymology5七heyareoriginallygraphic七ermsfordescribing七he
shapes(seetTable2).Thesefac七ssugges七
七ha七
ca七egories◎f-kodos・
hornshapesreferred七
七hefour七er皿sareinfra_
工nFig・4,七hedifferencesaree皿phasizedamongthe
〇bythese七er皿s(No・4-8),al七hough七heyareinfact
con七inuOUS.
Thedifferencesbetween七hewaysV工
工工and工XinFig・5areonly七he
degreeofscraping;hornsarescrapedmoredeeplyin七heformer・The
Turkana,however,s七ress七ha七these七woaredifferen七waysof七raining,and
18
tha七
七heycan皿anipulate七he七ec㎞iques七
〇a七tain七heaimedshapes・Each
of七heelevenwaysof七rainingcorresponds七
〇aspecifichornshape・The
Turkanaisopera七ionsareconsiderablyprecise七
〇achieve七heai!nedhorn
shapes.
Therearegreatvaria七ionsevenamong㎜
七rainedhorns,andtheTurkana
classifytheminde七ai1.Table3shows七ha七eachhornshapeinFig.4is
formedar七ifieiallyand/orna七uraユly.
Onlyfourhorn8hapesareuna七tainablena七urally・Threeof七hemare
七hederiva七ivesof-kodos,and七heo七herishornless・Whe七herananimal
becomeshornedorpolledfollows七heMendelianlawofheredi七y,and七he
polledisdominan七
。Since七hereisnona七ura工lyhornlessani皿ala皿ong七he
Turkana,七hewholepopula七ionin七heircoun七ryhasonly七hesubordina七e,
hornedgenes.
Nos。17and18inTab=Le3,areno七ar七ificiallyshaped,bu七formed
acciden七ally・No・17,whichis七heshor七horn,includes七hosewhichhave
growndwarfhornsafter七heopera七ions七
〇behornless.Therearealsosome
individualswhosehornsarena七urallyshor七
・No。18is七hebrokens七ateof
developedhorns.OnlyNo。16isno七producedar七ificiallyoracciden七ally,
bu七achievedbyna七uralgrow七hof七hehorns.
工nshort,(1)皿os七
〇fthehornshapeca七egoriesin七heTurkanats
classifica七ionsys七emhave七hecorresponding七echniques七
〇achieve七hem,
and(2)a1皿os七all七heca七egoriesincludebo七har七ificiallyproducedhorns
andna七uralhorns.
Eachhornshapeisregardedbo七has七heresu1七
phenomena,anda七
〇f七hegivenna七ural
七hesame七ime,asob七ainablear七ificially.Thispoin七is
differen七from七heclassifica七ionofcoa七co=Loroflives七
〇ck;七he
varia七ionsin七hecoa七colorcanberegardedasana七uralproduc七,
excluding七heeffec七
isimpossible七
〇fselec七ionofreprodueingmales,andtha七
七hecolor
〇modifyon七heleve=Lofindividualanimals・
Theirdevelopedtechniquesofhorn七rainingisno七unrela七ed七
richclassifica七
〇 七heir
〇ryca七egoriesofhornshapes・The七echniquessupPor七
七he
de七ailedclassifica七ionsandviceversa・Almos七everyhornshapeca七egory
hasi七scorresponding七echnique七
〇achievei七
・Thissee皿s七
wha七isclassifiedby七heTurkanaisnot七hevaria七ionsin七hehornshape
but七he七echniquesofhorn七raining・However,七heMaasai,whodono七
prac七icehorn七rainingealsohaveclassifica七ionofhornshapevaria七ions
19
〇sugges七
七ha七
causedna『
しurally・Therefore,七hehornshapeclassifica七ionbytheTurkana
canno'bberegardedas七heclassifica七ionof七he七raining七echniques.When
theTurkanaclassify七hehornsofanon-opera七edani皿alin七
〇acer七ain
ca七egory,theyareno七consciousof七he七echniques七
〇achieve七ha七horn
shapeof七heanimal.
2-4・Earmarkingandclassifica七ionof七heearshape
Lives七
〇ckearshapemodificationby七rimmingandsli七
distribu七edalnongEas七Africanpas七
七ingiswidely
〇ralsocie七ies.Mos七
〇f七hemprac七ice
七hisas七he皿arkingofelans,lineages,andindividuals(Nandi:Hollis
1909/1969,Bari:Bea七
〇n1936,Toposa:Nalder1937/1970,Kipsigis:
Peris七iany1939,Poko七:H㎜
七ingford1953b,工
七eso:Lawrance1957,Baraguyut:
Beidelman1960,Sonjo:Gray1964,Maasai:Jacobs1965,Rendilleand
Sa皿buru:Spencer1973,Dassanetch:Carr1977,Pari:Kurimo七
Lives七
〇1980).
〇ckearsarealsocu七as七he七rea七men七
〇fdiseases(Luo:Odede1942,
Turkana:Oh七a1982),anda七
七he七imewhenamanhaskilledmembersof
neighboring七ribes(Karimojong:Clark1952,Dassanetch:Almagor1972).
TheTurkanaalsomodify七helives七
〇ckearsbymakingsli七sand
七rimming.Themodifica七ionsareclassifiedin七
〇sevenca七egories(Fig.6).
Bo七hearsofananimalarecu七inthesamewayinso皿ecases,andin七he
differen七waysino七hers・
工七israre七
〇make七wodifferen七cu七son七he
sameear.
Thereasonsforcu七
七ingearsaresu皿medupin七hefollowingfive
categories・
(1)Markingsinassocia七ionwi七hindividualstgeneralwelfare:Themarks
sameas七ha七
(abou七
〇f七hemo七hershouldbepu七
七◎newbornsshor七lyaf七erbirth
七woweeksforgoatsandsheep,onemonthforca七
七le,camels,and
donkeys).Thisis七hefirs七replyof七heTurkanawhen七heyareaskedwhy
七heypu七earmarks七
〇lives七
〇ck。Tomakeearmarkingsofthiskindis
eonsideredby七heTurkanaasa七askof七hefa皿ilyhead,aswelエas
cas七ra七ionandbrandingofcZanmarks(Oh七a1980).TheTurkanas七a七e七ha七
by七hismarking,七henewbornswillbeblessedwi七hgoodheal七h,no七
sufferingfromdiseases,no七8七rayingoffwhileherding・Fornewborns
whicharegivenbir七haf七er七heirmothersabor七edrepea七edly,bo七hearsare
20
cu七in七
〇
.em匹i七
〇i(Fig・6,type2).This,calledam㎜yok垂,isperf。rmed
wi七h七hein七ention七
preceden七s・
〇pro七ec七newbornsfrom七hesamefa七ewi七h七heir
ムm㎜yokinisalsoprac七icedforhumans.UpPerpar七
(n。 ・皿ally七h・1・f七)。f・
〇f七heear
・i・kエyhu皿a・b・byissligh七1y七
・i皿m・d。ffi・
七h・
hopeofi七shea1七h.
(2)Clantsearmarks=eachTurkanaclanha8i七sownearmark,andlives七
bear七heownersic=Lanmarks・
旦E狸
〇ck
皇(Pl・
ユ9iPonei)mea「1sclanIsea「ma「k●
Whenaskedl冒wha七ishisg型g11g?冒,七heTurkanaanswerby七heclannames.
Whilemarkingof七heownerstelanismadealmo8七exclusivelybybranding,
trimmingofclans冒earmarksisscarcelypracticed.Mos七Turkana㎞owonly
七heclantsearmarkof七heirown,bu七notrbhoseofo七herclans.For七he
brandmarkss七heyknowmarksofo七herc工ansverywell.
(3)Decorationofcas七ra七ed皿ales:mensome七imes'しrim七heearsof七heir
favoritema].esin七
〇favori七eshapes.Bu七,七he七rimmingisno七
皿adefreely.
Thestylesarechosenfrom七he七ypesshowninFig.6.Aman七ends七
〇
chooseonlyone七ypeofrbrimming,al七hough七herearenoinhibi七ionsor
ruleslikein七hecaseofhornshape.Cas七ra七ed皿a=Lesofsheepanddonkeys
donotbecomethesubjec七sofear七rimmingof七hiskind●
(4)Killingofenemies:七heTurkanaandthesurroundingpeoplesraidone
another.Menwhokilledmembersofo七her七ribesin七heraidingcu七
earsofapartofhislives七
〇ckin七
七he
〇i七ebi七ai。
工n七hiscase,七hewho].e
circu皿ferenceis七rimlned,differingfromnormali七ebi七ai(Fig.6,七ype1)●
Thosewhokilledsuchfiercewildanimalsasiions,leopards,hyenas,e七c.
also七riIntheirlives七
〇ckin七hesame・way・So皿e皿alesareexemp七edfrom
theabovementionedwarmarkings猷f七erbirth,and七heirearsarekep七
in七act.
(5)Trea七men七
sys七emoflives七
〇fdiseases:theTurkanahaveade七ailedclassifica七ion
〇ckdiseases,andas七he七rea七men七forsomediseases七hey
七rim七he七ipofaffec七edanimalstears(Oh七a1984).Theysay七ha七
七hingcausing七hediseasege七sou七
七heevil
〇f七heanimalisbodywi七h七heblood・
Thereisnospecificcorrespondencebe七ween七hekindofdiseasesand七he
七ypeofmarkingchosen.
Nex七,Iexamine七heac七ua].dis七ribu七ionofearmarks・Table4shows
七heear111arkdis七ribu七ioningoa七herds・HerdsAandBare七hesameherd
indifferen七s七udyperiods.111(1maleand110fema=Les)animalsare
21
presen七inbo七hherds・HerdsCandDaremanaged七
herding,bu'し
〇ge七herin七heday一
七heownersbe=Long七
七rip
〇differen七clans.Theclansof七heowners
are:HerdsA&B-Esigere七(pl.
INgisiger),C-Epongai七(P]..1区giPonga),
andD-Eme七uranai七(pl.Ngime七urana).
Among七he562individuals,earmarksarecu七
七〇324individuals
(57・7%)。The-mulelesinTable3haveex七raordinaryshor七earsinherently,
andexcludedfromear皿arking.
Thefrequencyofemunitoi(Fig.6,七ype2)ishighes七inallherds・
Thereasonforthisisno七clear.According七
〇 七heownerofHerdsAandB,
thegoa七whichfoundedhisherd,hadbeengiven七
〇himbyhismo七hertsfull
bro七her,and七hegoa七hadearcu七
〇femuni七
〇i.Hes七a七ed七ha七
七hemarkhas
beensucceededbyi'しsdescendan七s.ForHerdsCandD,七hereasonformany
emunitoiisunknown・Thehighfrequencyofaspecificear皿arkinoneherd
see囮scommona皿ong七heTurkana.According七
〇 七helifehis七
〇ryofherd
owners,however,七heremaybevariousreasonsfor七heconvergence.
工nHerdA,arushofpar七uri七ionoccurredinSept・-Oc七
・1982・Table5
shows七hefrequencyofearcu七amongnewbornkidsin七heendofNovember.
Themarkingsofnewbornscanberegarded七
〇havebeeneompletedbythen.
Of113(61ma工esand52fema=Les)newbornkids,七hree(1ma」.eand2femaies)
areexcludedfrom七heanalysisbecause七heyareshor七eared(一
皿ule=Le)and
七heirearsareno七marked.Thefrequencyofmarkedkidsaresignifican七ly
higheramong七hefemales七hanamong七hemales.TheTurkanas七a七ed七ha七ears
of皿alesarekep七in七ac七forfu七urecu七
七ing.Tabユe6showsmarkedandnon-
markedgoa七sinHerdsAandBexcludingkids.Fortheindividualsfoundin
bo七hHerdsAandB,七hecondi七ionsfoundinHerdAare七aken・Again,七he
frequencyof皿arkedindividualsissignifican七lyhigherin七hefema].esthan
in七hemales.
Thecoincidenceofearmark七ypesbe七ween七hemo七herand七hekidis
exa皿inedamongthekidsmen七ionedaboveinafollowingway・Malekidsare
excludedbecausetheyaresome七imesno七markedby七hereasonabove.Of七he
52femalekids,七wokidswhichareshor七eared(-mulele)andonewhose
mo七heris-muleleareexcludedbecausei七isimpossiblefor七he皿
七〇discuss
七hemarkinheri七ance.Of七heremaining4gkids,27(55.1%)have七hesame
markwi七h七hemo七her,and22(44.9%)havedifferen七
皿〇七her.Thisresul七mayseem七
〇nefrom七ha七
〇sugges七nostrongcoincidenceof七hesame
earmarkbe七ween七hemo七herandi七skids・However,七heexpec七ed
22
〇f七he
probabili七y七ha七
hav・
七woindividualsrandomlyselectedfromHerdA(Table4)
七hesameearmarkisO・288(fi[fi-1]/N[N-1];fi・n・mb…f・
・imal・
whichhasacer七ainear七ypeincludingnon-cu七,N=七
〇七alnumberof
anima=Ls).工ntheac七ualdis七ribu七ionofmo七her-kidearmarks,七he
frequencyofcoincidenceissignifican七lyhigher七han七heexpec七edvalue
calcuユa七edfrom七heearcutdis七ribu七ionin七hewholeherd(x2=11.72,
pく0.001).
TheTurkanadono七haveanycohsciousin七en七ion七
fea七ures七
〇pu七dis七inc七ive
〇individualanimalsbyearmarkings.Earcu七s,however,
func七ionasindicesforindividuals,andtheTurkanafrequen七lyreferto
七he皿.Thevocabularieswhichrefer七
〇animalearsaresummarizedinTable
7.
Thevaria七ionin七heearleng七h,whichalsoservesasdis七inc七ive
fea七ureswhenreferring七
〇individuals,isclassifiedasfollows:
(1)一
皿ulele:earsof=Less七han4c皿inleng七h,
(2)一
皿udan2earsof4七
(3)-i七a-≦
Mos七
〇8c皿,
≧-PgetStl:earslonger七han8cm(ita=七apering,1些=ears).
〇f七heclassifiea七
〇ry七er皿sofhornshapedonothaveany
meaningfule七ymologies・Theyarejus七
七he七ermsofhornshapes.Onlya
few七ermshaveclearetymologies,originallygraphictermsdescribingthe
hornshape。Suchanexpressionofhornsaseramitai[anyonewhichhave
been七rea七edbyakiram]doesno七cons七i七uteanupPerca七ego'ryofvarious
hornshapesformedbythesame七echnique,bu七usedin七hesi七ua七ion七
〇
discussthemodifica七ioni七self.Bycon七ras七,al1七hetermsofearmarking
inFig.6have七heformofi皿perfec七ivenon-pas七+passive(Dimmendaal
1983):「tanyonewhichhavebeentrea七edinaspecificway,andi七s七ill
hold8for七hepresen七!冒
・TheTurkanaareeonsciousof七he七ypeofac七ions
in七heearmarkclassifica七ionsys七eln・Differingfrom七hehornshape
termstwhichclassify七hegiven(ei七herna七uralofar七ificial)divergence,
wha七isclassifiedby七heearmark七ermsis七hehumanac七ionitself,or七he
process七
〇achieveeachearmark,andno七
七heshapeof七hecompletedear・
23
2-5.Lives七
〇ckbrands
AmongEastAfricansocie七ie8,1ives七
〇ckbrandingiswidely
dis七ribu七ed。Somebrandsconvey七heclansorsub-clansof七heowners,
othersexpressmarkingsofindividualownership(Gabra:Torry1973,
Dassane七ch:Carr1977,Almagor1978,Poko七:Beech1911/1969,Karimojong:
Clark1958andDyson一
正【udson1966,Nandi:Hollis1909/1969,Datoga:Kli皿a
1965,To皿ikawa1969,Maasai:Merker1910,RendiUe:Spencer1973,
Nyangato皿:Torney1981,Borana:Dah11979,Sonjo:Gray1964,Baggara:
Cunnison1969,Jie:Gulliver&Gulliver1953,Toposa:Nalder1937/1970).
Among七heTurkanathereare七wen七y_eigh七pa七ri-clans(Gulliver1951).
Eachof七hemhasi七sspecificbrand皿arks(e皿achar,pl.里gimacharin).The
ter皿
皇鍵(pl.
.nga七eRerin),meaningakindofwoodenvesseユ,aユsodeno七es
七heclanintheTurkana工anguage.The七erm,emachar,alsodeno七es七heclan
andused皿orefrequen七ly七han皇
圭皇巳里whenreferring七
markingof七heowner「sclan七
〇 七helives七
〇 七heclan・The
〇ckisalm◎s七en七irelydonebythe
branding,al七hougheachclanhasi七sownearmarking(皇p≦
a七
型 皇,p]..Ugiponegi)
七hesame七ilne.LynchandRobbins(1977)s七ated七ha七weal七hymenhave
individualbrandsof七heirown;however,工couユdno七confir皿suchacus七
〇皿
innor七hwes七ernTurkana.
Animalsarebrandedwhen七heybegin七
herding.Thebranding七
〇be七akenou七forday一
七lrip
〇〇1,皿adeofironwi七hawooderlhandle(Fig.7),is
calledby七hesamb七ermasthebrandi七self.Theironsarehea七edin七he
fire,andpressedagains七animalbodies・Thebrandingironismadefrom
七hespearofadeceasedfamilyhead.Hisspear,七
〇ge七herwi七h七hes七ick
(aburo,p1.ngaburo二)andstoo1(幽,p1.ngikichorongo),isbroken
downa七
七he七imeofinhuma'bion。TheTurkanasay七ha七
七hebrandingirontas
wellasthewoodenhammerformalecas七ra七ion,shouldbesucceeded七
thefa七her七
〇from
〇hissons.Fa七hersgive七hese七
〇〇ls七
〇 七heirsonswhen七he
sonsse七up'しheirownhomes七eads・
Examplesof七heelanbrandsareshowninFig.8.A皿ongsomeclans,
malesandfemalesarebrandedindifferen七waysfromeacho七her.Among
o七herssbrandsforlargelives七
differen七fro皿
are七ransferred七
〇ck(ca七
七hoseforsmalllives七
七le,camels,anddonkeys)are
〇ck(goa七sandsheep).Wherllives七
〇 七hemenofo七herclans,七henewownersbrandthemarking
24
〇ck
of七heirownclanover七hepreviousmarkings.
TheTurkanaconsider七ha七livestockbrandingshouユdbeperfor皿edby
七hefa皿ilyhead,al七hougho七hersso皿e七imesplayhisrolewhensa七elli七e
ca皿psareloca七edfarawayfrom七he皿aincampwhere七hefamilyhead
normallys七ays(Oh七a1980).A七
speaks七
七he七il!1eofbranding,七hefamilyhead
〇 七hesubjec七s:Tabarashi.Tochamunoshil里e㎞simacharlo.
聰e㎞sik。k。1an・Kisilereu七ue㎞sik。k。1an!tLglS2nxap1ke8i・Taara
迦lokilimi七esi[ttReproduce.Agreewi七h七his,youre皿achar・Tell
us(whois)七he七hief.Prosecu七e七he七hiefwhoea七syou.Kil1七hewi七ch
(皇1k1ap2,],gpi)who七alksaboutyou].TheTurkanasay七hatwha七marし
七ersis
whe七herornot七heani皿alsagree(acha皿
㎜)wi七h七hebrand.工f七heydo,
七heywillgrowingoodheal七hand七heherdprosperssbu七if七heydisagree
(塑),七heywilldie.Thebrandingisconsideredby七heTurkana七
somerela七ionshipswi七h七he七
lives七
〇have
〇七alwelfareof七hebrandedanimals・C=Learlye
〇ckbrandingisno七forprac七icalpurposessuchas七heindividual
iden七ifica七ion●
Other七han七heclanmarkings,七heTurkanabrand七heanimalsinorder
七〇decora七e七hem.Brandingof七hiskindisno七calledemachar[clants
branding],bu七
塑meaningttdrawingti・Forca七
七le,bo七hmalesand
femaleswi七hgraycoa七beco皿e七hesubjec七sof七hisdecora七ion・Thefur
colorofthebrandedareacharlgesin七
〇b=Lack,whichcon七ras七sbeau七ifully
wi七h七hegraygroundtsay七heTurkana.工observedtha七acas七ra七edgoa七
wasdecora七edin七hesameway.Lives七
〇ckdecora七ionbybrandingisalso
repor七edamongtheNandi'(Hollis1909/1969),Maasai(Merker1910),Dodo七h
(Thomas1965),andKarimojong(Dyson-Hudson1966)・
TheTurkanabrandlives七
〇ckfor七rea七ingsomediseases(Oh七alg84).
Brandingofthiskindiscaliedakimad[七
〇fomen七].This七rea七men七isalso
widelydis七ribu七edamong七heNandi(Hollis1909/1969),Maasai(Merker
lglO),Nuer(Evans-Pritehard1938),Keyo(Massam1927/1968),andBaggara
(Cunnisonlg66)●
25
3・Struc七uralgraspof七heherd皿e皿bers
3-1・E七hnographicevidences七ha七pas七
Everydaylive8七
〇ralis七sdono七coun七
〇ckaredrivenou七
七heiranimals
〇f七hevillageforgrazingin七he
morning,and七akenbackin七heevening.Theanima工s皿anaged七
七heday-・
〇ge七herin
七ripherdingareof七ennumerous.Thenumberofanimalsinoneherd
exceedsmore七han300individualsinso皿ecases.Theherdersmus七closely
wa七ch七heanimalssoasno七
七〇 ユe七 七hemastray.Howdo七heherders皿ake
sure七ha七eachherdmemberisno七los七?
So皿eEas七Africarlpas七
lives七
〇ralis七sarerepor七edno七
七〇ttcoun七!冒their
〇ckwhenchecking七heirpresencein七heherd.Lienhardt(1961:22)
sta七es七ha七
七heDinkadislike"ei七hers七a七inginfigureshowmanyca七
七le
七helreare[inonetsherd],orcoun七ing七hembynumbersandno七bynameof
par七icuZarbeas七.●.ca七
七1e,...areno七merelysomanyi亭dividualIheadof
ca七 七le㌧...[they】shouldno七be七rea七edasjus七somanyequivalen七uni七
inaherdtt.TheDinka七hink七ha七theca七
七1ehave七heirown
individuali七ies,and七ha七
ano七her.Thisa七
七heyareno七anonymousorsubs七i七utableofone
七i七udeisindubi七ablyincompa七iblewi七hchecking七heherd
memberstpresencebycoun七ing七henumbers。
For七heKarimojong,whoユivenex七
(1966=98)s七ates七ha七tlca七
七〇 七heTurkarla,1)yson-Hudson
七1eareno七enumera七ed,七heyareca七aloguedby
name:anowner,_㎞ow3beastsaremissingno七by'co㎜
七inghisherd,bu七
byscanningandasi七wereleafingover七heca七a].ogueinhismindti.
Gullivers七a七es七ha七theTurkanadonotco㎜
(1951=21)sayssl曾
七 七heirherdme皿bers.He
工haveof七enwa七chedpeoplein七heeveningcheckingupon
七here七urnofthes七
〇ck七
〇 七hehomes七eads,no七bycoun七ingheadstbu七by
makingsure七ha七eachoneis七hereand七herearenos七rangers「f・Ani皿a工s
areno七co㎜
七edbynumberstbu七eachischeckedonebyone.Wienpahl
(1985)alsos七a七es『bha七
七heTurkanadono七coun七animalsbynumbers・
When七heherdsizeissmallti七maybeeasy七
七hemispresen七
difficul七i・bis七
〇rno七
〇checkwhe七hereachof
・However,七helargelr七heherdsize,七hemore
〇confirmeachoneIspresence.
ATurkanafamilywi七hwhomIs七ayedhadabou七200goa七s,whichare
herded七
〇ge七herby七hreeherdersduringAug・1980-Jan・1981・Theherders
26
assembledthewho]
.eherdtoge七her七hreetimesaday(a七thewa七eringPlace,
res七ingplace,andnear七heirhome8七eadshor七lybeforere七urninghome),and
七heychecked七hepresenceofalユ
皿e皿bersof七heherd,eachof七heherder
七akinghisshareof七heresp◎nsibili七y.Below工wi11describehow七heydid
i七.
3-2・Confirmationofthepresenceof七hemembersmanaged七
〇ge七herin
day-rbripherding
Age-sexcomposi七ionofthes七udiedhelrdof195goa'ts,andi七s
alloca七ion七
〇threeherdersareshowninTable8.Thegoa七sof七hisherd
weremanaged七
〇ge七herin七heday一
herdersand七henumberofallo七
七ripherding。Approxima七eageofthe
七edgoa七swere:HerderA(16yearsold),68
goats;B(19yearsold),91;C(13yearsold),36.Thealユoca七ionof七he
wholeherdin七
〇threewa8basedon七hedevelopmen七alLs七ageofindividuals,
forbo七hmalesandfemales.
Al1七he13malesalloeated七
〇HerderA,wereei七herreproducingor
eas七ra七edmales.Noneof七hema七urednon-castratedmale8,(i.e.,males
whichweres七illyoungandno七selec七edasreproducingmalLesyet)oryoung
imma七uremales,wereunderhischarge.Among七he55fe皿alesunderhis
charge,◎nlyfivewerenulliparous.工nshor七,HerderA七
〇〇kchargeof七he
individualsins七ageIIIinFig.1,whichweretheeldes七
〇nes.
工ncon七ras七,HerderCwasinchargeof七heyounges七goa七s・All皿ale
goa七sunderhischargewereyoungim皿a七uremales,andmos七
〇f七hefemales
werealsoimma七ure。All七hesixma七uredfemalesofhiswerenuユliparous.
Theherdincludeda七
〇七alof31imma七ureindividuals,ofwhich30were
underhischarge.
HerderBwasresponsibleforthegoa七sofin七ermedia七edevelopmen七al
s七agebe七ween七hoseof且erdersAandC・
且isgoa七smainlyconsis七edof
youngma七ured皿alesand皿a七urednuユliparousfema工es,al七houghgoa七sofall
ca七egorie8exceptforyoungimma七ure皿a工eswereincluded・Fur七her,
cas七ra七edmalesandparousfemalesunderhischargewereyounger七han七hose
underHerderA「scharge.
Eachherdersubdividesthegoa七8underhisresponsibili七yin七
〇several
smalleruni七s,eachofwhichhasfixedmembers・Theherdersfir皿lybearin
27
mindbo七hal=1七hemembersand・
しhe七
〇七alnumberofheadsofeachuni七.Le七
uscall七heseuni七s'曾checkinguni'しs冒t,
Whenrequiredtocheck七heherd,七heherder七akesuphischecking
unitsonebyone.Thesizeofeach㎜i七issmallenoughfortheherder七
〇
recallallofi七smembersinhis皿ind,and七he七
〇七alnu皿berof七hemembers
isalsoborneinhismindbeforehebegins七
〇check。Takinguponeof七hese
uni七sstheherderconfirms七ha七each皿emberispresen七intheassembled
herd,anda七
七hesame七ime,hecoun七s七henumberbyfoldinghisfingers●
All七heuni七membersareconfirmed七
〇bepresen七byge七tingtherigh七
figure.Then,hechecks七henex七checkinguni七
。Hemus七alsobearinhis
mindwhichunitshehasaユreadychecked.
This皿e七hodresembles七heuseofrollbooks●Eachindividualgoa七is,
asi七weretregis七eredsomewherein七herol=Lbooks,i.e.,in七hechecking
uni七scomposedofas皿allnumberof皿e皿bers・Figura七ively,oneherderhas
severalrollbooksofhisown,andhechecks七he皿onebyone・
Thisme七hod,however,differsfrom七heuseofrollbooksinseveral
poin七s.Fir8七,七heme皿bersofeachcheckinguni七arenotarrangedinan
a」.phanumericalorderas七heyareinrollbooks.Theherderchecks七he
membersof七heunitinro七ationasme七inhiseyes.Secondly,while七he
七〇七alnumberofthecomponen七sdoesno七haveanyfunc七ioninrollbooks,in
七heTurkana'sme七hodi七ison=Lybyarrivinga七therigh七
七〇七alnumbertha七
七hecheckingisfinaユ1yassuredwithou七
〇mission.
Thisme七hoddiffersalsofrom七hettcoun七ingttofindividuals・Theuni七
isno七
七rea七edasamereassemblyofanonymousindividuals.Anindividual
animalisno七coun七edasoneof七heheads.Herdersconfir皿eachanimalis
presence・
Tablegshows七heuni七forma七ionof七hes七udiedherd.Theda七awere
acquiredasfolZow8:First,Iindividuallyiden七ifieda1工
七heme皿bersof
theherd,andaskedeachherderofhisuni七s,the七
〇七alnumberand
cons七i七uen七sofeach㎜i七.Theycouldanswer七
〇myques七ionwithou七facing
七〇 七heherd.Then,工asked七heherdershow七heygrouped七heindividuals
intouni七s,i.e。,wha七kindofgoata七
formingeachuni七
七en七ionwhen
・
Theuni七sizevariedfrom2七
shou工dbe七
七ribu七es七heypaida七
〇〇smallpi七wouldbedifficul七
〇19(mean,7.5,N=26).If七heuni・tsize
七〇judgewhichuni七shavebeen
a工readychecked,becau8e七henumberofuni七sincreases・
工f七heuni七size
28
shouldbe七
〇〇large,i七wouldalsobedifficuユt七
〇recallall七he
cons七i加en七sof七he㎜i七wi七hou七
〇mission,or七
havealreadybeenconfirmed七
〇judgewhichindividuals
〇bepresen七.工fthesameanimalshouldbe
coun七ed七wice,thisme七hodwouldbeuseless,because七hefinalconfirma七ion
bythismethodliesinge七
七ing七he七
〇七alnumber.Theuni七sizesinTable
gcanberegardedassor七sofop・bima.
Theherderscould七ellme七he七
〇七alnumberofeachuni七infigure8.
Howevert'bheydidno七knowhowmanyanimals七heyareresponsiblein
七〇tal.Ofcour'ses七heycancalcula七e七he七
no'ヒiceofi七.1七seems七
〇七alnumber,bu七they七
〇metha七
〇〇kno
七heherdersareno七in七eres七edin七he
七〇七alnu皿berofanimal3.For七heherders,七hefiguresseem七
〇be
meaningfulonlyfor七heconfirma七ionofeachuni七members,andno七for七he
recognitionof七he七
〇七alllu皿berof七heherd.
工cameacrosswi七hsimilarexa皿plesasabove.Aherderof56ca七
七1e
herdboreinhismind七ha七hisherdconsistedofonereproducingmale,20
castra七edmales,13parousfe皿ales,and22nulliparousfemaユes,bu七hedid
no七
㎞ow七he七
〇七alnumber.Ano七herman,herderofamixedca七
七leherdof
fourfamilies,gavefiguresasfollows:ownerA-2ma=Lesand5fe皿a工es;B
-12ma工esand13females;G-13malesand40females;D-1female・He,
however,alsodidno七know七he七
〇七alnumberof七heherdofwhichhewas
七akingcare・Theconfirmationme七hodof七heherd皿embers皿igh七be
rela七ed七
〇 七heherdsize・Theme七hodforaherdof七enanimalsmaydiffer
from七hemethoddescribedabove.Dividingin七
〇smallcheckingunitsis
unnecessarywhen七heherdsizeiss皿a11.
3-3.Forma七ionofthecheckinguni七sintermsof七helives七
〇ck
classifica七ioninaspecificsi七ua七ion
Thechecking㎜i七sareno七formeda七random・From皿anya七
lives七
七ribu七esof
〇ck,七heherdersselec七specificones,andpu七theanimalswhich
share七hesamea七
七ribu七eir1七
〇 〇necheckinguni七
・Therefore,七heforma『bion
of七hecheckinguni七scanberegardedasakindoflives七
〇ckc=Lassifica七ion
undersuchaspecificsi七ua七ionas七heconfirma七ionofindividuals曾
presence・Wha七kindsofanimala七
七ribu七es七heTurkanapaya七
expressedin七heiruni七forma七ion・
29
七en七ion七
〇is
Thebasisfor七hedivisionof七heherdci七edabovein七
〇 七hreeis七he
developmen七a=Ls七ageofanirna=Ls.Turkanaregard七hisa七
fundamen七al・Theherders七
theherd七
七ribu七eas七hemos七
〇1d皿e七ha七
七heheadof七heirfamilyalloca七ed
〇 七hem.
工asked七heherderswha七kindofanimala七
七ribu七es七heyadoP七edwhen
theyformedeachofthechecking㎜i七s.Table10shows七heresul七s.
HerderC「s㎜i七forma七ionwassimple.Hepaida七
七en七ion七
developmen七a工s七agesandsexdifferences.Theyounges七
in七 〇
〇the
〇nesweregrouped
〇neuni七(C3)wi七hou七dis七inc七ionofsexes.Goa七sofCIandC2were
almos七
〇f七hesamedevelopmen七als七ageandolder七han七hoseofC3.CIand
C2weredividedby七hesex.ClincユudedbQ七hsexuallyma七uredandimma七ure
females.Thisshows七ha七Cl「smemberswereno七borna七
七hesame七ime.
However,suchadifferenceindevelopmen七alstageisignored。Wha七is
importan七foruni七forma七ionis七herela七iveposi'しionin七hedevelopmen七al
sequence●
Seemingly,七hedevelop皿en七als七ageisprior七
〇 七hesexinHerderC「s
㎜i七forma七ion.Possiblyhedividedhisgoatsfirs七in七
〇 七wo(C1+C2and
C3)by七hedevelopmen七a工s七age,and七henhedividedClandC2by七hesex.
However,if七herehadbeenmoregoa七80f七hesa皿edevelopmen七als七agea8
七ha七
〇fG3goa七s,whichac七uallyconsis七edofonlyeigh七animals,C3migh七
havebeendividedin七
i皿possible七
〇 七wouni七sby七hesex.工nsuchacase,i七is
〇judgefrom七heherdervsuni七for皿a七ion,whichanimal
a七 七ributeisgiven七hepriori七y.
Noneof七heHerderAts㎜i七sincludedgoa七sofbo七hsexes.He
separa七ed七hem.Ma].esweredividedin七
〇 七wouni七s-reproducingmalesand
cas七ra七edmales.Femalesaredividedon七hebasisof七heirowners.
ltOwnersttoflives七
〇ckshouldbedefinedbeforeproceeding七
〇 七he
followingdescrip七ions.Among七heTurkana,七he二Lives七Qckofonefamilyare
aユ エoca七ed七
〇eachofadu1七womenwhohave七heirownhu七sin七hehomes七ead
(wivesandmo七herofthefamilyhead,hissis七erswhohavegivenbir七h
wi七hou七forma工marriage,e七c.),al七houghall七helives七
〇ckbelong七
fami工yheadformally(Gulliver1955)・Foreachani皿alwheni七iss・
しillalive,i七
isalreadyde七er皿inedinadvance七ha七frQmwhosehuti七smea七shouldbe
shared.WomentsttownershipTtbecomesclearin七hiswaywhensharingmea七
〇flives七
〇ck.Lives七
〇cka1].oca七ed七
〇 七he
〇eachwomanaredividedfur七heramong
herchildrenteachof七hemhavinghis/herownrigh七
七〇milkspecific
30
ani皿als・Usually七heyga七herapar七
〇f七heirmilkin七heirmo七hertshu七
forprocessing.The冒10wnersttof].ives七
〇ck,meantin七hefollowing
descriptions,arethewomenin七hissense.
Theheadof七hefamily,七
〇whom七hegoa七herdwenowexaminebelonged,
hadfourwives=七wowhomhehi皿self皿arried(1s七and2ndwife)andtwofrom
levira七emarriage-one(3rdwife)fromhiselderfuユlbro七herand七he
o七her(4・thwife)fromhisyoungerfuユ1bro七her.Theeldes七sonofthe3rd
wifemarriedlevira七ica]
.ly七hewifeof七hedeceasedyoungerbrotherof七he
familyhead(formerco-wifeof七he4七hwife),andhestayedin七he
8a七elli七eca七
七lecampwithhiswifeandchildren.
HerderA七
〇1dme七ha七fema工esofuni七
一A3inTablellwerelumped
toge七herbecauseallof七hemwelrelac七a七ing.A6andAgalsoincludedone
lacta七ingfemaleeach.A3wasexclusivelycomposedof七helac七a七ing
femaleswhichwerepickeduponlyfrom七hegoa七sof七hels七wife.A5was
anasse皿blyofnewcomersandallof七hembelonged七
goa七sweredividedin七
七〇ge七herin七
〇 七hels七wife.Her
〇 七hreeuni七sbecause七heywere七
〇〇many七
〇bring
〇 〇neuni七.HerderAprimarilyusedownershipforforminghis
checkinguni七s,〇
七hercri七eriacomplimen七arily.
HerderAexplained七ha七A7consis七edoffe皿a工esQfthe4七hwife・
工七
ac七uallyincluded七hoseof七he3rdwifealso.Theirlives七
〇ckwereput
七〇ge七herinone㎜i七becauseHerderA,sonof七he4七hwife,hadbeen
adop七edbythe3rdwife.Livestockof七he七wowo皿enwereclearly
dis七inguished.He,however,seemed七
〇havecer七ainrigh七sover七heani皿als
ofbo七hWO囮en.
Agwascomposedofgoa七sofo七heエrfamily(A9)whichwereplacedin
thisfamily曾scus七
〇dy.
HerderB曾suni七forma七ionwascomplex.Thelnalesweredividedin七
◎
七hreeuni七sandheexplainedme七hebasesofdivisionasfollows:B1_non_
cas七ra七edmales;B2-bigcas七ra七ed皿a=Les;B3-smallcas七ra七edmales●Bl
includedonereproducingmale・Al七hough七his皿alewass七illsmall,i七was
dis七inc七fro皿
七heo七hermalesin七hisunitin七hati七hadalreadybeen
selec七edassuchwhile七heo七hersweretobecas七ra七edinfu七ure・Fur七her,
B2,whichwasexplainedasanassemblyofcas七ra七edmales,includedone
reproducing皿a].eandonenon-cas七ra七edlnale・Theywereno七consis七en七wi七h
七helabelgivenby七heherder.
工supPosetha七HerderBbasedhisgroupingof皿aleson七he
31
developmen七als七ageofindividuals.工es七imated七heageofeachanimalin
thes七udi・dh・
・dby七h・d・n七i七i・n12(Oh七
・1982).A・
・ng七h・12・ales・fB1,
10were3yearsoZd,and2wereolder七han3yearsa七
七he七imeofs七udy・
Allmalesinbo七hB2andB3wereolder七han3years,and七heycou工dno七be
discrimina七edbyden七alexamina七ion.Thema工esinB2were,howevert
apParen七1ylargerin七hebodysize七han七hoseinB3.Therela七ionof七hese
uni七sinthedevelopmentals七agewasmos七likelyB2>B3>B1.
Hedividedhismalesbyre=Lativeage.Probablybecause七hedivision
nearlyagreedwi七h七hedis七inc七ionbe七ween七hecas七ra七edand七henoncastrated,hepu七suchlabels七
〇hisuni七saswasexplained七
〇 皿e.工n七his
regardtHerderBtswayofdividingmalesdifferedfrom七ha七
〇fHerderA,
whostric七lyusedcas七ra七ionas七hecri七erion.
Fortheunitforma七ionoffemales,HerderBusedseveralcri七eria.B4
waslabeledas七heg。a七sof七he4七hwife.Thisuni七,however,included
threegoa七softhe3rdwifeandthreeofthe4七hwife。Fur七her七he4七h
wifehad七woo七hergoa七sincludedinB5,whichwasexplained七
〇beaunit
basedon七hedevelopmen七als七age・Noneof七heo七herunitshad七helabelof
七heowner.Thecri七erionof七heownerwasno七applied七horoughlyinhis
case,whichsharp=Lycon七ras七edwi七hHerderAi8unitfor!na七ion・
Uni七sofB5-B10wereformedon七hebasisofdevelopmen七als七age,
wi七h七hecomplimen七aryapPlica七ionof七hedifferencesincoa七color・
HerderBexplainedthedis七inctionofdevelopmen七a=Ls七agesamong七hese
uni七sas:B5>B6=B7>B8>Bg=BlO.Den七alexa皿ina七ionshowed七ha七all七he
femalesofB5,B6,andB7wereolderthan3years,七ha七B8included3goa七s
of3yearsoldand20folderthan3years,and七ha七all七hegoa七sofBg
andB10were3yearsold.Thisresuユ
Thebasis七
七agreeswi七hwha七
七heherdersaid.
〇discriminateB6froInB7,andBgfromB10was七hecoa七
color.Goa七sofB6werenangorok[spo七
七edwi七hblackonwhi七eground,see
Fig.3,A2]-R1LS[bluish],andgoa七sofo七hercolorsin七hisdeveユopmen七al
s七agewerega七heredinB7regardlessof七hecolors・Goa七sofBgare
nangorok,and七hoseofB10werenakomoli[spo七
according七
七edwithredonwhi七e],
〇 七heherder・
Uni七sofB11-B14were,bycon七ras七,formedby七hecolortwhile七he
developmen七als七agewasusedco皿plimen七arily・Thecolorswereasfollows:
B11-Pg,g,zxcu1gg≧[red],B12-nakori[do七
Bl4一
七edwi七hredonwhi七e],B13and
工些塑[black]・Theherderexplained'しhat七hegoatsofB13were
32
olderthan七ho8eofB14.Den七alexamina七ionshowed七ha七B13includedl
goa七
〇f3yearsoldand50folder七han4,andthatBl4included5goa七sof
3yearsoldand30folderthan4.
Thereasonwhythefundamen七a二Lbasisofuni七forma七ionwasreversed
fro1n七hedevelopmen七als七ageinB5-B10七
〇 七hecolorinB11-Bl4isno七
c=Lear.工asked七heherder,bu七hedidno七giveanysa七isfac七
〇ry
explana七ion.Thecolorsadop七edas七hefundamen七albasisforunit
formationwereredsbユack,anddo'b'しedwithredonwhi七e.工
七seems七ha七
七he
categoriesofitblack「!orttred「tcanbechosenmoreeasily七hano七her
co皿plica七edcolorstbecauseani皿alswhichhavewhi七espo七sonblackorred
groundcanbelabeledsimpユyas雪
benoreason七
曹black,軍or「tredtt.However,七hereseems七
〇givepriori七y七
〇 七helas七color,1冒do七
〇
七edwi七hredon
whi七e曾tJovero七herco].ors.
ThebasesforHerderB冒sunitforma七ionwere七hesex,developmental
s七age,coloreandowner.Amonghisgoa七s,七herewereninelac七a七ing
females(1s七wife:3goa七s34七hwife:2;wifeoffamilyheadisson:1;
〇七herfa皿ily:3).He,however,didno七lumped七he皿
Itmus七be七akenin七
七〇ge七herinoneuni七.
〇considera七ion七ha七
七heunitforma七ionchange8
wi七h七hepopuユa七iondyna皿icsofanimals.ThefemalesofoneofHerderAts
units,A3(lac七a七ingfe皿ales),began七
〇lac七a七eabou七twomon七hsbefore七he
studyperiod,and七hisuni七wasnon-exis七en七beforethattime.Thenu皿ber
oforiginalmembersinauni'しdecreasesas七imepassessbecauseofdea七hs,
slaugh七ers,or七ransfers.〇
七heranimalsmoveinbygif七sQrexchanges.
Reorganiza七ionisinevi七able.Someuni七swillbecombinedwi七ho七hers,and
newuni七swillbefomed.Theexampleabovepresen七edshowacrosssec七ion
ofrbheuni七forma七ionin七ransi七ion.
Thesizeandcomposi七ionof七helives七
animala七
〇ckherdalsoaffec七swhich
七ribu七esshouユdbechosenas七hebasesforuni七forma七ion.Whena
herder七riestoformanuni七
〇n七he1)asisofacer七aina七
七ribu七e,七he
forma七ionwil].beimpossibleif七hereareno七enoughanimalsofthe
selec七eda七
七ribu七e.Supposeanex七remecaseinwhich七hefamilyhasonly
七engoa七s・Thebasisforunitforma七ionmigh七bellgoa七'冒,if七heuni七
shouldbeformeda七aユ1.
Sevenfea七uresareex七rac七edfrom七heexamples,一
七hedeve=Lopmen七al
s七age,sex,cas七ra七ion,lac七a七ion,ownertcolor,andnewcomers.Ac七ualuse
of七hesefeaturesin七he㎜i七forma七ionbyeachherderisshowninFig.9.
33
Thedevelopmen七als七agewas七hebasisforthealloca七ionof七hewhole
herdtothethreeherders.HerdersBandCused七hislabelfor七heiruni七
for皿a七ion・Thiscri七erionisusefulbecausei七isapPlicableonvariable
sca].es,extendedorreduced.
Thedevelopmen七a工s七ageisalsoemployedwhen七heTurkanadivide七heir
fa皿ilyherdin七
〇severalherdinguni七s.A七
七he七i皿eofs七udy,allgoa七sof
七ha七fa皿iユy,excep七for25newbornstweremanaged七
七heday一
〇ge七herinoneherdin
七ripherding.TheTurkana,howeverssome七imesdivide七hefamily
herdofonespeciesin七
〇 七wohelrdinguni七s,i.e.,aduユ
七herdofreproducing
andcas七ra七edmalesandparousfemales,andyoungherdofreproducingand
non-cas七rated皿alesandnulliparousfe皿ales,when七henumberofanimalsof
onespeciesis七
〇〇large(Oh七a1980).
AmongTurkanatsgoa七s,七hereisaclear七endency七
七h・f・mal・i・p・
〇synchroniza七ionin
・gna七i。nandpar七u・i七i・
・.13Thi・mayb・du・
七。th・
synchronicchangein七heirnu七ri七ionalcondi七ionaccording'to七heseasonal
changein七hevegeta七ion(Dahl&Hjor七1976).Animalsbornconcurren七=Ly
arecalledasAigZ≧[七hoseof七hesameage]-Ai皇gg,[one,or七hesame]and
七heTurkanaalreful工yawareofanimaltsrela七iveages.
Ani皿aユsbornconcurren七
工yaremanagedcollectivelyfrom七heprimary
stage・Theyarealwayshand=Ledtoge七her七
〇keep七heminsepararbionfro皿
七heir皿others・Malesandfemalesareno七discrimina七edins七age工inFig・
1,and七heclassifica七
lifehis七
〇ry七er!nfor七he皿hasaneu七erprefix・
工n七ermsof
〇ryoflivestock,developmen七aユs七ageisthefirs七a七
employedwhenpeopletrea七lives七
七ribu七e
〇ckasagroup.工
七isrela七ed七
〇 七hisway
ofmanagemen七tha七bo七hHerdersBandC,whowereinchargeofyounger
individuals,useddevelopmen七als七agefor七heirunitfoma七ion.
Theprinciplesforse=Lec七ingbasisforunitforma七iondidno七differ
muchbe七weenHerdersBandC・Theessen七ia=Ldifference」.ayin七ha七
sexwasprior七
七he
〇thedevelopmen七als七agesinHerderBtsuni七forma七ion,
whileforHerderC,七hepriori七ywasreversed.HerderA,whowas
responsiblefor七heanimalsin七he皿os七advanceds七age,useddifferen七
a七 七ribu七esasthebasesforuni七forma七ion・Forfemales,HerderAapPlied
七hedis七inc七ionofownersthoroughly,whileHerderBusedi七
〇nlyforone
uni七.Alsoformales,whileHerderAdivided七hemby七hedis七inc七ion
be七weenreproducingandcas七ra七edma工es,HerderBdis七inguished七hemby七he
developmen七als七age・Howcan七hisgapbeinterpre七ed?
34
Le七usrestric七
七heargumen七
七〇 七hedifferencebe七ween七he七woani皿al
a七 七ribu七es,i・e・,七hedevelopmen七als七ageand七heowners.工
七ha七
七heherderspaya七ten七ion七
七isreasonable
〇 ・bheindividualdevelopmen七als七age,
becauseindividualsbornconcurren七lyare七rea七edasagroupa七
七he七imeof
milkingwhen七heyarenewborns.Thedis七inc七ionof七hedevelopmen七aユ
s七agesofHerderB冒sgoa七smus七havebeenes七ablishedwhen七hesegoa七swere
newborns.Hes七illre七ainsandadop七'しhiswayofformingcheckingunits.
T・bユ ・11・h。w・
七h・di・
七ributi。n。fg。
・七・t・ea・h。w….14ApPar・
・七ly
evenamongHerderB曾sgoa七s,七hefemaユesofeachownerweremanyenough七
〇
皿akeuni七sby七hedis七inc七ioninowners,whichHerderBdidno七do.He
s七illdependedon七hedevelop皿en七a工s七ages,whichheacquiredwhenhis
goa七swere七reatedingroupsinrela七ion七
〇 七heir皿
〇七hers.
Whydid七hebasisforuni七forma七ionchangefrom七hedevelop皿en七al
s七age七
〇 七heownerinHerderA豊suni七for皿ation?Onepossible
in七erpre七ationofthedifferenceis七ha七HerderAcouldno七formuni七sby
developmen七a=Ls七agebecause七henumberofanimalsin七hesamedeve=Lopmen七al
s七agewas七
〇〇s皿a工lamonghisgoa七s・
工七waspossibleforhim,however,七
use七hisa七
七ribu七eonanex七endedsca工e.且ecouユdhavecollec七edani皿als
in七headjacen七developmen七a工s七agesin七
TheTurkanatsa七
〇
〇 〇neuni七.
七entionto七hedevelopmen七als七ages皿aydecreaseas
animalsgrowolder.Ma七urednulliparousfemalesares七illascending七heir
s七agessand七hes七ageissignifican七for七heTurkana.Af七er七hefirs七
par七uri七ion,on七heo七herhand,七heyreach七hehighes七s七ageof
developmen七,andf面
七herdiscrimina七ionmaybeunnecessaryfro皿
七he
Turkanaisview.
工 七hink七ha七
¶
ヒheTurkanatsin七enseconsciousnessoflive8七
〇ck
ownershipwasreflec七edinHerderA「suni七forma七ion.Theyclearly
recognize七heownershipno'しonlyofthelives七
〇ckin七hemos七advanced
s七age,bu七alsoofall七heremaininglives七
however,moreimpor七an七
〇ck・Parousfemalesare,
七hannulliparousfemalesbecauseof'しheirproved
fecundi七y,and七heyareno七given七
〇 〇rexchangedwi七ho七hersasare
nulliparousfemales.The七iebe七weenafemaleanimalanditsowneris
s七reng七henedprogressivelyin七heTurkanatsrecogni七ion,七hrough七he
repea七edmilkingby七heowner.
Las七1yin七hischap七er,工wan七
rela七ionshipamong七helives七
七〇men七ion七hatthegenealogical
〇ckisno七employedas七hedis七inc七ive
35
featuresfor七heuni七forma・tion.Umesao(1969)sta七ed七ha七theDa七
〇gain
Tanzaniacould七ell七helossofevenasingleca七
七1ewi七hou七coun七ing七he
headorcheckingrecords.Hesugges七s七ha七i七ismadepo8siblebecause
七heyareawareof七hesub-groupscomposedofma七ri].ineallyrelated
individualsin七hewholeherd。TheDa七
〇gagive七hesamepropername七
〇all
individua工sinone皿a七rilinea工group,七herefore七henamescanberegarded
七〇be七hoseof七he皿a七rilinealgroups.Thesegroupsfunc七ion七
wh。legr。upin七
〇divide七he
。severaluni七s(Umesa。1969).
TheTurkanarecognizegenealogicalrela七ionshipoflives七
〇ckwel].s
a1七hough七heynei七herhaveBuchkindoflives七
〇cknamesasa皿ong七he
Da七 〇ga,noru七ilize七hegenealogicalgroupsas七hebasisforuni七
forma七ion.
Tab=Le12shows七he皿a七rilineallyrela七edgroups(冒tfamily'i)in七he
s七udiedherd.Thisresul七wasob七ainedbyin七erviewwi七h七heTurkana.In
somecasesl七heyasser七ed七ha七cer七aintwogoa七shaveacommonancestor,
al七hough七heycouldno七reGal1七hegenealogicalユiness七ric七lyand七here
occurreddisagreementsamongtheinfoman七s.工se七
七heboundaryofa
familyasfollows:goa七sAandBwereregardedtobelong七
〇differen七
fa皿ilieswhen七heywereinformed七
〇berela七edviamore七han七wogoa七s
whichwerenotpresen七a七
fa皿iliesagreedw()
七hes七udyperiod。Theboundaryofob七ained
.llwi七htheTurkanatsac七ualrecogni七ionofblood
rela七ionships・
工n七heherdof195goa七s,七herewere61familiesincluding七hosewhich
hadonlyonemember.Thefamilysizevariedfromlto16・Thenumberof
genera七ionsinonefamilyrangedfromone(familiescompo8edon].yof
sibling)七
〇four.TheTurkanatsrecognitionof七hegenealogical
reエa七ionshipsofgoa七sisnopoorer七han七ha七
Kenya,whohaveasimilarlives七
〇f七heGabrainnor七hern
〇cknamingsys七emas七ha七
〇f七he七heDa七
(工mai1982).
Whydo七heTurkanano七trea七goa七sofonefamilyinagroup,al七hough
theyrecognizewellof七heirrela七ionships?Oneof七hepossiblereason
seems七
〇bethesizeoftheユives七
〇ckfamilies,i・e・,七heirsizeis
inadequa七efor七heuni七for皿a七ionforchecking.Ano七herexplana七ionis
・
しha七
七he皿e皿bersofonefamilycanno七behandledinagroupbecause七hey
aresepara七edwhen七heTurkanamakeupherdinguni七sforaduユ
animalsrespec七ively。However,七heDa七
七sandyoung
〇gaandGabraalsosepara七e七he
36
〇ga
offspringfrom七heirmo七hersinorder七
〇preven七
七hemfromsuckling。At
presen七,thisques七ioncanno七beansweredwi七hou七fur七herresearch.
4.Livestockindividualna皿es
4-1・Thecus七
〇mofnaminglives七
Thecus七
〇cka皿ongEas七Africanpas七
〇mofnaminglives七
〇ckisrepor七edfrommanypeop].esinEas七
Africa・Forexample,Dyson-Hudson(1966:96)sta七es七ha七
calfhasa七leas七
「teverYcow,ox,
〇neindividualname,commonlyseveralfla皿ong七he
Karimojonginnor七heas七ernUganda.〇
lives七
〇raユis七s
七here七
㎞ographersrepor七briefly七ha七
〇ckaregivennamesandanimalsrecognize七heirna皿es(Keyo:Massim
1927/1968,Kipsigis:Peris七iany1939,工
七eso:Lawrance1957,Marakwe七:
Kipkorir1973,Sebei:Goldsch皿id七1976).
Livestockna皿inghasbeendiscussedbya.n七hropologis七sinrela七ion七
suchacus七
〇m七ha七eachaduユ
〇
七 皿anna皿ehimself(tfox-name1lorf!ca七
employing七hevocabuユarywhichrefer七
七le-nameit)
〇hisfavori七eoxen(e.9.Evans-
Pri七chard1934&1956,Gulliver1952,]Lienhard七1961,AlmagQr1972,Gourlay
1972,Fukui1979).Thethemeof七hisdiscussionhasbeenfocusedonthe
sociaユandreligiou8meaningsof七hepeculiarrela七ionshipsbe七weenmenand
ca七tle.
However,i七hasnotbeenfullyexaminedwha七kindoftermspeople
employinnaminglives七
〇ck,andwha七
七hef㎜c七ionofsuchnamingis。
Fur七hermore,i七hasescaped七hecarefu工examina七ionwhether七helives七
〇ck
namescanberegardedasrealpropernamesor七heyaremeredescrip七ive
七erms.1七isimpossibletodis七inguishpropernamess七ric七lyfrom七erms
fordescrip七ivereferencein七heend・Buti七mus七beexaminedwha七'kindof
七ermspeoP],euseinnamingorinreferring七
七hese七ermsaccording七
〇animals,andhow七heyuse
〇varioussi七ua七ions.
Somean七hropologistss七a七e七hatonlyparousfemaleshavepropernames
(Maasai:Jacobs1965),and七ha七
七hemo七hertsnameissucceededbyi七s
offspring(Maasai:Merker1910,Baggara:Reid1930,工raqw:Huntingford
1953).SeligmanandSeligman(1932),whocommenced七hes七udyof
37
曹
「identifica七ion"betweenmanandca七
七leinEas七Africa
,clearlys七a七ed七ha七
ttthenamesofoxenareno七individualnallles(as七henamesofcowsare)bu七
nameswhichtheyshareallotherbu工lsandoxenof七hesameclass「t(P.
169),and七ha七
雪
曾...cows(no七heifers)aregivenpersonalnamewhich七hey
bear七hroughlife四(P.170).Onlyafewan七hropologis七8s七udiedlives七
propernames:U皿esao(1969)on七heDa七
Lives七
〇ck
〇gaand工!nai(1982)on七heGabra●
〇cknamesaresucceededalong七hema七rilineallinesinbo七hof七hese
tribes.
On七he[rurkana,Gulliver(1951:17)s七a七es,'冒eachoxhasanindividual
nameaf七ersomeou七s七andingfea七ur'eofhornsecolor,orhump「t.WienpahZ
(1984,1985)s七a七es七ha七
七heTurkanagivena皿esonly七
〇adu1七femalesof
ca七 七leandca皿els,and七ha七femalegoa七sarldsheepdonothavedis七inc七
personalnames,although七heyarecalledby七he七ermsofcoa七colora七the
七imeofmilking・
When七helives七
say冒
〇ckisconcerned,i七isno七commonfor七heTurkanato
冒
七〇givepropername(alimokinekiro)ltsnor七
(旦g皇 主ekiro1kSg!1g?)雷
〇sayl「wha七isitsname?
「.Usuallywhen七heTurkanadesigna七especific
individuals,七heydescriptivelyrefer七
〇 七hecolortshapeofhornsandear-
cu七,七heowner,e七c・Descrip七ivereferring七
differsfro皿
〇 七he=Lives七
〇ckclearZy
七heuseofindividualsnames.
They,however,explained七ha七parous(andmilked)felnalesoflives七
〇ck
aregivenindividualnames.Thesefema工esarecal工edwi七h七his七ypeof
namesa七
七he七imeofmilking.In七hecaseofdonkeyswhichareno七milked,
theirindividualnamesarealsocalledwhen七heyareusedforpacking.
Bo七hmaleandfemaledonkeysarenamed.工define七hesenamesaslivestock
individualnames.
工collec七edindividua工namesof350animaZs(190goa七s,58ca七
七le,70
camels,and32donkeys),ands七udied七hemeaningsof七henamesandthe
reasonsfornaming15.
First,工willexaminewha'しkindofani皿ala七
at七en七ion七
・
しheirowna七
〇whennaminglives七
七ribu七es
七ribu七es七heTurkanapay
〇ck・Lives七
〇ckarena皿edaf七ersomeof
.Ihavedescribed七helives七
〇ckclassifica七ionsys七e皿
of七heTurkanaipChap七er2・Thevocabuユariesin七heclassifica七ionsys七em
areuseda七the七imeofreferring七
thebasisoflives七
〇individuals,andapar七
〇cknarnes・
direc七ionof七heTurkanatsin七eres七
〇f七hemoffers
工n七heselec七ionofvocabuユaries,七he
七〇wardthelives七
38
〇ckisexpressed.
Someani皿ala七tribu七eswhichareno七employedin七heclassificationsys七e皿
arealsousedin七heirnames.
Second,Iwillexaminehowindividualnamesareac七uallyused.The
namesarecalleda七animals,andareal80employedforreferringto七he皿
・
However,theani皿alsarealsoreferred七
〇bydescrip七ive七ermswhichare
differen七fro皿individualnames.工willexamine七hedistinctionbetween
七he七woway80freferringtoanimals,byindividualnamesandby
descrip七iveterms.
4-2・Vocabulariesemployedinlives七
〇ckname8
4-2-1.Ma七erialsand七helinguis七ic七rea七mentofeユemen七sinlives七
〇ck
names
Thesubjec七ss七udiedwere七wogoa七herds,七woca七
七leherds,七hree
camelherds,and七wodonkeyherds.Eachherdcons七i七u七edauni七forday一
七ripherding・
工madeindividualcards七
〇iden七ifyall七heani皿alsand七
〇
check'しheirnames.Table13shows七henumberofindividualnamesand七heir
overlapineachof七heherds.工tisclear工yshown七ha七
〇nユyafewhave七he
samenames●
工 七reatthelingUis七icco囮posi七ionofthelives七
工 七ried七
〇eknamesasfollows・
〇findou七all七heeユemen七sinc=Ludedineachnameand七heoriginal
formofeachelemen七.工
七is,howeversdifficuユ
七 七〇analyzeall七he
elementslinguis七icallyincludingPrefix,suffix,othergra皿ma七ical
markers,e七c.Forexample,aname,
.napuda㎞uiconsis七sof七hreeelemen七s3
ユ駐(feminineprefix)+「
【
蛙
」(fro皿akipudare=七
〇stepon)+kuui(from
nga㎞ui=branches).Thisnameimpliesthat七henamedanimalused七
〇s七ep
on七hebranchesoftrees,whichpeoplecu七
healthyandunable七
七〇feeditbecausei七wasno七
〇goou七forgrazingwheni七wasyoung・
工n七he
followinganalysis,七hisnameis七rea七edasconsis七ingofonly七wo
itelemen七s「
冒,-E!3gdaand㎞ui,discarding七hegenderprefix.Namesgiven
af七erpropernouns(namesofplace,personte七c・)are'trea七edasconsis七ing
ofonlyoneelemen七evenifthepropernounscanbeanalyzedseman七ically.
工brieflyexamine七hegenderprefixoflives七
Lives七
〇cknameshere・
〇ckna皿esareno七alwaysaccompaniedby七hefeminineprefix,bu七by
七hemasculineorneu七erprefix,aユ
七houghallnamedanimals七rea七edhereare
39
females●Somena皿esareaccompaniedby七hegenderprefixofpluralform・
Theyareexcludedfrom七heanalysisofgenderprefixes,because七heplural
masculineandneu七erprefixesareindis七inguishable,七aking七hesamefor皿
(旦gニ ー).Afewna皿esdono七havegenderprefixa七all.
Thedis七ributionofgenderprefixesis8howninTable14.Somenames
havemascuユineorneu七erprefixes,al七houghnameswi七h七hefeminineprefix
form七hemajority.Thisshowstha七
七helives七
〇cknamesdescribedin七his
paperare七ruepropernames,because七hetermsfordescrip七ivereferring
arealwaysacco皿paniedbyafe皿inineprefixforaduユ
七femaleanimals・
Thereisnotanysignifican七differencein七hefrequenciesof七hree
genderprefixesamonglives七
significan七
liv・
〇ckspecie8。Theprefixdoesno七differ
ユybe七ween七helarge(ca七
七leandcameユs)andsmall(goa七s)
・t。 ・k(x2・0.94,df・2,P>0.2).
Alsofor七hehumans,genderprefixesofpropernamesareno七always
coinciden七wi七h七hesexofnamebearers.工
ユive8七
七isdifficuユ
七 七〇compare七he
〇cknamesdirec七lywi七h七hoseofhumans,because七heTurkanahave七wo
七ypesofhumannames:七henamesucceededfromo七hers,andthena皿egiven
af七ercer七aina七
七ribu七esof七hepersonsocalled(suchas七hesi七ua七ionof
bir七h).Bu七among七hefa囮ilymembers,七henameofdailyuseconverges七
〇
◎nlyone.Therefore,工selec七ed七henamesofpeoplewhosedailynamesI
㎞ewwellforthecomparison(Table15).Thedisagreemen七
〇fthegender
prefixofhumanna皿eswi七h七hesexofnamebealrersshows七ha七i七isno七
uncommonfor七heTurkana七Qcall七hesubjee七byapropernamewhoseprefix
doesno七agreewi七h七hesex、ofthecalユed●
4-2・-2.E七ymoユogyoflives七
〇cknamesand七ermsusedinnames
Beforewediscuss七heoriginand皿eaningof七helives七
〇ckna皿es,
foUowingPoin七sshouldbeno七ed・Allna皿esaregivenaf七er七heat七ribu七es
of七hesubjec七animals.However,七hereasonforgivingaspecificname七
〇
acer七ainindividualcanno七bemadeclearin七hena皿ei七self.Thesame
namecanbegiven七
〇animalsforvariousreasons・Forexample,ananimal
whosenameisderivedfrom七he七ermofaplan七species,couldbesonamed
ei七herbecausei七wasbornundera七ree◎fthatspecies,orbecausei七s
coa七colorresemblesthecolorof七hefrui七sof七heplan七
havenorela七ion七
namewhowasnamedaf七er七heplan七
・1七sname皿igh七
〇 七heplan七i'し8e=Lf,bu七havebeenderivedfromaman曾s
・Fur七her,七heanimalmigh七havebeen
40
namedafterthemanbecausehewasi七sformerowner,◎rbecausei七scoat
colorresembledthatof七hemanlsfavori七eox.工
七hebackgroundsoflives七
・ti8i皿possible七
〇de七ec七
〇cknamesfromthename8七hemselves.
TheoriginsoftheindividualnamesareshowninTabユe16.Roughly,
lives七
〇cknamesimp=Lyconspicuousappearanceorspecificexperiencesofthe
namebearers.工classified七hemin七
〇six七ypes:(1)ex七ernalappearance,
(2)Placeandsi七ua七ionofbir七h,(3)七ransfer,(4)behavior,(5)acciden七,
and(6)rela七ionshipwi七ho七heranimals.Onユy七hreeindividua18arenamed
after七woof七heabovea七
andoneca七
七ribu七es:七heappearanceandbehaviorinonegoa七
七le,and七heapPearanceandacciden七inonegoa七.Thesena皿es
areclassifiedasna皿esaf七er七hebehaviorand七heacciden七respec七ively.
For七hedescrip七ionofvocabulariesfQr七heユives七
〇ckindividual
na皿es,ttCPterms!tandttnon-CP七ermsltaredis七inguished.CP七ermsinclude
"colorI冒
七ermsandtlpa七
七ern!t七er皿s
,whichIdescribedinSec七ion2-2.The
Turkanahaveninecolor七ermsand16pa七
七ermsin七
『tern七er皿s,whichcons七itu七e25CP
〇七al.Theo七her七ermsusedforlives七
〇cknamingarenon-CP
七er皿s.
(1)Na皿esaf七er七heapPearance(277ani皿aZs)
The皿ajorityofindividuals(79.1%,277/350)havenamesof七his七ype●
This七ypeisespeciallycommonamonggoa七sandca七
七1e.Termsinc工udedin
七henamesareshowninTable17.Theanimalappearanceisdividedin七
〇
七wo:ttcolornandTtshapen・Thelat七erincludesall七hephysical
charac七eris七icsofani皿a工sexcep七for七he
Mos七nameswhichrefer七
payingatten七ion七
,coa七color・
〇 七heex七erna].appearancearecomposedby
〇 七heircolor(222individuals,82。2%,$eetTable18),
par七lybecause七heTurkanause七heCP七ermswi七hhighfrequencyin
lives七
〇cknames.Howeversevenifweexcludeall七henameswhichare
composedexclusivelyofCP七ermsenamesof107individuals(39.6%)are
refer七
〇 七heircolor.Fur七hersifweexcludeal1七henameswhichinclude
CP七erms,七heremaining72individuals(26・7Z)s七illhavenamesreferring
to七heircolorbyvariouscommonnouns.Only35individuals(12.6%)have
nameswhichreferexclusively七
ani皿alswi七h七henamereferring七
〇 七heirbodyshape・Thereareonly20
〇bo七h七hecolorand七heshape.Their
co=Lorsarea⊥waysreferredtobyCP七erms・
Composi七ionofnamesandrespee七ivenumberofanimalsareasfollows:
41
(1)nam・
・ 。f。nユy・n・CP七
・r・(34112.3%),(2)names。ftw・CP七
・rm・(81・
29●2%),(3)namesofoneCP七ermandonenon-CPterm(55=19●9%),(4)names
ofonlyonenon-CP七erm(87:31●4%),and(5)namesof七wonon-CP七erms(20=
7.2%).
1A・Na皿esconsis七ingexclusivelyofCP七erms(115individua二Ls)
Namesof七his七ypeconsis七
七〇
〇fei七heroneor七woCP七erms.Theyrefer
七hecoatcolorofthebearers,anda皿oun七to41.57。(115/277)of七he
naInesreferring七
〇theapPearanceof七hesubjec七s.
1B・Namescon七ainingcommonnouns七
〇indica七eanimalso七herthan七he
subjec七s(44individuals)
Mos七
〇f七he皿imply七hebearerstresemblance'too七herani皿alspeciesin
七hecoa七co=Lor(42individuals),and七heres七in七heshape(2individuals).
Variousani皿alnamesareemployedin七his七ypeofnaming(Tab二te18).They
includemammals,birds,insec七s,and皿illipede.工fmoresamplesare
col].ec七ed,〇
七heranimalspeciesmaybeadded七
〇 七helis七.
Majori七yof七hesenames(38individuals:86.4%)arecomposedonlyby
adding(orchanging)genderprefix七
〇 七heoriginal七erms(commonnouns
indica七ingcer七ainanimalspecies).Theorigina工
七ermsalsohave七heir
genderprefixes.When七heirprefixesaremascuユine,theprefixesare
changedin七
〇feminineinsomecases.1then七heoriginal七ermforananimal
speciesiscombinedwiththeCP七erm(3individua=Ls),七heorderof七erms
is:[CP七erm]+[七er皿foranimalspecies],bo七hof七hemreferringtothe
sa皿ea七
七ribute(i.e.,七hecolor)of七henamedsubjec七.Theremaining七hree
individua⊥shavena皿esof七heco皿binationofanon-CP七er皿andatermfor
animalspec=Les・Al1七hesenon-CPtermsaretibody七erms!冒(see,2-2.),and
七heyareordered:[bodyterm]+[七ermforanima].species](e.9。foragoa七
whichhasanox-likehead,
,akounlong:akou[head]+Eig1g!!g[ox]).
1C.Namescon七ainingcommonnounsofplan七s(2individuals)
Bo七hof七hecollec七edexamp].esimply七hecolorresemblance七
〇 七he
p=Lan七s,ptlggll!g[Grewiatenax]andariko七[genera!七ermforsmal].pエan七s
growninmois七placetsuchasmossle七c.].Thenumberofplan七species
usedin七helives七
〇cknamingmayincreaseifmoreda七aarecollec七ed.
1D。Namescon七aining七ermsforhornshape(10individuals)
Fourof七hemincludeonly七he七ermforhornshapes・The七ermfQrhorn
shapesiscombinedwi七haCP七ermin七heremainingsixnames・Thesenames
42
refer七
〇
七wodis七inc七a七
七ribu七esof七hesubjec七,i.e.,七hecolorand七he
hornshape・Theorderoftermsis:[CP七er皿]+[七ermforhornshape].
1E・Na皿escontaining七ermsforearmarking(11individuals)
Fiveofthemincludeonly七he七ermofearmarkings.Twonamesare
co皿binationsofaCP七er皿anda七ermofearmarkingsin七heorderof[七er皿
ofearmarkings]+[CP七erln].Theremainingfourani皿alshas七hesa囮e
name,composedof七wonon-CP七erms(
eariscu七
.apeiakit:皇
工≧2工[one]+aki七[ear],one
〇ffand七heo七herearislef七in七ac七)[ForlB,1C,1D,andlE,
seeAppendix1].
IF・Na皿escon七ainingter皿sdesigna七ingapartofbody(34individua工s)
Thesename8con七ain「tbody七ermst「(seet2-2),whichrefer七
〇 七he
specificbodypar七swhereaconspicuouscolorcharac七eris七icappears.
Twen七yof七hemarecombina七ionsofabody七ermandaCPter皿wi七h七heorder
of[CP七erm]+[body七er皿](e.g.,amerikou:a皿eri[do七
七ed]+akou[head]).
Namesofo七her七hreeindividualsareco皿posedonlyofabody七erm(e。g.,
namoi
.yo:墨
一[femininegenderprefix]+ngimoiyo[fingers];anani皿alwi七h
longnails).Theremainingelevenindividuaユsarenamedbytheco皿bina七ion
ofabody'しermandanon-CP七er皿(e●9.,ai七arUk:旦
一[femininegender
prefix]+-i七a[poin七ed]+aruk[hump]).
Body七ermsusedfor七helives七
〇ckindividualnamesare:akou[head],
aki七uk[mou七h],akooki[belly],ama七egen[cheek],e七id[spleen,七hisrefers
七〇sideofbelly],aki七[ear],e七
par七
〇f七heneck],ab◎i[s七
〇le[fron七par七
〇mach】,三
〇f七heneck],arari[a
蛭L主[sideof七hebelly],ewosin
[bu七 七〇ck],akau【back],aake七[breas七],aruk[hu皿P],ngimoiyo
.[七 〇es],
皇R皇p9;k[beard],akolikoli[sideof七hebreas七]sngakwas[fron七
ユegs],
a七 〇rob[breas七],ekosi皿[七ail],ngamuroi[hindlegs][De七ai工soflFare
showninAppendix2].
1G.Namesreferring七
〇animalcoユorsby七he七ermsno七describedabove
(42individuals)
Thesenamesaredue七
〇 七hecolorreseInblancebe七ween七hefurofthe
namedanimalandcer七ainobjec七sfromwhich七henamesarederived.The
originalobjec七s(anditscolors)usedin七henamingare:beads(blue),a
par七
〇f皿ea七(red),emp七y七in(do七
七ed),mole(spo七
七ed),akindofmilk
produc七(black),akindofoiユ(brown),shadow(black),akindofgir].s曾
apron(do七
七ed),gir=Lstmake-upwi七hredocher(red),akindofments
ornamen七(whi七egai七er-likespo七
〇n七heleg),bulle七car七ridge(yellow),
43
etc●(see,ApPendix3).Ahumanpersonalnameisalsou七ilizedinaname
of七his七ype,Ireferringto七hecolorresemblanceof七hena皿edsubject七
七h・man・sfav。
e皿ployed七
・i七 ・ 。・.Th。
〇refer七
9]-i七 七er「t,n七
〇
七。。mf。raal七
〇
。rna七i。
。,e七,。gim。
。。16,i,
〇blackcoatcolorofananimal.Such七ermsas「
七ear◎ff冒
曾
七〇
「,ltroadjunc七ion11,e七c.refer七
〇
七heshapeofwhi七e
pa七cheson七heanimalbodies.Mos'しnamesof七histypeareco皿posedofonly
onenon-CPterm(29individuals).Amongtheremainingnames,non-CP七erms
areaccompaniedei七herbyaCP七erm(12individuaユs),orbyanon-CPterm
(1individual).Evenin七hecaseof七henamewhichcon七ains七woe=Le皿en七s,
七heat七ribu七eof七heanimalmen七ionedby七henameisonlyone(e.9.,foran
anima⊥wi七hcoatcolorofbluebeads,napuskoloumwai:工
茎』[femininegender
prefix]+「2里[blue]+ngakoloumwai[beads】)。
1H.Namesreferring七
〇theanirnalnshape!1bytermsno七describedabove
(9individuals)
Somenamesof七his七ypedirec七lyrefer七
〇 七heex七ernalcharac七ersof
thesubject:dwarf,七all,round-shouユdered,hairy,e七c.〇
七hersrefer七
〇
七heanimalat七ribu七esfigura七ivelybyo七herobjec七s:ILongspear,gen七1e
hill,e七c.
1工.Namesreferring七
〇bo七hthecolorand七heshapeofthesubjec七(12
individua工)
Allnamesof七his七yperefer七
〇 七woa七
七ribu七esof七hesubjects.They
arecombina七ionsofaCP七ermandanon-CP七ermt七heformerreferring七
七hecolorandthe工a七
[七al=L],≦
…
凹
七er七
〇
〇 七heshape・Non-CP七ermsu七ilizedare=eewoi
こ[dwarf]iachekes[hairy],andetebUs[swol=Len(s七
〇囮ach)]
[ForthedetailsoflG,1H,and1工,seeAppendix3].
(2)Namesaf七er七heplaceorsi七ua七ionofbir七h(22individuals)
Allnamesof七his七yperefer七
〇 〇nlyonea七
七ribu七eof七henamed
animals.Termswhichindica七etheplaceofbir七h(and七henumberof
ani皿alswi七hsuchnames)are:coMmonnounsofsuchgeographicalfea七uresas
river,depression,e七c.(3),placenames(12),a七reena皿e(1),[village,
orareawhereamanusuallylive](1),[amants]homes七ead(1),[camels曾
enclosure](1),[yel].owhide](1).Onlyoneanimalisgivenanameaf七er
七hesitua七iona七
七he七i皿eofbir七h,named1!runningaway冒,・1七wasbornwhen
七hepeoplewerein七heconfusionofrunningawayfromthea七
七ackbya
neighboring七ribe.
44
ThereisnoapParen七differencebe七weenthe七er皿sforcamelna皿esand
thosefordonkeynames.工
七doesno七1na七
七ermuchwhe七her七hesubjec七isa
came=Loradonkeyat七he七imeofnaming.Noindividualofgoa七
hasanameofthistype,aユ
〇rca七
七le
七hough七heTurkanadono七haveanyruユefori七
・
Namingaf七er七hebir七hplaceisa工soprac七iceda皿onghumans[For七he
de七ailsof(2),and・
しhefollowing(3),and(4),see,ApPendix4].
(3)Namesaf七erthe七ransfer(20individuals)
Na皿esof七his七ypecanbedividedin七
derivedfro皿
〇 七wosub一
七ypes:thena皿es
七heformerowner(18individuals),and七henamesfrom七heway
of七ransfer(2individuals).A=LLnamesof七his七ypemen七ionon].yone
a七 七ribu七eof七hesubjec七byoneor七wo七er皿s.
Termsforreferring七
〇 七heformerowner(and七henumberofanimals
withsuchna皿es)are:pers・nalnames(11),clanna皿es(3),name。fal・cal
group(1),t「mYgrandfa七hertt[kinship七ermviewedfrom七hepresen七milker]
(1),"poor皿antt(figura七ivereference)(1),!!sonofngiworya[anage-se七
name]tt(1).
Thewayof七ransferisreferred七
italcohoV冒andltacas七ra七edgoa國
Noca七
〇by七hegoodsgiveninexchange,
し「,
.
七lehas七histypeofname,al七hough七hereisnoprohibi七ion.
The七er皿semployedfornamingdono七differamongo七her七hreelives七
species.Thedifferenceinlives七
considera七iona七
〇ck
〇ckspeciesisnot七akenin七
〇
七he七imeofna皿ing・
(4)Namesaf七erconspicuousbehavior(13individuals)
TermsemplQyedfornamesof七his七ype(and七henu皿berofanimalswi七h
suchnames)are:冒1rollaroundft(1),七ermsforblea七ing(3),雪
冒suckleafter
growinguptt(1),ttfoolishtt(3),ltropetl[七henamedanilna=Lmus七be七iedup
for皿ilking](1),七ermforadevice七
a七
七hetimeoflnilking(2),tt七
〇preven七ananiIllalfroms七ruggling
〇s七epuponbranchestt・(1),「t七
〇refuse
carryingbaske七tt(1).
Twoof七hemcon七ainoneCP七erm,and七heynlen七ion七woa七
七ribu七esof
七hebearer,i.e.,七hebehaviorand七hecolor・
工n七hiscase七heorderof
七ermsis:[non-CP七erm]+[CP七erm]・A=Ll七heo七hernamesmen・
しiononly七he
conspicuousbehaviorof七hebearer・
45
(5)Na皿esaf七er七heacciden七me七bythebearer(16individuaZs)
Anameofthis七ypereferstoauniqueacciden七.The七ermsadopted
andreasonsfor七henamingareasfollows:
(a)冒
冒akwara[spear]tt:itwa8arranged七
〇bespeared,buttheplanwas
abandoned.
(b)ttechopo七[eye-ball]11:i七seye-ballsareprojec七edbecau8eofapast
disease.
(c)'1[aboy「spropername]1冒:i七wasmilkedbyhimfor皿erly.
(d)冒
冒,IL9!Sal2gk[kinship七er皿forahalfbro七her]tt:thereasonisunknown・
(e)ttlomezekin[nameofahumandisease]n:oneof七hefamilymemberswas
sufferedfro皿
七hisdisease,and七hisani皿alwasarranged七
〇bepresen七ed
七〇'bheprophe七(emuron)whoofferedanadvice,bu七
七heplanwas
abandoned.
(f)「tnadungo七from皇
塑[scar]tt:i七wasinjuredbymis七akewhena
herderbea七i七wi七hs七icks.
(9)冒 「lobanye七fromgbp9!!X9]it[razor]!1:i七wasbornpre皿a七urely・Arazoris
ri七uaユ1yused七
〇givevigor七
〇8uchnewborns・
(h)署110ngoleuryaユ3鯉L皇[baldness]+akiuryan[七
〇si七down],t:apar七
i七sbellyisbald,becausei七used七
(i)itlotodoreng:lo七
〇liedownwhenitwassick.
〇do[one-horned]+aaryangan[red]:itone-hornedtt
signifiesfigura七ively七ha七
〇neofi七sudderisuselessbecauseofa
diseasein七hepas七
・Thisnamerefers七
〇i七scoa七colora七
七hesame
七ime.
(」)ttna皿unimunyo.[七ermofearcu七]11:i七searswerecu七
〇fffortrea七inga
disease・
(k)1lnakaisfromakai[hu七forsleeping]tl:i七used幽
しoliedownin七hehu七
whenitwasyoungbecauseofsic㎞ess・
(1)ttnabililfromabila[frac七ure]lt:i七sufferedafrac七ure●
(m)「
「10sikiry旦fromasikiry盆[donkey]lt:becausei七smo七herdiedwhenitwas
s七il1七
〇〇small七
〇graze,peoplebrough七i七upwi七handonkey「s'miエk.
(n)!tnakokiyofromekoki[orphan]lt:i七wasorphaned.
(o)ttnabosoki:ebos[smellbad]÷
塑
エ[ears]lt:itsearssmelledbadwhen
i七becamesick.
(P)tinakonya七afromakikonX[七
〇bite]Tt:i七wasbi七
七enbyhyenasin七he
bu七 七〇ck.
All七hesenamesexcep七for(i),referonly七
〇 〇nea七
46
七ribu七eof七he
〇f
subjec七.
No七e七ha七
皿os七
〇f七hesenamesrefer七
〇suchmisfor七unesasdisease80r
injury(9case8),orphaned(2cases),bornprema七ure]
.y(1case),anddoomed
七〇bespeared(1case).Probably七hesemisfor七unesespeciallycallthe
atten七ionof七heTurkana.工nsomeAfricansocie七ies,humansarenamed
af七ersuchnega七ivema七
七ersasdea七h,sorrow,andpover七y,e七c.,andi七is
explained七ha七
七henamingof七hiskindoffers七hewaytocopewi七hsuch
皿isfor七unes(e.9。,Bea七
七ie1957,Middle七
〇n1961).TheTurkanathoweversdo
no七namehumansin七hisway.Lives七
〇cknamesgivenaf七er皿isfortunesalso
differfrom七he8imilarhu皿a.nnames,in七ha七
皿isfor七unesare七akenin
advanceforhumannames(七heirnamesaregivenwi七hou七mee七ing七he
misfor七uneac七ualユy),whileani皿a工sarenamedaf七er七hemisfor七uneswhich
七heyhavealready皿e七.
(6)Na皿esaf七ertherela七ionship七
〇 〇七herindividuais(2individuals)
Namesof七his七ypeareno七commonamong七heTurkana.Onenameis"L
[neu七erprefix]+墨[of]+kori[pa七
七ern七er皿]ltsmeaningitoffspringof
akoritt・Theo七herrefers七
〇 〇ffspringof七henamebearerreversely・
!冒a七a[mo七herof]+1鰹
工tis
≧[bee:coa七colorofi七soffspringresembles七ha七
bees]it,meaningttmo七herof旦
〇f
≦
≧冒
冒.
4-2-3.Charac七eris七icsof七heTurkana冒slives七
Dis七ributionoflives七
〇cknaming
〇cknamesineachof七hes七udiedherdssviewed
from七he,elementcomposi七ionand七heoriginofnaming,isshowninTab].e.
19.
Thelives七
〇cknamingby七heTurkanaissummedupby七hefoUowingfive
points:
(1)allnamesrefer七
〇cer七aina七
(2)皿os・bnamesrefer七
七ribu七esof七hesubjec七,
〇 〇nlyonea七tribu七eof七hesubjec七,
(3)nonamecon七ainsmore七han七woelemen七s,
(4)nosignifican七differenceisfoundin七heTurkanatsa七
lives七
七i七udetoeach
〇ckspecies七hrough七henaming,
(5)七heTurkanadono七give七hesamename七
〇ma七rilineallyrela七edanimals.
Thesepoin七8aregivencloserlooksbelow・Firs七,allnamesrefer七
cer七aina七
signify七ha七
〇
七ribu七esof七hesubject・Generally,七hepropernamescould
七henamedsubjec七belongs七Qacer七ainclas8・Forexample,a
47
cownameditblackboard'tcou工dbeamemberof七heclassofblackcows.
工・ives七 〇cknamesa皿ong七heTurkana,howeversdono七conveyanysuchac七ual
皿eaningastoclassifythenamedSubjec七in七
〇cer七ainca七egory.On七he
o七herhand,propernamesdono七necessarilyagreewi七honeofthe
a七 七ribu七esof七hesubjec七,becausei七is七hesubjec七i七selfbu七no七
七he
a七 七ribu七eof七hesubjec七whichisreferred七
〇;七henamesimplyPlaying七he
roleofalinguisticlabelof七hesubjec七.Never七heless,thelives七
〇ck
namesaretakenfrom七he七er皿sforreferring七
subjec七
・Mos七lives七
〇thea七
七ribu七esof七he
〇ckarenamedaf七er七heirex七ernalapPearances.This
impliesthat七hesenamesareessen七ialユyrela七ed七
〇 七hedescrip七ive
referringto七hesubjee七.Amonggoa七sandca七
七le,whichhavewidevarie七y
in七heircoa七color,na皿ingaf七er七heapPearanceishigh.Evena皿ong
camel8anddonkeys,whosecoa七colorisra七heruniform,more七hanhalfof
七heirnamesrefer七
〇 七heirapPearances●
Thesecondpoin七is七ha七mostlives七
〇cknamesrefer七
〇asingle
a七 七ribu七eof七hesubjec七.Only24individuals(6.2%)havena皿esreferring
七〇 七woa七
七ribu七e8,andnamesof230f七hemcon七ainCP七ermsreferring七
〇
七heirc。atc。1。r(Table20).
The七hirdpoin七istha七noneofthelives七
〇ckna皿escon七ainsmorethan
七woelemen七s(excludinggenderprefix,suffix,e七c.,see4-2-1).51。5%
(179/350)havenamescomposedofoneelemen七,and48.9%(171/390)of七wo
elemen七s●
Thefour七hpoin七iswhe七her七hereisanydifferencein七henaming
be七weenlives七
〇ckspecies,whichwouldsuggest七hedifferencein『
Turkanatsa七
七i七ude七
七hatallca七
七learenamedaf七er七hea七
andtha『
〇eachlives七
しhe
〇ckspecies.Theno七abledifferencesare
七ribu七eofappearanceexcep七
〇necows
ヒna皿esafter七hea七tributeso七her七han七heapPearance,especially
七hosederivedfrom七heplaceofbir七h,arecommonamongcame].sanddonkeys
comparedwithgoa七sandca'btle.Thena皿esof43.2%(82/190)ofgoa七sand
41.4%(24/58)ofca'し
七1eareco皿posedexclusivelyofCP七er皿s.工ncon七ras七,
七hereareonlyafewindividualswhosenamesareco皿posedexclusivelyofCP
七erm8amongcamels(8・6%)anddonkeys(9・4%)・The8edifferenees,however,
seemdue七
〇thefac七
七ha七thecoa七colorvaria七ionissmallinbo七hcamels
anddonkeys,and七hatitisno七easy七
〇give七hemnamesreferring七
coa七coloribecause七hesamena皿ewi七ho七hersinaherdshouldbeavoided.
Forcame=Lsanddonkeys,七heanimala七
七ribu七esfornamingshouldbesearched
48
〇their
forfromo七herfields七han七hecolor.Al七hough七hesi七ua七ionsofbir七h
consti'bu七elargepor七ionof七heoriginofnamesamongcamelsanddonkeys,
i『しdoesno七
than七ha七
皿eanthat七heirbir七ha七
七rac七stheTurkanatsatten七ionmore
〇fgoa七sorca七tle.
Thelas七trai七
〇f七heTurkanatslives七
givethesamena皿e七
〇cknamingis七ha七theydono七
〇 七hemo七herandi七soffspringassomeo七her
pastoralis七sdo.U皿esao(1969)repor七ed七ha七mo七herandoffspringof
ca七 七learegiven七hesarnenamea皿ongtheDa七
〇ga,andca七
七lerespond七
〇
七heirnames。Among七heGabra(工mai1982),goa七saregiven七wonames,i.e・,
七henameof七hema七rilinealgroupand七heindividualname,andgoa七s
respondwell七
〇theformer.
TheTurkanadonotgivenames七
〇 皿a七rilinealgroups,a1七hough七heir
recogni七ionof七hegenealogicalrela七ionshipsamonglives七
七han七ha七
〇f七heGabra(工
〇ckseemsnoless
皿ai1982).Theydono七givenames七
〇lives七
〇ck
o七her七hanparousfemales,excep七fordonkeys.
Umesao(1969)s七a七es七ha七
七he皿atrilinealgroups,whieh七heDa七
recognizefamiliesin七helives七
〇ga
〇ckherd,havecorrespondings七ruc七ur'eon
七hehumanside.Eachadultwomanwhohasherown⊥ives七
familycons七i七u七essub-uni七
〇ckinaeX七ended
〇f七hefamilywi七hherchildren.TheTurkana,
however,donotname七hema七rilinealgroupsoflives七
〇ck,al七hough七hey
have七hesa皿esub-uni七swi七hinafamilyastheDa七
〇ga.1七seemsnecessary
tocollec七fur七herda七aon七hepeoples冒recognitionofgenealogical
rela七ionshipsamonglives七
〇ckandon七heuseoflives七
七hedifferencesinlives七
〇cknames,七
〇cknamingbe七ween七he・Da七
〇discuss
〇gaorGabraand七he
Turkana.
4-2-4.Howmanylives七
〇cknamesare七here?
Las七1y,工wan七
七〇discuss七hesizeof七hevocabularγfor七helives七
〇ck
naming.Thereareonlyafewiden七icalnamesinoneherd(see,Table13).
Femalesexcep七fordonkeysarenamedby七heirmi■kers.Thefami1yherdis
dividedamongadul七womenof七hefalnily(Guユliver1955),andeachfemale
animalisallo七
七edagain七
memberhas七hepriori七y七
〇aspecificmemberof七hefamily.Eachfamily
〇 七hemilkproducedby七hefema工esassigned七
him/her.Themilkersarealsofixedaccording七
〇 七hemilkrigh七
donotmilkandwo皿enandchildrenmilk七heirani皿alsins七ead.Themilkers
givenames七
〇 七heirownfemalelives七
〇ck.Fordonkeys,七heirusers,
49
〇
・Adul七men
usuallythewomenwhoown七hem,name七hem.
Thereareonユyfewiden七icalnamesinoneherd,despi七eof七hefac七
七ha七femaleanimalsofoneherdarenamedbysevera⊥membersof七hefamily・
Tha七is,familyme皿bers七akei七intoconsidera七iona七
七he七imeofnaming3
i・e・wha七kindofnamesaregivenno七
〇nly七
〇 七heirownfemalesbuta⊥so七
〇
all七hefe皿a].esin七hefamilyherd.Allfemalesmilkedbyonepersonhave
differen七namesfro皿oneano七her.
Evenwhen七hedistinc七ioninanirnalspeciesandin七heherdsare
ignored,七hereare290dis七inc七namesand245individua工s(68.1%)have
uniquenamesamong七he七
'
〇七alof350animalss七udied(Table21).Onlynine
namesaregiventomore七han七woanima工s。
Al七houghitisac七uallyi皿possible七
七henamesshouユdrefer七
七ha七=Lives七
enough・
〇choosena皿esa七randombecause
〇cer七aina七
七ribu七e80f七hesubjec七,le七usassu皿e
〇cknamesaregivena七randomwhen七hesamplesizeislarge
工nTable21,七heobserveddis七ributionofnumberofnamesare
compared,wi七h七heexpec七edvaユuesof七runca七edPoisondis七ribu七ion.The
observedvaluesareclo8e].yapProxima七edby七heexpec七edva工ues(x2=3.169,
df=1,0・1>P>0・05)・Twofactors,七ha七
animalsissmall,andtha七
七henu皿berofnamesgiven七
七hosegiven七
〇 七wo
〇 七hreeanima工sis二Largereverselye
caused七hebiasof七heobservedvaluefrom七heexpected・This皿aybedue
七〇thefac七
七ha七somenamesarepreferredandadop七edinseveralherds
independen七1y,which工trea七ed七
beexpec七edtha七
〇ge七heri11七hisanalysis.Howeverti七can
七heobservedvalueswillapproxima七etheexpec七edvalues
closerswhenmoresamplesarecollec七ed・
Theexpec七edvaluefortheter皿ofzerois648.17.ThisfigUre
signifies七henumberofnameswhichareno七ad◎p七edin七hesamp=Les,
al七hough七heyprobab].yexis七in七heTurkana1spooloflives七
〇cknames.工n
七〇七al,七hereforep七hepoolcon七ainsabou七1000names,al七hough七hisfigure
shouユdbe七rea七edonユyasaroughes七ima七e。
Thepoolof七ermsfor七helives七
〇ckna皿ing,however,isprobablyno七a
closedone.Theremus七besomefユexibili七yfQrthenamegivers七
〇crea七e
newnames.Somenamesarenewlyinven七edandadded七
li七 七le,ando七hersdropou七
〇 七hepoolli七
〇f七hepool・
Expec七edly,thelarger七heherdsizet七hemorenumberofelenlen七sare
usedineachof七henames,becausepeop].eshouユdgiveeachindividuala
differen七namefromo七hersin七heherd・Table22showshowmanyelemen七s
50
七=Leby
areemployedinthenaming●ApParen七1yourexpec七a七ionisfoundincorrec七:
thenumberofele皿en七sin七henameisno七rela七edto七heherdsize.For
example,七hepropor七ionofnamesof七woele皿en七sto七he七
HerdAislargerthantha七
〇七alnumberof
〇fHerdB,al七houghHerdBislarger七hanA.
Thisshows七hat七heTurkanadono七
皿akecons七an七effor七toreduce七he
nu皿berofelemen七sinlives七
〇cknaming・
When七heyselec七
七ermsforZives七
〇cknames,七heydono七a⊥wayschoose
七heCP七erms・Thes皿al=Lestgoa七herd,C,ishighes七inthepropor七ionof
namesofoneelemen七among七hegoatherd8.Howevertmore七hanhaユfofthem
arecomposedexclusivelyofnon-CP七erms●Primarytermsareno七always
preferredtonon-CP七er皿s.Thisshows七ha七
ofter皿sforlives七
七heTurkanahavealargepool
〇cknaming,and七ha七they80皿e七i皿eschoosenon-CP七erms
from七hepooユevenwhenCPtermsareusable.Thehighfrequencyofna皿es
of七woele皿en七samongs皿allerherd8canbesi皿ilarlyexplained.
Theabovediscussionalsoapplies七
〇 七heselec七ionofanimal
a七 七ribu七esfor七henaming.Namesaf七er七heappearanceof七hesubjec七
〇ccupyalargepar七
〇flives七
〇ckna皿esof七heTurkana.Howevert七he
Turkanacannameanimal8af七ero七herat七ribu七es,evenwhentheycanname
七hemaf七er七heappearances.
Livestocknamingby七heTurkanadono七havesuchprac七icalfunc七ions
as七
〇classifyindividuals.Thesizeof七hes七udiedherdsisfarsmaller
七han七ha七
〇fthepoolof七ermsfornaming・Thenameofananirnalcarmo七be
de七erminedau七
〇ma七ically,al七houghi七ispossible七
〇expec七it
s七a七is七ically・Aconsiderablefreedomisgiven七
〇 七henamegivers.
4_3.Useofindividualnamesanddescrip七ivereferenceoflives七
Lives七
〇ck
〇ckindividualnamesareusedin七wosi七ua七ions:tocall七he
animals(七henamebeareris七headdressee),and七
〇referto七heanimalsin
七hespeeche8in七hehumanconversa七iorls(七henamebeareris七hereferen七).
WhenpeoP=Le七alkabou七
七heiranimals,七heanima].scanbereferred七
〇ei七her
bytheirindividualnames,ofbysui七abledescriptive七erms・In七hes七udy
individualnamesoflives七
〇ck,七hefollowing七hreeshou工dbecarefully
discriminated:七hesui七ab]。edescrip七ive七ermsof七heanimals,七heproper
names七
〇address七
〇theanimals,and七hepropernames七
〇refer七
51
〇the
anima18in七hespeechesamonghumans.
4-3-1.When七heanimalsareaddressee
TheTurkanagivenames七
animals.Lives七
〇lives七
〇ckorigina=Lly七
〇callspecific
〇cknamesareregardedas七hemeansofcommunica七ion
betweenmanandani皿aユs.T。discuss七her。
ユe。f七heユives七
。cknames,we
皿us七separa七e七hefollowingtwoaspec七s:how七hepeople七hinkofi七,and七
wha七ex七en七
〇
七hena皿esareac七uallyeffec七ivefor七hecommunication.
Whenasked,闘do七heanima工srespond七
answers冒
nyes
〇'しheirnames?「talltheTurkana
「yes冒冒
・Whenasked,雪
冒do七heyrespondasdogsdo?ff,七heyanswert
,bu七camelsdono七respondwellasca七
七le,goats,orsheepdott。
However,we皿us七becarefuユwheni11七erpre七ingsuchanswers.The
Turkanatsideaon七heresponseofanimalsis皿orecomplex七hani七apPears・
Tomyques七ion,awo皿ananswered:「tAnimalsrespond七
lac七a七ingfe皿ales七ha七havelos七
「t工willshowi七
〇 七heirnames,and
七henewbornsrespondespeciallywelltnand
七〇youwhen工milkmygoa七in七heevening
.IlWhatshe
showedmein七haもeveningwasno七tocallthefemalegoa七
七〇her.She
called七hena皿eof七hegoa七firs七whenshe七ried七
clear七
〇seizei七
〇 皿ewhe七her七hegoa七respondedorno七
・Thenshebegan七
・Itwasno七
〇miユ
ユ【i七.
Shecalleditsnameagainandagain,and皿adeacertainvocalsoundwhich
七heTurkanaalwaysmakewhen皿ilking・Thegoa七shooki七sheadasi七
itsface.Thenshesaid,雪
冒Look!工
tiFema二Lesof七hiskindanswer七
七urned
七 ㎞owsi七sna皿e."Sheexplained:
〇 七heirnameswhen七heyaremilked;七heyfeeユ
asiftheyweresuckledby'-theiroffspringit.
Wha七sheimpliedbysaying七ha七
wasinfac七
〇 七heirna皿es,
七hat七hena皿ecalZinghadsomeeffec七son七heanimalssoas七
make七hemaccep七
lives七
七heanimalsresponded七
〇
七hemilking.工haveneverseenanyTurkanacalling七he
〇ckin七hesamemanneras七heycalleddogs,whichrespondwellfrom
faraway・
工men七ioned七hat・bherewereonlyafewindividualswith七hesamenames
inalivesteckherd.TheavoidanceofnameoverlapPingisdue七
Turkanatsidea七ha七
〇such
七henamecallinghascer七aineffec七sontheani皿als,
although七heTurkanadidno七explaini七explici七ly.
Severalau七horss七a七e七ha七
七hefemalelives七
names.Umesao(1966)s七ates七ha七the皿
〇ckresporld七
〇七herandoffspringofca七
aregiven七hesamename,remember七heirna皿ewell,and七hat七heyrespond七
〇 七heir
七le,which
〇
52
七hecalling・Goldsch皿id七(1976),Massim(1927/1968),andReid(1930)sta七e
七ha七cowsapProachto七heMarlwhocalls七heirnames.工
tha七goa七sapProach七
皿ai(1982)s七a七es
〇 皿enwhe!1七heyarecalled.
Inmyobserva七ionamong七heTurkanas七heresponseofanimals七
〇 七heir
nameswasno七clear.TheTurkanadoca工1七henamesoffemaleswhenmilking
七hem・Thebehavioroffemaleanima1,however,see皿s七
〇beaffec七edby皿any
o七herfactors.WhencalZingamo七hercowt七hemi].kermakesanexplosive
soundby七helips,brea七hingin,as七hemilkelropens七heen七ranceof七he
calvestenclosureto七akeou七thecalfof七hecow.Themilkerseems七
indifferen七
〇be
七〇 七helocationof七hecow.Anyhow,mos七mo七herss七aynearthe
enc=losurewhere七heir◎ffspringarekep七.1七isrヒheexplosivesoundand
七hepresenceofoffspring,bu七no七
七hecallingonly,七ha七inf].uence七he
behaviorofthemo七herstoapproach七
〇 七heenclosure,or七
〇 七hemilkers.
Whengoa七sorsheeparemilked,somekidsaretakenou七
〇f七he
enclosureandcarriedin七hemilkertsarmsup七
〇 七hemo七hers,whileo七hers
arereleasedand七hey㎜aroundin七heflocklookingfor七hemo七hers・
工n
七heformercase,七he皿ilkerca11七hena皿eof七he皿
〇七her,walking七ewardi七
wi七h七hekidinthear皿s・Themo七herthowever,doesno七showanyclear
responses・Fe皿aleswi七hoffspring,especially七hoseshor七lyafterthe
par七uri七ion,七end七
〇flockaround七heenclosuresbleatingandlookingfor
七heiroffspring,andi七isunnecessary七
〇callthem七
〇 七heoffspring,orto
七hemilker.
According七
〇Tani皇
立 皇⊥.(1980)andTani(1982),七rainedcas七ra七ed
maZesofgoa七sandsheeprespondadequa七ely七
〇 七heverbalcommandsof七he
herder,andhabi七ua七edfemalesheepapProach七
names.工
七iswidelyprac七iced七
verba、Lcommandsas!冒s七
factsshowtha七
〇 七hemanwhocall『
◎ 七raindraf七ca七
七1e七
〇p冒「tttforwardtttllturn七
〇
七heseanirnalscanrespond七
しheir
〇respond'bosuch
七herigh七ltte七c.These
〇 七heirnames,when七heyare
appropria七ely七rained.
TheTurkana,however,dono七in七en七ional工y七rainanimals・Amongo七her
Africanpas七
〇ralis七swhoseanima].sarerepor七ed七
〇respond七
〇 七heirna皿e8,
七hereisnoevidencesofanimal七raining,ei七her・Therefore,七heanimals
learn七
七heu七
〇respond七
〇 七heirna皿esby七hemselves・Theymaylearn七
〇combine
・
しerancei七self(no七itsmeaningri.e.,theirnames)ofhumanswi七h
thesi七ua七iontobe皿ilked・Thefemaiestnamesmayf㎜c七ionoriginallyas
asign七
〇apPeal七
〇 七hesubjec七s七ha七
七heyaregoing七
53
〇bemilked・Through
七herepea七edprocessofmilking,七heaniIllalsmaybecome七
〇respondto七heir
namesinsi七ua七ionso七her七han皿ilking.
Theresponseofanimals七
〇 七heirnames,howeversisnotclearevena七
the七imeofmilkingamongtheTurkana.Therepea七edcallingofna皿esa七
the七imeofmilkingisno七enoughfor七heanima工stolearn七heirnames●
AmongtheTurkana,thelives七
〇cknamedoesno七playagrea七rolein七he
man-animalco皿munica七ion・Callinganimalsisonlyoneelemen七
七echniques七
〇calmani皿aユsand七
〇fvarious
〇make七hemaccep七milking.For七he
compara七iveanalysisofthedifferencesin七heanimals曾response七
na皿esa皿ongpas七
〇their
〇raユpeoples,fur七herde七ailedda七aareneeded.
Theani皿alsarecalledalsoin七heday一
七ripherding.Theherdershurl
abuseat七heanimalswhichbehaveagains七
七heirin七en'tion.Theyshou七a七
七heanimals,andsome七imes七hrows七icksors七
〇nesa七
七hem.Thecalling,
onlywhencombinedwi七h七heherdersiac七ionthassomeeffec七sonthe
ani皿als.Theeffec七sca㎜
〇七befoundwi七hou七
七he七
〇七alperformanceof七he
herders・This七ypeofcallingcanberegardedasjus七anexpressionof七he
herderisangerorirritation.All七heter皿s七
〇specify七hesubjee七sin七he
caUingof七hiskind,which工observedswereco=Lorandpa七
refer七
七ern七erms七
〇 七hecoa七colorof七hesubjec七s。Thesecallingsaredifferen七from
theindividualnamesbymydefinition.
4-3-2.When七heani皿aユsarereferen七
When工wasinves七iga七ing七helives七
〇ckna皿esofparousfemales,Iwas
sometimesansweredttt工dontt㎞owi七sname.Ask七heonewho皿ilki七.ttThe
individualna皿esofparousfemales,especiallyof七heyo㎜gonessareno七
㎞owninsomecasesevenamong七hesamefamilymembers・Parousfemaユesare
givenna皿esbytheirmilkers,and七hena皿escome七
〇be㎞ownbyother
membersof七hefamily七hroughrepea七edca=Llinga七
七he七imeofmilking.
Then七helives七
〇cknames,origina].ly七henamesofaddress,cometobe
usedas七henamesofreferenceamongpersonswi七hinalimi七edex七ent.The
conversion,howeversdoesno七proceedfast・Beforebeinggivennamess七he
femaleanimalsarereferred七
〇bydescrip七ivetermssui七ablefor七hem.
Evenaf七er七heyaregivenpropernaロ1es,peoplecon七inue七
descrip七ivetermsforreferring七
donkeys.工
七 七akes七wo七
before七hefamilymember8ge七accus七
〇use七hese
〇them・ThesameapPlies七
〇 七hreepar七ur'i七ionsforagQa七
〇med七
〇 七henamesof
〇rsheepfemale
〇usingitsindividualname.The
54
〇
namesofaddressand七hoseofreferenceare七hesameamongoldfemalegoa七s
and8heepwhichhavegivenbirth七
〇manyoffspring.Forca七
七leandcamel
females,七heconversionprocessneedsfewerpar七uri七ions七han七hoseof
goa七sandsheep,probablybecause七heirlac七a七ionperiodislongerand
七heirmilkismoreimpor七an七in七hemanisdie七.
Whenreferringdescrip七ively七
〇individua].animalswhichareno七
namedtthenumberofvocabulariesemployedforspecifyingeachanimalwouLd
increase,asthenumberofanimals七
〇bedi8七inguishedincreases・Ina
familywithagoa七herdofabou七300head,wi七hwhom工stayedforalong
period,peoplereferred七
〇 七woor七hreea七
七ribu七es七
〇specifyeachof七hem。
Theattribu七ewhichwasmos七frequen七lyusedin七hedescrip七ive
referenceswas七hecoatcolor.A]
.mos七all七he七er皿s七
wereGP七erms,and七hefigura七ivereference七
〇refer七
〇thecolor
〇 〇七herobjec七sbasedon
七hecolorrese皿blancewasseldo皿usedwhendescrip七ivelyreferringto
animals.Thenex七a七
七ribu七esreferred七
〇were七heearmarkingand七hehorn
shape・
Some七erms,whichareno七adoP七edforgivinglives七
fordescrip七ivereference七
〇cknames,areused
〇animals.Theyareclassifica七
〇ry七ermsbased
on七hesexanddevelopmen七als七ages,and七hena皿esofownersormilkers●
〇七herinfrequentexpressionsare:"offspringofso-and-soanimalii,ttbro七her
(sis七er)ofso-and-soanima1冒tsT冒
七ransferredfrolnso-and-sopersonnte七c.
Severalco皿bina七ionsofanimala七
七ribu七escanspecify七heindividuals,
because七hemembersofafamiユycommonlyrecognize皿anya七
七ribu七esofeach
ani加a1.工n七hespeechesamong七hefamilyme111bers,howeversthewaybf
reference七
i七sa七
〇eachanimalgraduallyconverges七
〇aspecificcombina七ionof
七ribu七es.Oneof七heapP=Licableexpressionsofagivenanima=Lis
conver七edin七
〇i七spropernameaf七errepea七edreference七
second七ypeoflives七
〇i七
〇ckindividualname,althoughnoonegivenamesof
七his七ypeonpurpose・Thesenamesareno七called七
Lives七
〇 七hesubjec七s・
〇cknamesof七his七ypearecombina七ionsofclassifica七
〇ryterms.
This七ypeofnamegivingclearlydiffersfrom七heclassifica七
dis七inc七ionofindividuals・Eachc=Lassifica七
apPlied七
・Thisis七he
〇lry
〇rycri七erionshouldbeevenly
〇all七hemembersof七heherdin七heclassifica七
〇rydis七inc七ion・
In七henamegiving,七hecri七eriaof七heclassificationareno七used
equally・Someani皿alsarenamedaf七er七heownerand七hecolor,andsome
o七hersaf七er七heownerand七heearmarkings,e七c・Therefore,each
55
individuaユinaherdof300goa七scanbespecifiedbyIreferring七
orthreea七
〇 〇nly七wo
七ribu七es.
Theabovewaysofreference七
〇animaユsarevalidonlyfor七hepeople
whoshareco皿monrecognitionofthesubjec七s.Animaユsarealsoreferred閏
しo
descriptiveユybe七weenpersonswhodono七share七herecogni七ion.For
exa皿ple,peopleshouldexchangeinforma七ionon七heユos七ani皿alswiththose
whopossibユyfind七hem.Anima=La七
七ribu七esreferred七
〇in七hissi七ua七ion
are:coa七color,earmarkings,hornshape,brand,bodysize,developmen七a1
8七ages,possiblepar七nerswonderingtoge七her,etc.
Inconclusion,七hereare七hreedis七inc七
七ypesofreferring七
〇animals
intheTurkanatsconversa七ions.Thefirs七is七heconversionofna皿esof
address七
〇namesofreference.Thenamegiverisalwaysobvious,and七he
namesarepurposelygiven七
〇 七heani皿als.Thesecond七ypeofnameis
for皿edbytheconversionofdescrip七ivereferencestoani皿als.Descrip七ive
七er皿s七urnin七
〇properna皿esthroughsocializa七ion.Amongagroupof
peoplesuchas七hemembersofafamily,specific七er皿sbecome七
〇be
selec七ivelyusedthroughrepea七eduseof七he七ermsin七heirspeechesのThe
七hirdisdescrip七ivereferringtoanimala七
七ribu七esin七heconversa七ion
withs七rangers.Thisisno七apropername,bu七ase七
七ha七
七hesubjec七referred七
〇fa七tribu七es.No七e
〇by七hesecond七ypeofnameistheani皿al
i七self,while七he七er皿sempユoyedareaユmos七all七hesamewi七hthoseof七he
third.
4-3-3.Animals,inpqrtic正Laroxentinsongs
工nEas七Africanpas七
〇ral80cie七iessitiswidelydis七ribu七ed七harbeach
mancomposesandsingssongsonhisfavoriteox・Theoxisreferred七
〇by
avarie七yof七er皿sfigura七ivelyin七hesongs,andmen七ake七heir「10x_,or
ca七tle-nameTtfrom七hese七er皿s(e.9・,Evans-Pri七chard1956,Lienhard七1961,
Gourley1972).TheTurkanaalsohaveox-names・Eachadul七maniscalled
as雪
冒fa七herofso-and-sooxltsasamong七heJie(Gulliver1952).Theox
80ngscomposedandsungbymenarecalユed!!gg,!1g11gj,p,七hevery七erm皿eaning
oxen.Thisindica七es七hespecia].s七a七ustheca七
七1eoccupyin七heTurkana曾s
cul七ure.
Theoxenarereferred七
rtspo七 七edon七hebelly曾
〇insuchsongsbyavarie七yof七erms:
「,ttzebrat「,'冒
七alltitllb=Lackoxltlttnaユinga
七erm]-kiryoon[black]-komar[akindofhornshape]11t冒lsonofnakQmar[a
56
.[pa七
七ern
kindofhornshape,七his七er皿refer七
〇i七smo七her]「
「te七c.Theoxenare
alsoaddressedtointhesongsbysuchavarie七yof七ermsas:nloowoi
[tall]一
鯉
工皇[pa七
七ern七erm]!1,troldtt,ttoxofso-and-so[nameof七he
singerlsfriendwhogave七heox七
〇him]tt,騨
⊥2迦[akindofhornshape]Tts
e七c・Theremaybelit七lediffelrencebe七ween七hetermsofreferring七
thoseofaddressing七
〇and
〇 七heoxenin七hesongs.Some七imesi七isdifficult七
〇
judgewhe七her七he七ermsarereferringoraddressingto七heoxen.
Wha七
七hepoeticandfigura七iveeXpressionsrefer七
〇isalwaysapparen七
七〇 七heaudience,aswellas七Q七hesingerhimself.Thesingerisno七
enumerating七hepropernamesofoxen.且eisdescriptivelyエreferringor
addre8sing七
〇 七hem.Allexpre8sionsin七heoxsongsareno七convertedin七
propernamescommon工yusedin七hespeechesof七heTurkana.Mos七
〇
〇f七hem
areexpressedonlyin七hesongstandonlyafewof七he皿arechangedin七
〇
suchpropernamesasareusedregardlessof七hecon七ex七.
57
5・C。ncludingremarks
5-1・]inc七iona工aspec七soflives七
〇ckindividualiden七ifica七ion
工ndividuaユanimalsareclassifiedbyseverala七
七ribu七esin七
〇such
ca七egoriesasreproducingmales,parousfemales,orani皿a工sofspecific
hornshape・Theyareno七discrimina七edfromo七hersof七hesameca七egory・
工n七hisregard,agroupofindividualsis七rea七edasallcユass!冒,eachmember
receiving七hesame七rea七men七sjus七becausei'しbe].ongs七heca七egory・For
exa皿ple,ma七urednon-cas七ra七edmalesarealwayssubjec七
considera七ionwhe七her七
七echniques七
liVeS七
七〇 七he
〇cas七ra七eorselec七asreproducingmales。The
〇produce七heseca七egoriesareindispensablefor七hepas七
〇Ckmanagemen七
〇ral
●
On七heo七herhand,aTurkanaindividuallyiden七ifiesal1七heani皿als
hekeeps・Settingaside國
しheques七ionhQweach冒'individual'tanimali8
1tuniquenfor七heTurkana
fromo七hers。
,anindividualis,wi七hou七doub七,discrimina七ed
工七i8alsono七abユeinthee七hnographiesonAfrican
pastoralis七s七ha七
七heirlives七
〇ckmanagemen七isbasedon七heindividual
identification.Thisfac七,howeverthasno七a七
七rac七ed七hea七
an七hropologists,probablybecausei七wasa皿a七
七en七ionof
七erofcour'se・Iwouユdlike
七〇discussi七sfunctionalimpor七ancesandconsequencesin七herela七ionship
be七weenmanandanimalsinpas七
〇ralsocie七ies.
工ndividUaliden七ifica七iondoesno七alwayscons七i七u七eanindispensable
ele皿en七
・
し〇 七hepas七
〇ralproduc七ion.Among七heLapPs(Ingold1980),七he
individualsofreindeerareno七comple七elyiden七ified,and七heear皿arking
playsavi七alroユein七heiden七ifica七ionof七heowners.TheLappsprac七ice
earnivorouspas七
〇ralism,whileAfricanpas七
〇ralis七smilchpas七
(工ngold,1980).工ndividualiden七ifica七ionof=Lives七
concomi七an七
〇f七hepas七
In!nilchpas七
preven七
〇ckisanimpor七ant
〇ralismexploi七ingthelives七
〇ck冒smilkproduc七ion.
〇ralism,mo七herandoffspringmus七bekep七separa七e].y七
七heoffspringfromsucklingsoas七
〇reserve七he皿ilkforhuman
consump七ion.Then,peoplehavetomake七hepairof七hemo七herand
offspringmee七again。
工七isnecessaryfirs七
七heoffspring.Secondly,especiallyforca七
〇ralism
〇fallfor七henu七ri'しiQnof
七1e,七heencoun七erof七hepair
isnecessaryformilkingi七self.Themilkofcowsi8secre七edby七he
58
〇
physicals七imulusof七heoffspring,ssuckling.Thisis㎞ownas七he「tmilkejec七ionreflextt(Amoroso&Jewell1963).PeoPleshouldmakethepair
encoun七erand8epara七e七hemrepeatedlyforexploiting皿ilk・
工f七heydidno七identifyindividua工sanddepended,inorder七
七he皿
〇milk
〇七hereonlyon七heanimalsspon七aneousencoun七er,i七wouLd七ake皿uch
timeandeffor七,andi七wouldbealLmos七i皿prac七icab].ewhen七henumberof
ani皿alsislarge.Pairscouユdbeiden'しifiedno七byindividual
iden七ifica七ionbu七bypu七
七ing七hesa皿emarking七
〇eachof七hepair,wi七hou七
皿akingoverlapsamong七hepairs.Noneof七hepas七
〇ralis七s,however,
prac七icemarkingsof七hiskind.工ndividualsiden七ifica七ionbythe
appearancesiseasier七han七
〇 七heiden七ifica七ionby七hemarkings.
工ndividua=Liden七ifica七ionalsoenablestheTurkanatorecognize
genealogicalreユa七ionshipsin七helives七
〇ck,for七hegenealogicallinesare
madeupbyconnec七ingpairsof七hemo七herand七heoffspringoneby◎ne.
Therecogni七ionofgenealogicalrela七ionshipsisrepor七edinmanypastoral
socie七iesinEas七Africa(e.g.,Evans-Pritchard1940,Umesaolg66,FUkui
1979,工mai1982),although七heconsequencesof七herecogni七ionand
genera七ionaldep七hmayvaryfromsocie七y七
〇socie七y.Hereagain,i七
bepossiblefor七hepeople七
lives七
皿igh七
〇recognizegenealogicalre=La七ionshipsofthe
〇ckwi七hou七individualiden七ifica七ion.Themo七herandoffspring
recognizeeacho七her,and七he皿
〇七herrefusenewbornso七her七hani七sown七
suckle.1七ispossible七
andpu七i七
〇cap七ure七heoffspringa七
七hesa皿e皿arkingas七hemo七her・
〇
七he七imeofsucklings
工fpeopleshouldrepea七
overgenerations,七hesamemarkingw℃uld1)epu七
七his
七〇a].lof七he皿a七rilineally
rela七edani皿als・However,七hereareagrea七numberofmatrilinealgroups
in七heherdofamanasshownin七hispaper.Ac七ualユy,itisinfeasible七
〇
giveeachof七hesegroupanindependen七marking,and七
〇pu七'しhem七
ani皿als.The七roubleiseasi].yavoidedbyindividualiden七ifica七ionof
ani囮a].s.
工ndividua工iden七ifica七ionofanimalsisa工soi皿por七an七forconfirming
七heownership.When七heindividualsareno七iden七ified,somemarkings
shouldbepu七
differen七
七〇 七heanimals七
〇iden七ify七heowners,becauseanimalsof
〇wnerssome七i皿esmixands七rayawaywhilegrazing・All七he
newbornsshouユdbepu七
七heownertsmarkingbyiden七ifying七hemo七her,and
七hemarkingsshouユdalwaysberenewedeach七imewhen七heanimalsare
七ransferred.Ownershipmarkingof七his七ypeisac七uallyprac七icedamong
59
〇all
七heLapPs(工ngold,1980).Alloftheseareunnecessarywhenanilnalsare
individuallyiden七ified.
工nEas七Africanpastoralsocie七ies,七herigh七
complexinEas七Africanpas七
〇verlives七
〇ra180cie七ies七han七
〇ckismore
〇iden七ifyonly七heowner
itseユf・Forexampleamong七heTurkana,wecanrecognizethefollowing
七hrees七ra七ain七herigh七
〇verlives七
〇ckwi七hinthefamilyofaman:七he
familyhead,thesub-unitsofwives,and七heindividuals・All七he
livestockofafa皿i].yareos七ensiblyownedbythefamilyhead・The
lives七
〇ck,however,areallo七
七ed七
fromwhichwife七hemea七
〇hiswives,andi'しisdecidedbeforehand
〇fananima工shouldbesharedou七,wheni七is
slaugh七eredordied。Thewiveswi七h七heirchildrencons七i七u七e七hesub一
㎜i七soflives七
isallo七
〇ckownershipwi七hin七hefa皿ily.Fur七hermoreieachani皿al
七edagain七
〇individualswi七hin七hesub-・uni七s●Eachpersonhas
suchanimalsofhis/herown七ha七he/shehasexclusiverigh七
〇ver七helnilk
producedby七hem.Thepersonwhohastherigh七
a=Lsothepo七entialrigh七
〇verafe皿ale曾s皿ilkhas
〇ver七hemilkwhichi七soffspringwi]ユproducein
thefu七ur'e●
Therecogni七ionofgenealogicalrela七ionshipsa皿ong七helives七
〇ckis
皿ade七hrough七heindividualiden七ifica七ion・Therigh七
〇verlives七
〇ck
becomesclearby七herecogni七ionofgenealogicalrela七ionships,becausea11
七hemembersofonema七rilinea工groupPrinlarilybelong七
〇 〇neperson
au七 〇ma七ically・
Therigh七
〇verlives七
〇ckis皿orecomplex七hanisdescribedaboVe.
Somepartofmiユkproduc七ionissharedonlywi七hin七hesub-uni七sofwives・
Therefore,when七he二Lac七a七ingfe皿alesareunevenlydis七ribu七edbe七weensub_
uni七s,七herigh七
〇verthemilkofsomefemaユesare七ransferred七emporarily
foronlyonelac七a七ionperiod・A七theendof七heperiOd,七hefe皿ale
animal,whichwashandedovertshouldbere七urned.Nofemaleof七hesame
ca七egorycansubsti七u七eit・
工n七hissitua七ion,whenafemalesisloaned,
七heorlewhohas七herigh七
whohas七herigh七
〇ver七hemea七
〇f七hefema=Lediffersfrom七heone
〇ver七hemilkofthesameanimal・Tha七is,therights
over七heproduc七sofoneindividua].animalares七ra七ified.工
ilnpossible七
〇recordsuch皿uユ
七is
七iplerighもsoverlives七
〇ckbypu七
dis七inc七ive皿arkingsonallani皿als.
Theprincipユe七ha七aspecificindividualani皿a工carlno七besubs七itu七ed
byo七hersholdsalsoin七helives七
〇ck七ransferbe七weenfamiliesamong七he
60
七ingsome
Turkana・Lives『
しockaregiven七
〇 〇rexchangedwitho七hermen,andacer七ain
socialrelationshipises七ablishedbe七weenthepersonsconcerned.Guユliver
(1955言197)calユed七hemenwhohavesocia」Lrela七ionshipswi七honemanashis
fts七〇ckassocia七esTt
withs七
・Peoplerememberfirmlyinmindeachlives七
〇ck七ransfer
〇ckassocia七es.Each七ransferisa8anindependen七even七
represen七edbyspecificindividualanimals.Theydono七
as七hemovemen七
〇fanonymous冒
七rea七
冒head!「ofanima工s,although七hecategoryof
七ransferredanima=Lsisimpor七an七
。
Livestockisno七loaned七
〇 〇七herfamiliesa皿ong七heTurkanainour
sense.工n七heexchangeoflives七
〇ck,however,i'しfrequen七lyhappens七ha七
七woconeerningpersonsdono七handover七helives七
delayof七hepaymen七
especiaユ
七he七ransfer
〇cksimul七aneous].y・The
〇nonesidesome『
しimesexceedsmorethanafewyears,
ユywhen七heconcerningpersonshaveaclosesocia1七ie.Usually
suchpersonsmu七uallyhaveaccumula七eddeb七swi七heacho七her.Thesedeb七s
arenotgeneralonescausedbythepas七assis七ances,bu七specificonesin
which七hepaymen七for七hepas七exchangesoflives七
〇ckareno七comple七ed.
工n七hesesi七ua七ions,eachdeb七is七rea七edasadis七inc七
TheTurkanadono七
animais「
七rea七
〇nefromo七hers.
七hedeb七sast冒youowemesuchandsuchheadof
冒,bu七as「tyouhaveno七me七thedeb七whichincurredwhen工handed
youso-and-soanimalit・Therefore,七hedeb七sofbo七hsidesmigh七increase
evenwhen七heyhandover七hesameheadofanimals七
〇eacho七her,because
each七ransfermigh七crea七enewdeb七s.Thissi七ua七ionwouldno七
thedeb七sshouldhavebeenco㎜
〇ccur',if
七edbyithead冒
曾,no七by七he"individuals「t,of
animals.
S・m・p・
。P'lesinE・
・七Afri・apra・
七icel。aning。fanimal・(・.9.,P。k。
Schneider1953,Gogo:Rigby1969)・Wha七areloanedareno七suchabs七rac七
beingsasanimalsofcer七ainca七egories,bu七ac七ualindividualanimals・
When七heloanedanima工sdie,orwhen七heyarehandedback七
owner,七hesocialrela七ionshipcomes七
〇 七heoriginal
〇anend.Theindividualanil!1alsare
no七subs七i七u七edbyo七herswhen七heydie,a=L七houghtheconcerningpersons
carlrenew七heirrela七iorlshipby七hetransferofo七herani皿als.
工nEas七Africanpas'boralsocie七ies,humansocialre=La七ionshipsare
crea七edandmain七ained七hrough七hein七er-exchangeoflives七
〇ck,eachof
whichbearing七heburdenofrigh七sspecific七
Each七ransferoflives七
〇i七(e・9・,Bax七er1975).
〇ckshouldberecognizedasadis七inc七iveone
becausei七represen七sspecificsocialre]・a七ionshipscrea七edandmain七ained
61
七・
by七hetransfer.Genera工ly,七hedis七inc七ivenessofeach七ransfermaybe
givenbyseveralways,suchasby七heda七eordocumen七
EastAfricanpas七
lives七
〇f七hetransfer・
工n
〇ralsocie七ies,thisdis七inc七ivenessisgivenby七he
〇ckindividuali七y.
5-2・Folkclassifica七ionandpeculiari七yoflives七
〇ckindividuality
Someca七egoriesin七heTurkanatslives七
〇ckclassifica七ionareformed
byclassifyingna七ural,sotospeak,givendifferences.Itdepends,of
course,on七hepeople七hemselves七
〇whichof七hesedifferences七heypay
a七 七en七ionandwhichof七hedifferences七heychooseasdis七inc七ivefea七ures
in七hec=Lassification.工n七hissense,classifica七ionsys七emisno七
prescribeddirectlyby七hena七uraldifferences,bu七formedbymantsin'berrela七ionshipwi七h七helives七
〇ck.Howeversi七maybesaid七ha七so皿e
ca七egories,basedonsuchdifferencesasbetweeniives七
〇ekspeciesand
be七weensexestareformedpayinga七
七en七ion七
〇na七uraldiscon七inui七ies.
On七heo七helrhand,someca七egoriesin七he=Lives七
〇ckc].assifica七ionof
七heTurkanaarear七ificiallyformedby8uch七ec㎞iquesasdeforminghorns
andearsandpu七tingbrand皿arkings.Highvarietyin七heZives七
〇ckcoa七
colorismaintainedalsoar七ificiallybyselec七ingreproducingmalesof
specificcoa七colors,although七his七echniquedoesno七direc七lypr。duce
discontinuityin七helives七
〇ckas七heo七her七ec㎞iquesdo.Lives七
〇ckare
uniquesubjec七sin七hefolkclassifica七ionsys七emsofna七uralorganismsin
七ha七someofdis七inc七ivefea七ures鼻reartificiallyproduced。Theyare
manipula七able.Lives七
〇ckindividualsfunc七ionas七hemediaofdisplaying
七hesear七ificialdiscontinui七ies.
Al七hougheachprac七icetoproducear七ificialca七egoriesinlives七
hassomemeanings,工supPose七ha七
七heuユ
〇ck
七ima七echarac七erof七heTurkana曾s
crea七ionofdiscon七inui七iesisno七creationofca七egoriesofsomemeaningss
bu七creationofdifferencesbe七weenindividualanimals・Howeverpi七should
beno七ed七ha七eachca七egorybelongs七
〇 七heclassifica七ionsys七emandan
individualcanno七beZogicallydiscrimina七edfromo七hersof七hesame
ca七egory.Therefore,七herela七ionshipbe七ween七herecogni七ionof
classifica七
〇ryca七egoriesand七ha七
〇findividualsshouldbediscussed
belOW.
Humansdependonsuchou七wardapPearanceas七hecoa七color,bodysize,
62
hornshape,earmarkings,developmentals七age,e七c.,todiscri皿ina七ea
specificindividualanimalfromo七hersand七
〇iden七ifyi七
。Howevers七he
specificindividua=Lisno七iden七ifiedbyapPlyingallof七hevarious
classificatorycri七eriaonebyone。Whenamaniden七ifiesaspecific
animal,hejudgesi七asawholesno七bycheckingeachof七heanimalts
a七 七ribu七esasintheiden七ifica七ionofabo七anicaユspeciesby七hekey.1七
maybepossible七
〇arrivea七aca七egory,whichconsis七sofonlyoneelemen七
(i.e.,oneindividua工animal)byapplyingmanycri七eriain七heaccumuユa七ing
classifica七ion.Thedis七inc七ivenessofindividuals,however,isno七given
七hroughsuchmanipula七ions.Tani(1976)poin七edi七
〇u七
七ha七
七he
iden七ifica七ionofindividualanimalsisadifferen七wayofrecogni七ionfrom
theclassifica七ion,in七ha七dis七inc七ivefea七uresareapPliedno七evenly七
〇
七hemembersin七heindividualiden七ifica七ion.Theindividuals'
dis七inc七ivenesscanno七bereduced七
〇 七heclassifica七
〇rycategories.
Biologically,individualscanberecognizedinallanimalspecies●
Therefore,one皿igh七
七hinkitisama七
七erofcourse七ha七alives七
〇ck
individualisrecognizedasadis七inc七beingfromo七hers・PeoP=Lesunder
differen七cul七ures,however,recognize七heindividuali七yofanimalsin
differen七waysfromoneano七her.
TheLeleinZaire(Douglas1957)regarddomes七icani皿alsasano皿alous
because七heyhaveindividualdifferences,whilewildani皿aユsareuniform
andno七differen七ia七edfromoneano七herinonespecies・Tha七is,七heir
recogni七ionofindividuali七yisdifferen七according七
〇 七hesubjec七s,
a1七hough七hebiologica1≡Leve]rofindividuqlisallthesameforbo七h七he
domes七icanimalsandthewildanimals.A8Levi-S七rauss(1966)clearly
poin七sou七,七henotionofindividualityissociologicallyde七ermined,as
wellas七heno七ionofna七uralspeeies.
On七heo七herhand,on七hec=Lassificationsys七embasedon七hena七ural
model,Levi-S七rauss(1966)s七a七es,tt七hena七uraltdis七inc・
しiveness冒of
bio=Logicalspecies…furnishes七hough七wi七hameansofaccess七
〇 〇七her
dis七inc七ivesys七emstt(P.136).Hes七a七es,T!七heimpor七anceof七heno七ionof
speciesis七
〇beexplained...byi七spresump七iveobjec七ivi七y:七he
diversi七yofspeciesfurnishesmanwi七h七hemos七in七ui七ivepic七urea七his
disposalandcons七i七u七es七hemos七direc七manifes七a七ionhecanperceiveof
七heu1七ima七ediscon七inui七yofreali七yt!(P.137).Aspec七
animalspeciescomes七
〇f七hesor七in
〇 七hefore,because七heuniforlni七yofanimalsinone
63
8pec■esarousesconsiderablea七
have'theaspec七
七en七ionof七hepe◎ple,even七houghanimals
〇findividuality.Levi-Strauss(1966)discussestha七an
animalapPearsasaconceptional七
〇〇1wi七hmul七iplepossibilities七hrough
i七sdoublecharac七eroforganis皿:七heorganismi七selfformsasys七e!ロ,and
七heindividualscons七i七u七etheelemen七sofaspecieswhichisagain七he
elemen七
〇fahighersys七em.
However,wha七
皿anpaysa七
七heindividua1.Sucha七
七en七ion七
〇below七helevelofspecie8isno七
七ribu七esoforganis皿sasorgans,behavior,and
conditions,arepaida七
七en七ionto.Thisinclina七ionisapparen七lyshownin
theanalysisofhu皿annamesbyLevi-S七rauss(1966).Evenwhen七he
cla8sifica七ionofhumansdescendsdownfro皿
七heユeve].ofsocie七y七
〇 七he
levelofindividualpersons,thedis七inc七ionbe七weenindividuaユsinone
naturalspeciesdoesno七drawmanlsa七
dono七come七
七en七ion,and七hespecificindividua18
〇theforeofhumanrecogni七ion.
Theleve=Lofindividualsindomes七icanimaユs,unlikewildani皿als,
occupiesanimpor七an七par七whenhu皿ansfor皿apic七ureofthesubjec七s。The
dis七inc七ionoflives七
〇ckindividualscallshumana七ten七ion,par七lybecause
七heyre七ainmuchmoreintima七econtac七wi七hhumans.Theo七herreasonis
七ha七lives七
〇ckhavegrea七individualvaria七ionsin七heircoa七color
comparedwi七hwildanimals。Thelevelofindividualsofdomes七icanimals
offershu皿ancogni七ionthedirec七i皿agesof七hediscon七inui七y,as七helevel
ofspeciesdoes・
工nthisregard,thedomes七icanimalsarepeculiarbeings.
Thispeculiari七ymakes七heLeleclassify七hedomes七icanimalsasano皿a⊥ous.
Lives七
〇ckindividua].sare,likehumans,dis七inguished,while
individualsofwildani皿alsareno七.Tha七
differen七ia七elives七
effor七
七heTurkanaar七ificially
〇ckra七herexcessivelyisin七erpre七edas七heircons七an七
七〇emphasize七hediscon七inui七ybe七weenindividuals,bypu七
七ing七hem
ViSiblear七ifiCialVarie七ieS.
5-3。Consequencesofユives七
〇ckindividuali七y
Tanitsdiscussion(1976)ishelpfulforunders七andingconsequencesof
七hesubsis七encepwhich七hepeopleinques七ionprac七icetonhuman七hough七s.
Hediscussedi七,expandingHaudricour七
peopleadoP七ameansof七hough七
isna七ural七ha七
冒sidea(1969)asfollows:when
〇n七heirworldfrom七heirsurroundings,it
七hemeansisadop七edfrom七hesphereofac七ualfeelingsof
64
theirdailylife,andoneof七he皿is七hesubsis七encesubjec七s.Some
charac七eris七icsof七hereユa七ionbe七weenmanand七hesubsis七encesubjec七s
sometimesdeeplyinfluenceman曾s七hough七.Peoplerecognize七hesubsis七ence
subjec七sincer七ainspecificwaysanddealwi七h七hemaccording七
〇 七he
recogni七ion・Thesewayssome七ilnesfurnish七hepeoPlewi七ha皿eansof
thoughton七heirworldofo七herdomains(Tani1976).
Wha七hes七ressesisno七anenvironmen七alde七erminism.工
七dependson
七hepeoPユe七he皿selveswhe七herorno七
七heyadoP七
七heirpic七ureson七he
subsis七encesubjec七sasa皿eansof七heir七hough七
〇notherdomains,andthe
subsis七encesubjectsdono七prescribe皿antscosmoユogyunconditionally・He
implies七ha七mants七hough七doesnotcomefro皿no七hing,bu七
phenomenaaroundhi皿
皿anu8es七he
七〇whichheisaccus七
〇medwhenhedevelopshisviews
on七hecosmos.
工wouユdliketodiscuss七hecognitionalsignificancesofZivestock
pecuユiarindividua1i七yfollowingTanitsviewpoin七.Thefirs七ma七erialis
七he7!iden七ifica七ion「t(Seligman&Seligman1932)be七weenmanandca七
Thiscus七
七le・
〇miswidelydis'tribu七edamongEastAfricanNiloticpas七
〇ral
peoples(e.g.,Evans-Pri七chard1940and1956,Clark1952,GuLliver1952,
工lienhardt1961,Dyson-hudson1966,Beidelman1966,Almagor1972,Gourlay
1972,FUkui.1979).AlsoamongtheTurkanateachaduユtmaniscalledby
suchana皿eastt皇ZR9[fa七herof]so-and-so(ox)「t.
Theiden七ifica七ionoccursno七
〇nlybe七weenanadul七manandanox,
bu七,皿oregenerally,be七ween皿anandcat七leinvariouslevelsaccording七
〇
Evans-Pri七chard(1956).Forexa皿pleamong七heNuert七heini七ia七iondanceis
calledbythesame七ermasabuユlcalfwhichwillbecastra七edinfu七ure,
and七hecu七tingofmarksofmanhoodintheboytsforeheada七
七hetimeof
ini七iationiscalledby七hesame七erma8七heopera七ionofhorn七raining。
Theseexamplesshow七ha七
七hereisakindofiden七ifica七ionbe七weenmenand
oxengenera].ly・lim'七her,七hehuman-ca七
七].erela七ionshipis七ransmi七
genera七ions・SupPoseaclanorlineageances七
七edover
〇rhadapar七icuユarherdina
specificrelationship・Theirdescendantswouldkeep七hesamerela七ionship
w・i・
しh七hedescendan七sof七heherd.Theiden七ifica七ionexis七sbe七weenhuman
socialLgroupsandca七
七leherds(Evans-Pri七chard1956)・
However,Evans-Pri七chard(1956:254)himselfs七a七es七ha七1冒
ini七ia七ion[abulユcalfisgiven七
七heoxof
〇aboyfromhisfa七hera七
ini七ia七ion,anditwil工la七erbecas七ra七ed]is七hepro七
七he七imeof
〇一七ypeof七heman一
65
animalrelationship,andi七isakindoffocalpoin七a七which七hefeelinga
Nuerhastowardcat七
工econvergeti.Thebasisof七heiden七ificationof
variouslevelsis七herela七ionshipbe七weenanindividualmanandan
individualspecificok
Living'toge七herwi'bhlives七
〇ck,pas七
〇ralpeoplesiden七ifyand
emphasizelivestockindividuality.Eachlives七
〇ckisdistinguishedasa
manis・Thisrecogni七ionfurnishespeoplewi七h七he皿odelforfirmly
reeognizing七hemantsindividuality,aswellas七he皿eansofexpressingi七
・
Furthermore,Evans--Pri七chard(1956),classifyingtheNuersacrifice
in七 〇twoJpersonalandcollec七ive,8七resses七heimpor七anceof七hefor皿er
for七heunders七anding。fNuerreligion.Hes七a七es(1956:285-286),「
「
七he
roleof七hisreligionin七heregula七ionof七hesocia1=Life,i七ss七ruc七ural
role,issubsidiary七
〇i七sroleintheregula七ionoftheindividualts
relationswi七hGod,i七spersonalroletl.Hes七a七es七hat七herela七ionwi七h
Godisindividuallyes七ablisheda皿ong七heNuertand七ha七
雪
冒
七hissenseof
dependence[onGod]isremarkablyindividua工is七icI「(1956:317)・
工七seems七
me七ha七theindividualis七icbondwi七h七heGodmigh七berela七ed七
〇
〇such
recogni七ionofoneselfasbeingdis七inc七ivefroIno七hers.They
charac七eris七icallyemphasize七helevelofindividualswhichisbackedupby
七heeXpressivemeansofanima工individuali七y.
工七isanano七herques七ionwhe七her七heyhave七hesameconsciousnessof
oneselfasours,asaninnerenti七y.工tshou二Ldbeno七ed七ha七
七helevelof
individualsisemphasizedin七heirconsciousnessof七hemselves.This
emphasisneverrejec七so七herlevels.
AmongEas七Africanpas七
〇ralsocie七ies,i七isdiscussed七ha七
七he
individualindependenceishighlyevalua七edcQmparedwi七hagricu1七uralis七s
(e.9.,Goldschmid七
皇 立 皇↓.1965).Evans-Pritchard(1940)lef七impressive
descrip七ionson'bhedifferencesofa七
wi七h七heAzande.工
七i七ude七
〇 〇七hers,comparing七heNuer
七ani(1980b)alsos七ressedhow七heTurkanatsa七
七i七udes
differfrom七hoseof七heTongwe,anagricul七uralpeopleinTanzania.工
seems七
〇hold七ruewidely七ha七
七
七hepas七
〇ralpeopleshavedifferen七
in七erpersona工relationshipsfrornagricul七uralpeoples・
Goldsch皿id七(1971)s七a七es,1冒
pas七
〇ralsocie七ies]…recursasacuユ
七heindependencesyndrome(P.135)[in
七urala七
requiremen七sforanimalhu8bandryunder七heenvironmen七aland七echnological
circums七ancesinwhichthesesocie七iesoperate(P.141)冒1.Heexp].ains七ha七
66
七i七udeinresponse七
〇 七he
pas七
〇ralpeopleareindependen七
皿indedbecauseeachman皿us七alwaysmake
decisionsasanindependen七en七repreneurunderseverecircums七ances・
Decisionsonmigra七
〇ryrou七es,s七
〇pPingPlace,coZlabora七ionwi七ho七hers,
cuユlingofani皿a⊥8,e七c.affec七s七heherdtswelfare,whichdirectlyleads
七〇 七hewelfareof七hefamilymembers.
From七heecologicalviewpoin七,itisadap七ive七ha七
lives七
七hepopuユa七ionof
〇ckisdispersedwidelyinsmalluni七sundersuchdryanduns七able
environmen七assemi-deser七where七hepas七
i七isbe七
〇ralis七susuallylive.Therefore,
七erforeachfamily七
〇cons七i七u七eanindependen七uni七
movemen七sbyi七self.Goldschmid七
forunders七anding七hefac七
〇fno皿adic
冒sfunc七ionalexplana七ionsee囮scorrec七
七ha七eachmanbeco皿esanindependen七
en七erprisingmaninpas七
〇ralsocie七ies.
However,hisdiscussiondoesno七explainwhy七heindividual
independenceishighlyevalua七edamongPas七
〇ralsocie七ies・
七hehighevalua七ionofindividualindependenceamongPas七
in七erpre七edfrom七heviewpoin七
lives七
〇ckisa七
七heyaccess七
工supPose七hat
〇ralpeoplecanbe
七ha七
七heindispu七ableindividuali七yof
七hepeoPle「sdi8posal,七hat七heye囮phasizei七,and七ha七
〇 七hehumanindividuali七ywithi七.
67
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thisresearchwasfinancedby七heMinis七ryofEduca七ion,Cu].七ureand
Science,Japan(Gran七
一in-AidforOverseasScien七ificResearchNos.
53404321,55504132and57041005).Myfields七udywasunder七akenin七he
capaci七yofresearchassocia七ea七
七he工ns七i七u七eofAfricanS七udies,
Universi七yofNairobi.ProfessorB.E。Kipkorir,the七henDirec七
〇rofthe
工ns七itu七e,kindlygavemeassis七anceincarryingou七fieldwork・Professors
J。
工taniofKyotoUniversi『ty,andJ・TanakaofHirosakiUniversi七ygaveme
grea七helpinconduc『
しingfieldwork,andinwri七ing七hispaper.The
manuscrip七benefi七edfrom七hecommen七sbyDrs.M.Kakeya,M.工chikawa,and
S・Sa七
〇,andH・Takasaki。Colleaguesa七
S七udies,Kyo七
七heLabora七
〇Universi七y,encouraged七hiss七udy・Mr・A・H・Ardunghelped
measanexcellen七in七erpre七er,aswellasagenuinefriendin七heresearch
field.〇
七hernumerousTurkanapeopleoffered皿efriendship.To七hese
peopleandins七itu七ionsI皿akegra七efuユac㎞owledge皿en七s.
68
〇ryofHumanEvolu七ion
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1982-Jan.1983.
75
footno七e2.
For七hede『
しailsofTurkanafolkclas8ifica七ionoforganisms,see工
(1980a)・1七ani(1980a)considered七heca七egoryoflivestock(ngibareユ)a8
asub-ca七egoryofmammals(i!!E:ll
,七iang)firs七
●However,工tani(1985)
correc七edhisviewandmade七heca七egoryofngibarenasdis七inc七from
幽9・
76
七ani
foo七no七e3.
工heard七hatpeopleinsou七hwes七ernpar七
of七heTurkana七erri七
some七imescas七ra七ereproducingmales●
77
〇ry
foo七n。
七e4.
De七ailsof七hreecas七ra七ionme七hodsareasfollows:
(1)
.Akidong(bybea七ing)
Thescro七umispuユ1eddown,andalogissetunder七hestre七chedpar七
・
Thispartisthenbea七enwi七hawoodenhammercu七rbingoff七heseminalduc七
inside・Thisprocessisperformedwithou七sheddingblood・Theopera七
◎r
confirmswi七hfingers七ha七
七heduc七issurelycrashedoff・Thetes七esof
opera七edma工eswi1ユfai1七
〇func七ioninduecourse,andbeco皿ea七rophied・
TheTurkanaexplain七heeffec七
〇f七hisopera七ion七ha七maleswillbeunab=Le
七〇copUla七ebecau8ei七is七hese皿inalduc七s七ha七provide七hepeniswi七h
s七reng七h.
Generaユly七hecas七ratedmaleisreferred七
〇aslodongo駐(seeFig.1),
whichi8aderiva七ivewordof七hiscas七ration皿ethod.TheTurkanadonot
havea七er皿
七〇meancas七rationingeneraltbu七,inawidesense,akidon巳
canberegardedtos七andfori七
(2)∠
幽(bycu七
●
七ing)
Thescro七u皿iscu七
〇penwi七hknives,and七he七es七iclesandse皿inal
duc七sareremoved.Thescro七umisinsomecasescu七inbo七hsidesoas七
〇
removebo七htes七ic=Lestandino七hers,七hetes七iclesandseminalduc七sare
pulledou七fro皿onlyoneopening・Theopeningisno七
七rea七edaf七er七he
opera七ion.Only七hescro七ulnissligh七ly皿assaged.Bes七(1983)七ransla七ed
皇且 鯉astt七
〇cas七rate冒ttbu七
七hisme七hod,anddoesn◎
七his七ermisapPliedonly七
〇 七hecas七ra七ionby
七signifycas七rationingeneral.
(3)ムkikony(bybi七ing)
Whi].e七heabove七wo七ermsforcas七ra七ionme七hodssignify七hevery
specificme七hods,七his七ermgenerally皿eans「
曾
七〇bi七eoffn・Theseminal
duc七isbit七enoffinside・Thebloodisno七shed・ThismethodisapPlied
onlytoyoungmalesofs七ageIinFig・1,excep七forcamelsanddonkeys・
工七isalwaysonlyoneseminalduc七whichis七rea七edby七hismethodtand七he
o七herislef七un七
〇uched。Therefore,inanarrowsense,七hisisnota
cas七ration,because皿ales曾abili七y七
〇reproduceissus七ained・Af七er七he
opera七ion,七he七rea七ed皿alehasonlyone七es七icle・Thiscondi七ionvi七alize
males,七heTurkanasay.Some◎f七he七rea七edmale8becomecas七ratedmales
in七hefu七urebyfur七heropera七ionof七heremaining七es七icle,amdo七hers
beco皿ereproducingmaleswi七hou七fur七heropera七ion・TheTurkanaof七en
78
removeoneofthe七es七iclesofreproducingmalesofca七
sheep・So皿eTurkanasay七ha七
七1e,goa七s,and
七hosereproducingI11aleswhichdono七undergo
七hisoperationso皿eti皿e8die,beco皿ingskinnyli七
七Zebyli七
Allthree七ec㎞iquesareapplied七
七1e.
〇cat七le,goa七s,andsheep.The
techniqueempユoyedchangesfrom
Iakikony(bi・bing)七
七〇 幽(bea七ing)according七
〇 幽(cu七
七ing),and
〇 七hegrowth8七ageofmales.工nthecases
whichIdirec七lyobserved,七heageoftheoperatedmalesvaried
considerablyamongca七
七ユe.Thir七eenyoungma]
wereopera七edby999SUIa七
.esofabou七2七
〇8mon七hs
七hesa皿etime・Possiblymalesareopera七edeven
a七theageofonemon七h,becausetheTurkanasay七ha七
七heyso皿etimes
castra七emalesbefore七heyaredrivenou七forherding.工alsoobservedan
ma],eofabou七24monrbhscas七ratedby幽.TheTurkanaconcernedsaid
七ha「b七heyhadbeencon8ideringofselec七ing七he皿aleasareproducingmaユe,
bu七
七hattheyabandoned七heidea。Thecommoncat七leageforggg十lg1isup
toaround12mon七hs.Thoseover18mon七hsshouユdbeopera七edbyakidong,
〇七herwise七hemalewil工diebecauseofbloodshed,七heTurkanasay.
工n『 しhecasesofgoa七sandsheep,onlyafewmalesareopera七edby
蛙
里,andmos七malesarecas七ra七edbyakidong.af七ertheyhavesexually
ma七ured・For七hemalesofwhich工couユda8cer七ain七heda七eofbir七h,
cas七ra七ionbyakidongwasperformeda七
七heageof:8mon七hs,1male;12
皿on七hs,4皿ales;15mon七hs,7males;16mon七hs,1male;19囮on七hs,2皿ales.
Theaverageis14.3mon七hs(N=15).
Amongthe22maleswhichwerebornbe七weenSep七.1980andApr.1981,
andwerepresen七inAug.1982,sevenwelrealreadyselec七edasreproducing
皿ales,andall七heremainingfif七eenhavebeencas七ra七ed.Thisshows七ha七
a七leas七a七
opera七ed。
七heageof16mon七hs,七hosewhichare七
〇becas七ra七edare
工ncon七ras七,among13皿alesborninAug.1981,a]ユbu七
〇newere
notcas七ra七edye七inAug・1982,and七hesenon-castra七edmaleswereno七
selec七edasreproducingmales.Theseda七asugges七
castra七eda七
七ha七goa七ma工esare
七heageof12-16mon七h8・Al七hough工dono七haveanyda七afor
七he七imingofsheepcas七ra七ion,theyaretrea七edin七hesamewayasgoa七s.
Malecamelsarecas七ra七edonlyby塵L皇
say七ha七
皿(cu七
七ingoff).TheTurkana
七heme七hodofcrashingseminalduc'tsoffisimpossibletoapPly七
〇
camels,because七heir七esticlesareno七hangingdown,unlike七hoseofo七her
=Lives七
〇ck.Cas七ra七ionissaid七
〇beperformedaf七er七heageofatleas七24
mon七hs.Twomalecame=Ls,whichwereascer七ained『
ヒohavebeenbornbefore
79
Sept・1980,hadno七beencas七ra七edye七inDec.1982,when七heywereolder
than26mon七hs.
Only惣(bea七ing)isapPlied七
thatthedonkeywilldieiftrea『
〇maledonkeys.TheTurkanasay
しedby鯉
…皿 ・Theopera七eddonkeyshould
bekeptin七hevillageforafewday8af七ertheopera七ion,tyingthemby
ropesa七theneck・Otherwise,七heywouユdrunaroundbecauseof七hepainin
七hescrotum,andso皿ewoUlddie,〇
Donkeysareno七cas七rated㎜
七herswoUldbelos七,say七heTurkana・
七i1七heysexua=Lly皿a七ureandbegin七
TheTurkanasaythat七hedonkeyherdwouldbescat七eredandso皿eanimals
wouldbeios七iftheherdshouldinclude七
〇〇manyma七urenon-cas七ra七ed
male8.Thereasonsfor七hedelayofcas七ra七ionamongdonkeysinspi七eof
七heabovemen七ionedTurkanaisrecogni七ionofpossibleherddisin七egra七ion
are:七hedonkeyswi1130me七imesdiebecauseofthecas七ration,andthe
donkeyherdisusua1lyno七solargeas七
〇include皿any皿ales・
80
〇copula七e。
footno七e5.
Thepar七uritionisclassifiedin七
〇fourca七egories.TheTurkana
explaineachof七he囮asfollow8=
(1)∠
鯉
工3this七ermmeansrr七
〇abor七ttgenerally.工nsomecases,the
motherwilllac七a七enor皿allyifi七ismilkedlit七lebyli七
七heTurkana・
工七isconsidered七
七].e,according七
〇causehumans七erili七y七
〇
〇ea七abor七edand
s七ill-bornbabies,andonlyoldmenandchildrencanea七them.
(2)AAIS1LgugulLM2nggg!!2kziei:七his皿eansalsoabor七ionwi七h七hebabiesmore
developed七han七hoseinca七egory(1).Theysurviveinsomecases,anddie
ino七hers.Themo七herscanbemilked.
(3)Aki七e七euni七=七hebabies七hrive,al七hough七hisisaユsoaprema七ure
delivery・
工ncaseofgoa七sandsheep,七heprema七ureinfan七sarepu七in七
〇
woodenvessels(a七uba)andfedwi七h七he囮
〇七herst皿ilk,whichispouredin七
七heirmou七hthroughapipe-likeu七ensi1(
.akarapanya七)madeoflea七her.The
〇
infan七sgain七heirvigorinfivedays,say七heTurkana.Theseinfan七sare
kep七in七hehurnansleepingPlace,separa七edfromo七herinfan七s,andpeoPle
con七inue七
〇help七hemsuckle七hemo七her岨
firmly。The皿
七i1七heybegin七
〇walkaro㎜d
〇七hersaremilkednormally・
(4)Aur'i=七his七erm皿eans「
by七his七erm.工
冒
七〇givebir七htt.Normalpar七uri七ionisindica七ed
七isappliedonly七
〇non-humananimals.
Theherderspaysurprisingiydelica七ea七
七en七ion七
〇 七hefema].es「
condi七ionofges七a七ion・Theycanlis七upthefemaleswhicharesupPosed七
〇
givebir七honacer七ainday・Suchexpec七a七ionof七heherdersdidnotfall
shor七
◎fmore七hantwodays.Herderssaytha七
signs:fema工ess七
七hey㎞owi七fromvarious
〇pwalkingasif七heywerefeebユe,七heirnipplesswell
ou七,and七heirvulvaebeco皿eopen・
A七
七he七imeofpar七uri七iontpeopleheZp七he皿
possible,pu工1ing七heinfan七
〇七herasmuchas
〇u七 ・Thishe=Lpisrendered七
〇alllives七
excep七fordonkeys.Af七er七heinfan七s七andsup,peopZeseize七he囮
order七
〇七herin
〇make七heinfan七suckle・According七
suckユingoccurreda七
goa七s.Peopl6七ry七
〇ck
〇myobservation,firs七
工eas七wi七hin◎nehouraf七er七hepar七uri七ionamong
〇keep七hemo七herand七heinfan七
七〇ge七herfor1・5-2
hoursafterthepar七uri七ion,andtomake七hemo七herlick七hebaby.
81
foo七no七e6.
A=LIthe=Lives『
しock,exceptfordonkeyswhichareno七mUked,are
usuallymilked七wiceaday:in七hemorningbeforeleavingforday一
七rip
herdingandin七heeveningaf七erco皿ingback七
〇theho皿es七eadaf七er
grazing.Whenanimalsdono七producemuch皿ilk,七heyaremilkedonlyin
七heevening・Camelsaremilked4-5七imesadaywhen七heyproducemuch
milk●Acowgave706mlofmilkonaverage(N=Sl,morning:754ml[N=41],
evening=667ml[N=50】,1421皿lperday)inashor七rainyseason(Nov●,
1978)・
工nano七hergoodrainyseason(Feb.,1979),acowgaveanaverageof
467mユ(N=93,morning:431皿1[N=31],evening:485ml[N=62],916m」Lper
day)ofmilk.Aca皿elgaveanaverageof1064皿1(N=64)ofmilkin七he
sa01eseasona8above.Becausecamelsweremilked七hree七imesaday
(皿orning:921ml[N=32],day七ime:1142ml[N・=10],evening=1236ml[N=22])a七
七hat七ime,acamelproduced3299mldaily.工nashoエr七rainyseasonaftera
severedrough七(Nov.,1980),acamelgave20681nldai工y(5am:61gml
[N=34],9a皿315ml[N=10],6pm:717ml[N=17],9P皿:417ml[N=7]).A
goa七gaveanaverageof270皿1(N=38,morning=233ml[N=6],evening277ml
[N=32])inFeb.,1979(510mlperday).エnash。r七rainyseas。naftera
severedrough七,agoa七,whichgavebir七hbeforeonemon七h,gave284m1
(N=69)in七heeveningand123m].(N=50)in七hemorning(mid-Dec.,1980,407
mlperday).工n七heendofJanuary1981,Samegoa七gave144皿1(N=42)in
七heeveningand76ml(N=40)in七hemorning(220mlperday).
82
footnote7●
TheTurkana七akegrea七careofmother-offspringbond,i.e.,皿
〇七hers「
recognitionof七heiroffspring.Mo七hers,especiallyofgoa七sandsheep,
七heTurkanasay,some七imesfailtorecognizetheiroffspring,andrefuse
七hem七
〇8uckle.Thismakesagrea七prob=Lemfor七heoffspringtsnu七riti◎n・
Fur七her,七heysay七ha七
七heycange七
皿oremilkinquan七i七yfrommo七hers,if
七heyaresuckledbyoffspringbeforemilking.
When七hemo七herrefusesitsoffspring,theTurkanatake七hefollowing
coun七ermeasures.Thesearealsoprac七icedin七hecaseofadoption
(akironyaki墓),whichisnecessarywhen七hemo七herdiesaf七erpar七uri七ion・
(1)The皿
〇七her(or七hefos七ermo七her)iscaugh七andmilkedali七
七heysmear七hemilk七
七1e.Then
〇bo七h七hemo七herts皿ou七hand七heoffspringts
bu七 七〇ck.
(2)Oneof七heoffspringtsforelegissqueezedin七
(3)The皿
〇 七hemo七hertsvuユva.
〇七herisvulvaisclosedbyhands,ortiedbys七rings七
〇close.
(4)Mix七ureofsal七andashissmearedin七hevu二Lvaof七he皿
peopleblowsin七
〇 七hevulvabya七
〇七her.Then
七aching七hemou七h七
〇i七.
(5)PeopleseizeapupPy,and七akei七infron七
〇f七hemo七hertsface●The
mo七herwillrushagains七i七,and七hepuppywillwhine.Thisprocessis
donerepea七ed=Ly.
Af七eroneoforase七
taken七
〇fthesemeasuresare七akens七heoffspringis
〇themo七her七
〇suckle.All七hesemeasuresareapplied七
〇ca七
七le,
goa七s,andsheep,excep七forme七hod(2),whichisonlyforgoa七sandsheep.
Method(1)dependson七heanimals冒habi七tha七
七hemo七herrecognizethe
offspringbythes皿ell.On七heeffectsof!ne七hods(2),(3),and(4),七he
Turkanasay七ha七
七he8emeasuresgive七hemo七heranillusionofgiving
birth,and七hemotheraccep七s七heoffspringwhichisbrough七close七
Onthemethod(5),七heyexplain七ha七
〇i七
七hemo七herbecomesawareof七he
offspring'spresencethrough七hereac七ion七
〇becomingaggressive七
〇
ロ
PUPP■e8・
Theydono七haveanycoun七ermeasuresforcamels.Fordonkeys,heavy
lea七herbag8filledwi七hsandarepu七
offspringis七akenclose七
〇n七hebackofthe皿
〇 七hemo七her七
〇suekle・
83
〇七her,then七he
・
foo七no七e8.
When七heoffspringdieaf七er七hebir七h,七hefollowing七hree皿easures
are七akentokeep七hemo・
しher,slac七ation:(1)七
ofthedeadoffspring,(2)七
〇adoP七
〇makeadummywi七h七heskin
七heo七herIsoff8pring,and(3)七
七healreadyweanedoffspringpreceden七
〇bring
七〇thedeadandmakei七suckle
aga■n・
Thedu皿myis皿adeonlyforcat七1eandcamels.Grassesare8七uffed
into七heskinof七hedeadoffspring,and七hedummyisrough].y皿adelook
likealog・
工thasnospecificname,andcalledaselou一
旦」-i七aok[skinofa
calf]・A'し'thetimeofmilking,七hedummyispu七agains七
七hemo七her「snose・
Af七er七hemo七hersmellsi七,itispu七
〇n七hegroundinfron七
〇f七hemo七her.
Then七hemo七herismilked.TheTurkanahavenosuchconcomi七an七
astos皿earthe皿
〇七hertsurine七
七echnique
〇 七hedummyrepor七edforo七herpas七
(Evans-Pri七chard1940,Amoroso&Jewel11963,Crans七
〇ralists
〇ne1969).
Thereare七wowaysofadoP七ing七heoffspringwhichisbornallnos七a七
七hesame七imewi七h七hedead,adop七ionwi七hou七cu七
social七iewi七hitsreal皿
七ing七heoffspringis
〇七her,andadoP七ionofoneof七he七wintwhichare
of七enbornamonggoat
.sandsheep,separa七ingi七fromi七sreal皿
〇七her・The
samemeasuresare七akeninbothcases.
Whenthepreceden「toffspringaremadesuckleagaint七heyarepu七into
七heherdsofnewbornsinorder七
〇separa七ei七fro皿i七smo七herand七
〇
preven七i七fromsucklingintheday七ime.Thismeasureispossibleonly
whenl七hepreceden七
〇ffspringiss七illyoungenough七
〇suckle七hemo七her.
So皿e七imes七heseyoungoffspringcauseano七herproblem.When七wooffspring
aregivenbirthsuceessively,andif七hereareonly七woherds,i.e.,infan七
herdandaduLtherd,theyoungeronecanbesepara七edfro皿
七he皿
〇七her,bu七
七heelderoneisputinto七hesameherdwi七h七hemQ七her・Then,七hee=Lder
offspringwi1ユsometimessuckle七he皿
〇七herduring七heday七i皿eherding,
leavingnomi工kforhumanconsump七ion.Anins七rumentisusedfor
preven七ing七heoffspringfromsuch8uckling・A七iny七wigisscrapedin七
〇
V_shape,oneof七heforkispierced七hrough七henasalsep七umof七he
offspring.Then七hetipsofforkare七iedbys七rings七
fallingoff.A七
〇preventi七from
七hesame七ime,七heoffspringtsnoseissligh七=Lycu七by
knives.Theoffspringcanno七sucklebecauseof七heobs七ruc七ivebranch,
andalsoof七hepainin七henose●
84
footno七e9.
Both-bokand-kipuratsignifypalepurple-redvpalebrownishpurPle,
orpalebrownishblue.工inve8七iga七edcolortermsbyshowing98color
cardsonebyonea七random七
〇14(gmenand5women)informan七s.A皿ong
七he皿,oneusedneitherof七heaboveterms,七hreeusedonly-kiPura七,four
usedonly-bok,andsixusedbo七hof七he皿(Iexclude七heanswersco皿posed
ofmorethanone七erm).To七allylgcard8arereferred七
〇by-bokand/or-
kipurat・Tonineofthem,someinforman七snamed-bok,ando七hersna皿edkipura七
,eThisresul七ssugges七s七ha七
Turkana,however,maintaintha七
一2kgpUaStand-bokaresynonyms.The
七hese七wocolorsaredifferen七fromeach
other.When七hese七er!nsareapplied七
〇lives七
〇ckcoa七,i七seems七
一
一kipura七signifiesmorepurplishcolor,while-bokbrownish.These七wo
ter皿sneedfur七herexamina七ion.
85
〇me七ha七
footno七e10.
Coa七co=Lorinheri七anceofca七
七leismain七ainedby七hefollowing七hree
series(Nozawa,personalcommunica七ion;Searle1968):
(1)W/w;white/n・twhi七e,
(2)Ed/E/・b・/。;bl。,k/。x七
(3)S/s;self/spo七
。n,i。
。 。fbl。
。k/b。i。dl。d/。
七ed.
Thegeno七ypesofmos七bu=L=LsamongtheTurkanaprobablyfi七tooneofthe
following8e七s:
・.Ww,Ed.,S-,
b.Ww,Ed-,・s,
c・Ww,E-,S-,
d●WWsE-,ss.
86
。d,
foo七no七e11.
Finch&Western(1977)explained七hevaria七ionofcat七lecoa七colorin
Kenyafrom七heviewpoin七
〇fna七uraladap七a七ion.Ca七tleofligh七co二L◎rare
adap七ivein七heareasoflowal七itude,whileca七
七leofdarkcolorare
adap七ivein'theareasofhighal七i七ude,according七
Turkana,i七
皿aybeadap七ive七ha七aca七
〇 七hem。
工nnor七hwes七ern
七leherdofonefa皿iユyineludes
animalsofvariouscoa七colorsbecausei七usuallymigra七esinawiderange
ofa1七i七udebe七ween600and1500皿.However,工dono七supPose七ha七the
Turkana皿ain七ain七hewidevarie七yinca七
七lecoa七colorbecauseof七his
adap七ivevalue.Idono七suppose七hat七hey七ake七hisvaluein七
〇
considera七ions。
87
footno七e12.
G。 ・七 曲i・hh・d・1・
・adyd・v・1。P・dth・
・ec。ndset。f。
・・i・
wereclassifi・daslyear。ld;11andエ2as2y・ars。1d;エ1・
3y・a・
・ 。ld;ll・
エ2sエ3…d・a・i・
・i・ ・rs(エ1)
エ2・andエ3a8
・ 七ee七h・
・ 皿 。・・ 七h・ ・3y・a・
88
・ 。1d・
footnote13.
工nagoa七herdincluding129maturefe囮a]
.es,26femalesgavebir七hin
Sept・,1980,and54fe皿alesinla七eNov。-earlyDec.,1980。
工naherd
including175ma七urefemales,112gavebir七hinmid-Sep七.-earZyOc七
●,
1982.
89
f。otnote14.
Theuni七for皿a七ionofHerderAdidno七s七ric七lyagreewi七h七heactual
ownership・Oneof七he七hreefemale80f七he2ndwifewasincludedin七he
unitofthe4七hwife.工couユdno七findi七when工wasin七hes'しudyfield,
andmissed七
〇checkitsreason.
90
foo七no七e15.
Male80fdonkeyaregivennameswhen七heyareu七ilizedaspack
animals.Amongstudieddonkeys,thereisonemaledonkeybeinggiven
properna皿e,whichIexcludefrom七hefollowinganalysis,becausethe
remainingnamedanima=Lsareallfe皿ales.Excep七fordonkeys,onlyafew
animalso七her七hanparousfemalesaregivennamesswhicharecom皿onlyused
by七hefa皿ilymembers.Areproducingmalegoa七,forexample,i8na皿ed
幽
≧(fromakiPuchol[openone,seyeswide])af七eri七sfacialexpression
at七heti皿eofcopulation.
91
footnote16.
Membersof七hissetwearblackos七richfea七herstwhilemembersof七he
otherset,ユgirisai,wearwhi七eandgrayfea七hers;8ee,Gulliver,1958・
92
Table1.
Classifica七ionofges七a七ions七ages
dura七ionin
S七ageofges七a七ion
goa七
&sheep
?ノ ﹂
ー
-
1
01 2
1
1
≧(1s七s七age)
、aki里ochun(2nds七age)
camel
&donkey
cat七1e
ワ・1
幽
sequence(month)
aki七aalakin(3rds七age)
ζノ
3
1
◎ノ
to七al
Table2.
Roo七sofhornshape七erms
hornshape
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
roo七
一poponga
akipopong=七
一
塑
一
聾
一
幽
一
工
コ
鯉
akingeleshi=七
akiryong=七
=(poin・
●
一塵
ape七ari=七
●
ワ・ 8
●
!◎
_i七a
一koda
akikod=七
Foreachhornshape,
〇curlup
akiryam=七
〇adjoin,beadjacen七
=七 〇beunsymme七rical,no七
see
Fig・4・
〇slipou七
〇carrysome七hingon七he
shoulder
し)七 〇besharp
〇spreadou七
〇makeacarryinghandle
㎜iform
〇fposi七ion
Table3.
Horn七ypesshaped
na七UrallyOrby七raining
wayofshaping
hornshape
七rained
5 6
7
臼 十
十
十
十
十
十
●
Foreachhornshape,seeFig・2・
+:shapedby七rainingorna七urally,
一:notexis七,
±:for皿edaccidental=Ly●
十
●
卿nanguru
一十
●
.
.
藺 十 圃十 一
●
ngidonge
十
●
一七hongoli
十
■
-1im
十
●
一七〇do
十
●
一bakar
十
●
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1- -ー i1 1 11 噌- 弓- 噌1 1巳
一迦
十
9
「㎎
一ngeleshi
十
8
.
十
●
4
十
●
-chongor
十
●
-koda
十
●
一keryaman
十
■
-poponga
十
■
一i七a
十
●
-kodos
3
■
2
一luk
十 十 十 十 十
O
一komar
十
1
一
迦
na七ural
卿
●
一
・
呵
●
4
︻ノ
一
●
2
一
●
1
・1
1
41
1
日
●
一
■
2 1
4■9
1
噌i
-
噌-
噌1
噌■
4
6
十
3 2
剛
2
十
1 1 1
2 1 1 4
1
1 11 2 4 11 1 1
1
十
'
42
十
一
●
一
●
一
●
一
●
一
■
口
●
層
●
鱒
●
一
O
十
●
層
●
一
●
一
●
一
●
一
●
一
・
十
●
一
十
1 11 2 41 1 11
4巳ー
噌1
一
●
28.shor七
5
つノ '4 戸)
ウ﹁
一
・
typesofearcut(1,2,…6),seeFig・6・
913
4
1 4 3
8
3 7 5 1 3
fフ 含ノ 2 4ー
1
88 ⋮
μ 27 11 4 4 3 1 1 3
ζノ ζノ 2
3
つノ ワ ・
2
8 7 2 3 8 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
︻ノ Q1■◎ 2
1
8
1
1
'4 0 } Q ノ ワ ・ =ノ 2
ワ ・ !◎
ノ◎ 2
ロ
〇 2 0 2 3 3 3 4 4 2 4 0 3 1 2 1 0 1 2 4 1 6 5 2 1 1 4
●
〇 2 2 0 3 2 0 4 0 4 2 4 4 1 3 0 3 0 3 2 4 4 5 5 3 0 2
1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 11 1 1 11 1 11 2 22 2 2 22 2
areregisterdrbobothherds.
ce:gene七icallyshor七earsarenotcut,see七ex七.
1
Somemembers
AandBaresameherdinDec.1982andNov.1980.
・F。ro七her
。七al,0=七heeari8no七cu七
M:male,F:female,T:七
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
196584
51147198
118260378
七〇七aユ
1
3
2
912
3
ear管
1
2
55
14
11
3
2
1927
2330
11
T
F
M
T
F
M
F
T
M
T
herdD
(N。v.1980)
herdC
(Nov.1980)
herdB
(Nov.1980)
herdA
(Dec.1982)
earCU七
F
一righ・ し)M
(lef七
Earcu七dis七ributioninfourgoatherds
Table4.
mユmberofgoats
type
一
Table5.
Earcu七differencebe七weenmaieand
femalenew-bornkidsinherdA
(seeTabユ
怒
CU七
52
0 0
ノ◎ ζノ
X2=10.97,df=1,P〈0.001
58
ウ8 躍ノ
貸ノ 41
total
ζノ
つノ
female
3
2
male
七〇七a1
non-CU七
110
Table6.
Earcu七differencebe七weenmaleand
femaleexcludingkidsinherdsAandB
(seeTab'恩
Cut
156
つノ n6
0 つノ
ー 2
X2=15.97,df=1,P〈0.001
185
2
◎ノ
to七a1
'4
!◎
fe皿ale
Q 1 !0
つノ ー4
1
皿ale
To七al
Non_Cu七
341
Table7.
Termswhichrefer七
〇 ears
oflives七
〇ck
nieaning
Turkana七erm
earsofmiddle二Leng七h
-i七aangaki
longears
-peiaki七
oneeariscu七in七
●
-munユmunyo
bo七hearsarecu七in七
〇emuni七
■
-ngurubo
bo七hearsarecu七in七
O
-itebi七ai
bothearsarecu七in七
〇 .engur'ubi七
〇i七ebi七ai
一
皿皇
塑
spo七
●
shor七ears(see七he七ex七)
-mudan
●
12 3
一mulele
O
●
4 56 7
〇.
8
●
七edears
〇elnuni七
〇i(seeFig.6)
〇i
〇i
Table8.
Age-sexcomposi七ionof七hecheckedherdandi七s
memberslalloe'a七ion七
〇herders
numberofgoa七s
ca七egory
36
!Q 7
どフ ー
91
2
7
68
4ー
七〇七aユ
'4
imma七urefemale
剛 !◎ !◎
1
ζノ
ma七urednulliparousfemale
2 ζノ ー
2 4
0
5
parousfemale
-1
im皿a七ure皿ale
イー
噂
一 '4
1
ma七uredmaleno七cas七ra七ed
ζノ Q/2
cas七ra七edmale
2 Q!2
1
3 0
1
reproducing皿ale
七〇七al
herderAherderBherderC
195
Table9.
Break-downofgoa七s七
herderA
〇checkingunits
herderB
herderC
uni七No・ofgoa七uni七No.ofgoa七
Ω∪
﹂
■1
∩ ) ハ6
﹂
■1
弓■
91
1 2 つノ
バU ハ
U バU
-■
68
Bl
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
Bg
B10
BIl
B12
B13
B14
2 7 46 8 6 5 5 7 8 5 46 8
1
4-
3 0 4 9 4 2 9 4 3
1A
2A
3A
4A
56
7A
8A
9
A
AA
total
㎜i七No.ofgoa七
36
Table10.
Distine七ivefeaturesofchecking㎜i七foma七ion
numberofgoa七
herderuni七&i七sdis七inc七ivefea七ure七
reproducingmale
cas七ra'ted皿ale
lac七a七ingfemale
sonSswife
o七herfamily
68
七〇七a工
non-cas七ra七edmale
bigcas七ra七edmale
50
1
1
15
5
(=B10),
(=B9)
sa皿ecolor
sa皿ecolor
2245
912
4■巳
2
91
1
(=B13),smaユ=L◎ne
1
(=B14),bigone
samecolor
4■1
samecolor
1
=ノ 7 ・
samecolor
2
ワ 8 つノ ノ4
salneage
ノ斗 ∩
づ
sameage
sameage
くノ 7
(=B7),samecolor
(=B6)
1
sameage
sameage
ζノ 41
sameage,
51
4
ワ ` =ノ だフ
4thwife
11
ー
smallcas七ratedmale
4層冒
B1.
B2.
B3.
B4.
B5.
B6.
B7.
B8.
B9.
B10.
B11.
B12.
B13.
B14.
七〇七a1
__學
310
4巳ー
B
4
轄 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ■ 一 噛 一 一 一 唱 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 囎 唱 一 一 一 一 囎 一 〇 一 唱 一 一 輌 一 一 一 噛 一 一 一 唱 噛 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ■ 一 一
2 7 4 6 8 6 5 5 7 8 5 46 8
1
一 一 ロ ー-O-一
∼4 つノ
4七hwife
14
8
211dwife
2
newcomer
10
◎ ノ
4ー
1■
ls七wife
3
ノ鮎
ー1
噌1 1 8
Al.
A2.
A3.
A4.
A5.
A6.
A7.
A8.
A9.
3 04 9 4 2 9 4 3
A
FFmFylac七a七ion
MMcM囮My
〇七al
1
9
■一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ●■一■■9-一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 暉一一■鱒 日 層 一 日 一 卿 唱一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 〇 一 一 一 騨 『 ■■一 噛 一 一 一 一 一 一
to七al
七〇七al
M:reproducingmale,Mc:cas七ra七edmale,Mm:youngmaturedmaleno七cas七ra七ed,
Mン=imma七uremale,F=parousfema工e,Fm:nulliparousfemale,Fy:imma七urefemale・
14
36
195
612
ノ悼
sameage
sameage
(=C2),female
(=C1),male
0
1
sameage
ハ
6
C1.
C2.
C3.
8 0
4
■ー -
C
5191214725617
4
616
24
Table11.
Ownersofeachherder「sgoa七s
numberofgoa七s
owner
FMT
FMT
FM
4 1 2 ﹂
4 つノ
2
2
2
6
3
4
1
〇七al.
2
2
F:female,M:ma工e,T:七
682391
10238
70
103
103
62
104
718
0therfa皿ily314
七〇七al551368
8 0 0 2 2
491968
303
325
516
101
0
sontswife404
FMT
1
4七hwife303
七〇七al
2
3rdwife516
herderC
2
2ndwife303
herderB
!◎ 1
1
1stwife371148
herderA
14550
T
140
7
13
13
8
14
195
Table12.
Kin_groupin七he
s七udyherd
ロ
9「oupsユze
No・ofgroup
? ノ つノ 7
2
縛
1
ワ・ =ノ 4
1
層 -
1 23 456 7 89 0
1
13
1
16
2
Table13.
Overlapofindividualnamesin七helives七
lives七
〇ckherd
〇ckherd
ca七 七le
goa七
一 2
4
■騨
(A:Nov.1980,B=Dec.1982).51goa七swerepresen七inbo七hherds・
」
2
1
Goa七herdsA&Bwere七hesameherdindifferen七s七udyperiods
〇ge七her,sc:onenameissharedby
工
0
2
〇ck皿anaged七
七hreeindividuals.
H
◎ノ ー
1
A,B,...:herdoflives七
1039
11
1140
G
一 Q!
-
314菩3
64141sc36
F
(ソ
4-
totalno.ofani皿al
E
8
2
6112633
n◎ ・ofoverlapedname
D
ワ・ 1
2
七〇「
ヒaユno.ofname
C
0
つ2
B
Qノ ー
2
A
donkey
camel
Table14.
Genderoflivestockindividualnames
numberoflives七
gender
goa七
2
つノ ー4 0
1
1 ﹂
■1
■ -
4
1
0
7
8
5
2
3
total
七〇七a工
4
wi七hou七prefix
一 1
(ni-)
つフ つ2 1 - - ・
qノ
(na-)
neu七er(i-)
曜 Qノ ワ ・ ζノ
2 1-
(10-)
feminine(a-)
3
13
79
61
18
1
2
貸ノ ζノ A
U
2
masculine(e-)
plural
cameldonkey
ca七 七1e
2
wi七hprefix
〇ck
13
190
10
21
142
121
27
2
5
22
350
Table15.
Genderprefixforhumanpersonalnames
genderofprefix
sex
!◎
8
2
?ノ
ウ`
2
pく0。001(formascuユineand
0 2
feminine).
ワ膠
1
X2=11.02,df・1,
七〇tal
ni1
neu七er
1◎
fe皿ale
!◎ にノ
ー
male
masculinefeminine
Tab=Le16.
At七ribu七esfornamingoflives七
〇ckindividuals
nu皿beroflives七
コ
〇ck
O「 エ9ユ11
goa七
ノ◎
1
1
一
2
Ωノ
0
7
190
8
環ノ
to七a1
■
6.relation
一
5.accident
11
5
9
2
8
4.behavior
一 -
3.七ransfer
!◎
4
1
一
2.bir七h
total
donkey
ー ノ辱 つノノ◎ !0
ノ停 -
163
camel
ワ`
貫ノ
1・appearance
ca七 七le
277
22
20
13
16
2
350
Table17.
ロ
on9■n
A七 七ributesinlives七
〇cknamesreferring七
numberoflives七
ロ
ノ悼 -・
つノ 8
2 2
∼4
2
0
1
1 2
1 つノ
2 Q/ 2
ノ什
-
41
!◎ ノb
57
つノ ー
CP:GP七erms,NCP:non-CPterms(see七ex七)一
163
13
0
1
七〇七a1
■◎ Q/
調
■
■
color+shape
4
shape
41
12
7
1
NCPonly
つノ 7
CPonly
CP+NCP
144
82
21
ノb ノ◎
-
color
35
162
一 一 一 一 帽一一 一 ロー一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ■一一 ●
一 一 一 一-● 暉 一 一 一 一 一 一 欄一
2 /4 0 8
︻ノ 2 1・ -
七〇七al
33
くノ ー
一 一 一 一 一 一 ■■一 一 一 一 一 ●9-一'一
り♪ 2
81
to七a工
一
1
color+shape
一 一 一 噌 一 噛■一____一____r[一_一
10
◎ノ
shapeonly
■◎ !◎
coloronly
曙 つノ ノ
b
1 2 2
2
9・
termofbodypar七
〇七hers
1
41
earCU七
f.
一8
hornshape
e●
f4
plan七co=Lor
d.
2
2
animalshape
C・
ρ
) !b
﹂
1
b.
8
騨 !Q
animalcolor
1
a●
8
ハく
excep七ionalyNCPs
七〇七a1
つノ
includingor
donkey
ノ停 2
つノ
twoCPs
came1
8 !
b
1
Q ノ つノ
ー - !O
コ
-- 2
oneCP
〇ck
ca七 七le
goa七
〇appearance
16
222
115
35
72
35
20
277
Table18.
]Lives七
〇ckindividualnamesreferring七
〇i七s
resemblanceincolorandshape七
〇 〇七heranimals
numberoflives七
〇ck
animaエ(VernaCUIarname)
goa七ca七
tota工
七lecameldonkey
1●european(emuzugu七)11
2●Gran七
冒sgazelle(塾
皇)4127
3.dik-dik(esuro)22
4.zebra(e七uko)213
5.?(ungula七e)(ek。1。bai)11
-一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ロ ー 一_一
一 一 〇__一
一__一_-o__一_一
一__一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
6●goa七(皇9i,ug)11
7.ox(皇
蟷)1ce1
8.leopard(eris)11
9.spo七
七edhyena(ebu)11
10.savannam・nkeyて
翫ad・k。
七)11
層 一 鱒 囎 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
11・groundsquirrel(ekunyuk)224
1;:無
14●
器e(1盤 兼;1,、1
七uftedGuineafowl(三
15。yel工ow-neckedspurfowl(e七
-一
些 辿)11
〇kora)112
禰 一 噛 噌 一 囎 唱 尊 唱 一 一 帽 唱 一 一 一 一 噛 一 一 一 囎 一 噛 一 一 一囎 噛 一 一 一 一 囎 一 一 『 噛 唱 囎 鱒 鱒 曙 唱 噛 囎 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 噛 一 一 一 一 鱒 零 噌 唱 一 一
16・ca七
七leegre七(eRbgpg)314
17.crow(ekuuruk)22
18.harlequinquail(aluru)11
19。hornbill[Tockusspp.](10㎞
20.bee(ao)11
七)22
-
七erfly(abeere)
22.dungbee七1e(ekolonyo)
2 4
11 1
21.bu七
2 1 1
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 噛 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 噛 一 噛 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
23.皿il=Lipede(皇kamuryamurya)
1
24.wildmamma1(e七iangi七)kee
to七al
sc:resemblanceinshape,cett:七hisnamerefers七
kudusbyadding七he七erm-ase(pa七
means8七riped・
29
8
5
〇eolorresemblance七
七ern七erm,seeFig.3,B9),which
2
μ
〇
国HΦ目Φ喜 。・ 餌巳
Oh
].ドくΦ 0唾げO O片
日
U
日
づ㊤ 目Φ oΩ
国
OP けψ].
Φ
目①碧 貯 σ
q。・ oh H甘 Φ。
・げ昆
昌 ∬目げ Φ弓
Ω
一い (Nい ・㊤ )
一㊤ (W N ・o
o)
Ω
o㊤目①].
国
I
8
W
1
口
1
8
日
N
一い (一co ・ひ )
l
1
I
o
o
㎏
q
山o艮 Φ曳
H
一
巳
6
一
ー
い
I
W
I
日
く。
W沁
(^。 ●O )
co (Nい ●O )
◎o NO (ひ沁 .い)
ー
NO お
W 一い(N一・卜 )
l
刈
l
Iv
碧客
﹀ や 切
8
刈
一〇
塵
1
1
ー
一〇
U
l
一
日㊤げHΦ ↓の ・
O嬉P σqPづ
く 一の (一〇 ●O)
1
1
1
co
㊤
1
邑
1
8
㊤
猛
(O )
〈)卜
一一 ト〇 一￠ くO
鴫
℃
(・
o卜
))δ
N
一N
￠
ひW (UW ・ハ﹂)
ヌ
卜
W一(ま も )
刈O (Wひ●◎o )
畳
一
σsoo
((
へ)-L
く ㎏
いc
o
占
1一
9◎ β山
け Φ同目
け ①り目 oロ
ψ Φ同目
N卜
ー
1
1
1
1
8
1
畳
No
o
剰
ひco
))δ
ΦH Φ目 Φ昌 け
O勺
Ω勺
げΦ弓目
げり餌 昌 uoh①り
塵
WO
●
●
o謬 ①
け零 o
Ω℃
05 Φ 口 051 Ω団
げ Φゴ 餌く 陣OH・
ひ)1
けOσ
qΦφげΦ 弓 噂 日 ●.けOψ卯 ド ●
(W ・く)
Iひ
一 ●
︿﹂ ●
P
+
ρo ℃℃ΦP り㊤昌 OΦ
O ・
く
・
¥◎ 刈
))譜
)
o昌 Φ
P ● 9 ℃噂Φ餌 り㊤目 OΦ
O ● け H蟹9ロ ロ馳h①H・
げ ・ げ 陣月げげ
画 ● げ ΦげP くPO弓
Φ ・ 餌 OO陣α Φ昌 げ
h ・ H9Φ].
餌 "陣05
げ 陣弓けげ
eΦり 目
9 ●
け 弓餌昌 口hΦH・
げ Φげ9 く陣O り
O ●
Ω ・
ρ OO陣α Φ5 げ
口 O︼
PI Ω旭
けΦ冠目 oロ
h ・ り Φ].
餌 げ陣O昌
Φ ・
げ ・
口 O︼
Pl O男
げo ず餌 H
けミ O
げoげ㊤ ド
き ● O5 Φ
い ●
㊤ ● po℃ ℃Φ僧 り餌昌 OΦ
α ●
僧O O陣Ω Φ昌け
げ Pり ψ﹃
① ・
H・
ΦH ㊤け PO口
げ ・
h ●
け ①蓉
目 P昌㊤σ
qΦΩ
一いさ Wひ 一℃O
げ Φ弓α ロo
ψΦ弓目 ロo り o自ΦΦ
].陣くΦ ooけO O犀
昌 051 0℃
9弓 Φ
P 口幽
・q
φoけ巴 .
けoけ巴 .
O勺
︾ 噂bd 噛:
周 Oり
((
へ))℃
コ
u
ひ
(
い
一
さ
皿
14Nw
IM一
lw
1)℃Nu
一
へ)1
1-一Llw
一_▲
lN
一
へ)1八)∼Qlw)竃
一1
一
〇w
一1
"N}
1-srq
N
OI∼9wwrqu
嘱⊃1一
一
Ioo
1
lw
卜1"1lwI
wl
き1
重 一1.卜
一1
い
AI
t
邑
一
一i
一
N
rq-・
く)1ひ
)℃w
)℃1鴨qw＼
lw
ひA-L-1
W卜
けoげ餌ド
N
(り ●く )
c
o一(︿
JW●一)
一
題い
l
一
N
一
・さ )
ひO(一刈L )
o
o刈
oo
﹂ co
6
苗
-
(o。 ●ひ)
一トい(公
沁O
ム﹂
ムJ
W
ω
一
WO
WいO
Table20●
工aivestocknamesreferringtomore七hanone
charac七eris七icsofthenamedanimal
numberoflivestock
goatca七
1
。ry
1
CP七erm+his七
1
CPter皿+behavior
bodyshape+bodyshape
1
to七a1
ForCP七erms,seetex七
Thereisnonamewhichreferstotwo
amongdonkeys。
2
1
CPter皿+ear_cut
9
〇七al
2 !◎ 2
1
CP七erm+hornshape
■ -
つノ 2
CPter皿+bodyshape
ca皿el七
-- つノ
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
七le
9
5
。
carac七eris七iCS
10
24
Table21.Overlapoflives七
〇cknames
numberofnames
No.oflivestock
whichhas
七〇tal
1CP
1CP=na皿e8composedofoneCP七er皿,2PT=七woCP七erms,
1CP+工NCP:oneCPter皿andonenon-CP七erm,1NCP:one
non-CP七erm,2NCP:twonon-CPter皿s・
ForCPandnon-CPtermsssee七ex七
・
X2=3。169,df=1,0.1>P>0.05(for七heculcuユa七ion皿e七hod,seeTakasaki
[1981]).
Expec七edfrequencyofna皿esunsampZed=648・116・
一
(21。0)(18.6)
124
(42.8)
一
54
一 -
61
一
(%)
25
(8.6)
にノ
2
一
藺 1
6
-
哺
-■
5
1- ﹂
ー
1
1■
4
2NCPobserved(%)expec七ed
0
1
1
5
3
Qノ ノヤー
4
18
2
1NCP
つノ !◎ 2
4 1
コ
un■quename
七〇七al
2CP+1NCP
1CP
七hesamena皿e
26
(9.0)
245(84.5)
36(12.4)
5(1.7)
3(1.0)
一(0)
1(0.3)
290
239.679
44.314
6.007
Table22.
Elemen七soflives七
〇ckname
numberoflives七
〇ck
donkey
ca七 七1ecame1
goa七
element
ofname
B
C
D
E
F
G
J七
脚1
8
弓2
9
ζノ
一
一2
ー
261_
つノ
7
10
2
1
8K
20
2
ー
1453@15ce9
1625tt菅48
弓2
lNCP
2NCP
5
6sc
一 り2 4
27f45$910sc
工
〇七al
3
5127scce3
2CP
lCP+1NCP
1・ 2
1CP
H
1
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
39
99
74
157
30
一一囎 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一 一
〇neelemen七196522121552213158196
七woelemen七84576141813618654205
64141
to七a1
36302811
CP:CP七erm,NCP:non-CP七er皿,see七ex七.
f:七hreena皿esaresharedby七wogoa七srespec七ively,$:七en
namesby『
しwotes:onena皿eby七wo,@:七hreenamesby七woandone
by七hreetfX:七wona皿esby七wo・
40192012
401
Table23.
Ele皿en七soflives七
〇ckname
numberoflives七
〇ck
ca七 七1e
goa七
donkey
came工
elemen七
〇fna皿e
B
C
D
lCP+1NCP
lNCP
1625Nce4
8
1453@15畳
9
2NCP
261
5
6N
7
10
1
21
一
522
618
36302811
CP:CP七erm,NCP:non-CP七er皿,see七ex七.
f:七hreenamesaresharedby七wogoa七srespec七ively,$:七en
namesby七wo,呉:onenameby七wo,@:七hreena皿esby七woandone
by七hree,ee■:twona皿esby七wo・
39
99
74
157
30
40192012
!◎ ζノ
Q/ 0
1- 2肉
64141
93
七〇七al
一 一 一 一 輔 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
ζノ ζノ
七〇七al
8菩2
2012
ー
1965221215
4576141813
3sc
11
つノ !0
1
七WOelemen七S
oneelemen七
」
84
噛 日 曜 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 日 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一__一____一
工
つノ
10sc
7scsc3
H
8
27445$9
G
一1
512
2CP
F
﹁ 2 ぱノ
ー
1CP
E
層 つノ ノ停 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
401
S七ageI
胃
一
『
8七ageI工(fe皿ale)
s七ageII(male)
s七age工
工工 (female)
stage工
工工 (reproducing皿ale)
s七age工
工工 (cas七ra七edmale)
ca七tle:ngaa七Uk
へ
(魍)
i七aok
a七aokorai七enataok
ai七eOrai七enaapOIOn
(幽)
(脳)
i七aoklangi七
石亟
emaanik
〇uoriwani七ai
亟1uangi七
(ngi皿aanik。)
。u)
蟹
(ngimongin)
donkey:ngisikirya
i七aisikirya
asikiryana七aok
(ni七aisikira)
(ユ幽na七a・k)
asikiranaaolon
(幽
esikiryalangi七
皇
旦
主
幽
〇U
(ユgisikiryaluangit。u.)
些幽)
幽
型
(ngisikiryaIUke七epak)
esikira,lsgggpgg1ud
ユ9主
些
一一 一葡噂一 一一 一一一 一噌一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一
塑9)
一一一一 一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一 一一一 一一噂一 ロー一 一一一 一一一 一一一 一一
camel:ngikkaala
i七aikaali
akaalina七aok
(ngi七ankaaユa)
匝na七a。k)
璽
製)
akaalinaapolon
ekaali幽
ekaaliloke七epan
匝 亟鯉)
てi璽
亟 塑)
ekaali=Lodongong
(ggil,lkseglLgi,IB1ggggg!!gd)
gOa七3.nganginei.◎rnRangineinameeOr型
遡
コ
ikale
akale。r91!g2,pgnakale
(ngikale)
(ngakale)
(nganginei)
ek。r。i」塑
ekQroi」 幽
旦ll91!,1190「
(幽 堕)
コ
naapolon
皇型 遡,
里
(幽1uke七epa≧)
ekoroilodongong
(幽ludongonR
.)
sheep:ngamezekin
a皿ezek鯉
i皿ezek
a皿ezeknakale
(.ngimezekin)
(namezekinnakale)
emezek主
(幽
幽
(ngi皿eZekinIUangi七
〇U)
emezek⊥ 塑
(型迦
ユ塑)
e皿ezeklodongong
(型
鯉
Fig・1・
Age-sexclassifica七ion
pluralfor皿s).
oflives七
幽)
〇ck(七ermsinparen七heses
迦9)
are
難
.
,
簸 譲" '.
醗
懸魏
鰯 .
羅隷 .
繊灘雛
難灘
轟蝦
層
灘嚢
. ・
_し
i鑛}
…
鑛 難翻
m'ttPkljr
叢
.w耶
'鑑鰻
く
"
3、
・,
灘'
!
,⋮騒 ■
b
,聖
。d・nhamm・
「
亀
脳
璽 塑
・f…as七ra七ion
・
・
-一
一
難
馨
灘 野叢議譲灘i
`
噛
5
__■L隔_
繋驚
一
羅 鑛難騒 嚢1
蕪
NO
、
Fig.2.w・
撫{
ヘ
Al.
-merユ
A2・
∼
ーkori
B1●-bubuo
一
一越
一komoユi
一
B2・ 一些些
B3.-kedikedi
'
、
一
B5・ 一迦
B7・ 。型辿
B8・rln&g919
B4.-koli
一
B6.-lu㎞a
B9.
騨aze
巌
ク'
B10.一
Fig・3・
一
七hiユi
Goa七coユorcユassifica七ion
Bl1・-Ltlt}1
B12.
,Lzu:gL
一
脚waz■
ロ
@煽
(
〆
氏
煙
ぐ A、ノ
奄
∼ど
つ
or-uwaユa
h
ダ `
(、
メ
ゆ◇ 、
ー
巴_ノ
導
7.-kerya皿an
4
暴
o「 一聖
〆
一
14・
一 く
P一
ヒ
し
ロ
ノ
ベ」
一七 〇do:
15.
onehorn
ぎ 一鵡σ
層!n!gug!u:an:brokenhom
。r一 迦9
0「AnapgeAapggan:shor七h
Fig.4.
Homshapeclassifica七ion
一lim3hornユess
く
撚e山 し
ど 心
17・ 」
趣18・
16・ 一
迦
ー
趣
。「 一
鯉
ξ号
鵡ノ
13・-bakar
'〔一
12.
or-dia七a
4「
一
し
ヘ
ノ
A
∼
!?一
ξ 一心 ア
11.-ngeleshi
ノら
、
ら
ノ
σ
9.-chongor
8.-koda
くど
、
「!ZZ9!!ge
β
血
(ど
ゆみ
10・
町厚
5.-i七a
磐
氏
∼
4●-kodos
讐
、
3.-1uk
or-bukUno
ξ 避
。「 一迦
2.-komar
一
一
!'e,
祠心
号
1・-gdM9里
・
多
9"・ ・ll
orn
typeof
horn-shape
(Fig.4)
七ype
of
wayof七raining
training
一一一一 一一一一 一一 一一一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 口 日 一 一 凹 一 一 一 一 一
back-一
wh'七七"ngく
onehorn-一
一 一 一 一 一・
一一 一一一一 一
tw・h・一 ・く91igl、r
Waysofhorn七raining
一 一 一 一 一 一一一・一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
.一=========:===Vエ1菱
一 一一一 一一一一 一一一 噂一一一 一一一葡 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 卿 一 剛 一 一 一 ロ ー 一 一 一 一 一 一 囎 鱒 一 一 一 一 一 騨 騨 一 一 騨 一 一 卿 一 騨
一一一一 一一一
X___一
X工
一 一一一
一 一一一 一一一
11
12
13
躍ノ
Fig・5・
工
一一一
﹂■■
七wohorns
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一V工
一一 一一 一
∼4
onehorn-一
一一 一一一
V_一
V工_一__一
噌ー
burning<
一
一一 一一 一
工V-4,5,6,78
朔ー
forehead-一
工工1-一
◎ノ 0
h・rnand・kin<
一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一
,
hornandhorn-一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ■
つノ
t◎tiehornandskin-一
一 一一一 噂一 一
2
一 ぐ:::::乏
畿 一
一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一
1
七iehornandhorn-一
T占 T占
1
七〇
1.
i七ebi七ai
2.
em皿i七
3.
edori七ai
〇i
4.り●ekochili七ai
5.
eirieri七ai
6.
ewodori七ai
7
engurubi七
Fig・
6.
〇i
Ear皿arking
ClaSSifiCa七iOn
一・ ・
ニ
;:'1㌧,・L-一.デ
ー
「-一=7「=:二
∵
一一
.『
二 二 誓 マ で 二¥㌃
∴'∵
・=「
冒
・∫7・・簾
'『
一.頭
・
癖
鋼
とμ・"
・
∼
く
き
コ き
獲搭
ト
●
よ る ロま
鱒 鐸 鵠薫 搬 ..一、
撫 鉱1琴
蟹 狸鍵
キを ヤロぞ リヨ
∫ ε 一.
る ロァズ ヨ ロキ コ じ っタも うる ロ
ま
》
じガロユ
-一.-lftll-20cm
・.ち.'iLな
メ
ロしご ロコ
1....,,,.9
ま
コ
、ξ
警 一.
ま
縫羅
麺'
灘 翼.
.
.
.
.
藪講 纏 瀬一
難鍔
叢
…
講 藻
コ 雛鍵
瓢
繋 灘 難
灘懇 鑛 叢 難 繋 欝
鍵襲 難 羅
鍵羅 叢
鷹'一
Fig・7.
brandingiron
'
0
(ΦH魯 )
(Φ.
[d 目 )
(・H譲 )
'
'
(ΦH雪
'
σ
南 のH雪 Φ靹)
(ΦHd目Φ舶 )
∩
(ΦH雷 ￡ )
b
o輯 噂§ お
'
0
.
oo
(①Hd目Φ触 )
.ho缶
(ΦHd日8 )
(ΦH⑪日①輸 )
老 o拐 Φ畠 H 触o 。ユΦH曾 巽 国
封
'
0
(④Hd臼)8 。臼ΦH。 揖
(Φ目d目 )
(ΦH雷 )
(のH霞 )
'
0
HerderC
HerderB
HerderA
timeofbir七h
く
〉
sex
〈
〉
COlor
〈
〉
>
owner
<
ー
<
ー
〈
Fig.9.
Dis七inctivefeaturesfor
checkingunitfor旧ation
﹀
newcomer
;
﹀
;1actation
〈
・1
>
cast・ati・
ApPendix1。Composi七ionoflives七
〇ckname8whichrefer七
〇apPearance
oftheani皿albythe七ermsincludingorexcep七ionaly
non-CPterms
nu皿berofanimal
composi七ion
goa七ca七tlecame].donkeyto七al
M-一
8
5
2
含ノ
29
to七a1
1 1
七herterm+七ermofanimal
一
3.〇
41
七er皿ofanimalonly
7
2
26
1ce
1●CPterm+七ermofanimal
2・
つノ 8
3
1
na皿esreferringtoo七heranimals
μ
一 一 噂 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一e-一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 〇 一 一 一 一 一 一
na皿esreferringtoplan七
1・ter皿ofplan七
〇nly-2--2
一 一一一 一噂噌一 一一一一 一一一 一一
一一 一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一一一 一一 一一一一一 一一一 一一一 一一印 一噂一 一
namesreferring'しohornshape
1。CP七erm+ter皿ofhorn-shape33--6
2.termofhorn-shapeonly31--4
to七al64--10
-一
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
一 一 一 〇 一 噌 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一
3.〇
七er皿ofear-cu七
〇nly
一
七her七erms
七〇七a⊥
forCPandnon-CP七er皿sssee七ex七.
tt:resemblanceinshape・
2 1
2・
5
2 ζノ 4
〇ear-eut
1。CPterm+七ermofear-cu七
23
na皿esreferring七
3
3
3
11
Appendix2.
Lives七
〇cknamesreferringtoani皿alappearance,includingbody七erms
nu皿beroflives七
andreferred。bjec七(vernacular)
names
goa七ca七
〇ck
七1ecameldonkey七
〇七al
(i)namesofCPterm+body七er皿
(20individualswithnamesreferringto七hecolor)
1 1 1
5 22 1 11 1 11 1 11 11
1
1
3
[bodytermse皿ployedinnamesareasfollows]
1●head(ak◎u)2
一 41
2.皿ou七hて5iEtT七Uk)2
3●belly(akooki)1
4.cheek(ama七egen)1
5・spleen(etid:side。fbelユy)1
6.ear(aki七)1
7●apar七
〇fneck(e七
8.apar七
。fneck(arari)1
9・st。
〇le)1
一
皿ach(ab。i:belly)1
10・side。fbelly(9R921)1
11.but七
〇ck(ewosin)1
12.back(akau)
13.breast(aake七)
14.hu皿P(aruk)一
(ii)na皿esofbody七ermonly
1.namoiyo
〇 七heshape(2individuals)
,(七 〇es:[li七
2●S2g!1gkL(beard:≦
4- -
a.referring七
七eralynails]:ユgimoiyo)1
躍)1
b。referringto七hecolor(1individual)
1●ngakolikolya(sideofbreas七:akolikoli)
(iii)namesofbodyterm+〇
七her七er皿
〇 七heshape)
.aperoki立.(lyingears:塑+蛭
工)
4.aawoia㎞as(10ngforelegs:-woi+幽)
主)
'ForCPtermandbody七er皿
1
ichekemuroi(hairyhindlegs:-cheke8+ngamuroi)19.
10.ak。um。ng(。k-lik・h・ad:ak。u+画
罫1
,see七ex七.
1・ 1
蛙
8.a㎞dokosi皿(benttail:a㎞dokin+ekosim)
一
1
7.nai七aki(poin七edears:-i七a+三
〇rob)
1 1
〇rob(ben七breas七:ariwo+a七
1
5.ai七aki七uk(pointedmou七h:-i七a+aki七uk)
6.ariwo七
1・ 1
3.
幽
1
2.nakoko=Lees(os七rich-1ikehead:akou+eka].ees)
1
1.ai七aruk(poin七edhump:-i七a+aruk)_
2
2 1 4
11 1 4
1
(11individualswi七hnamesreferring七
Appendix3.
Lives七
〇cknameswhichrefer七
〇ani皿alapPearance,excluding七ermsof
horn-8hape,ear-cu七,ani皿als,plan七s,andbody-par七s
numberoflive8七
andreferredobjec七(vernacuLar)
names
(i)
namesofCPter皿+non-CP七erm[non-CP七erms
[akind。fc。1。r](一
2.
[akind。fc。1。r](-cherim。)
5.
beads(p1.ユgakoloumwai)
6.
tin(ekolo)
7.
8.
junc七ion(akichari)
C。ver(akibur)
9.
七〇shift(akinachar)
o
1
鱒
1 41
一
1
hairy(achekes)
4.
sw。llen751;5611s:sw。11ens七
t。dyeby。i1(aki加al)
(ngak。poi)
(iporere七
〇)
里 鯉)
[name・faal七ema七i。n8e七](ユ9些2型)
=theywearb=Lackfea七hers
噌
1
〇roas七
皿ea七again(gltsiSi!U!!yg2,g!g!stk)
〇the8hape(6individuals)
1.dwarf(911Z9!1Z)
2.P・i・
七・d(幽
型
・r・f・r・i・g七
・ ・ar・h・p・)
1
1:欝bl含cl￡li豊
4匪 . -
3.round-backed(echugurヨ)
露'1七
。esemb、es七.、 。m。.。
。)
2 1 4
11 1
2 1-
㌔.namesreferring七
4■●
t・tear。ff(akichil一)19.
1
1 1 1 1
`18.girls曾bel七(aruba)
20.七
帥
1
[akindofearring](a逗Lamai七)
1
[akindofcolor](ユg⊆!ZZZ,)
1
bulletcar七ridge(三
1
girlstmake-up(皇igt"皇1)
1
girls曾apron(a㎞de)
鱒
脚1
[amant8name](resemblancetohisfavori七eox)
1
5 3 22 2 11 1 1 11 1 11 1 1
curingwound
一
〇
コ
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 ﹂・
﹃ 1 1 1 1 ﹂
ー
〇1i皿)
葡
一
[men曾s。rnamen七l
一 -
8hade(e七
1
層
[akindofoil](akurin)
1
3 4 5 6
,)
2
七er(akipiripiro
[amilkproduc七](amori)
2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2
〇 七hecolor(2gindividuals)
scar(9991r:9]iat)
1
follows]
[apartofmea七](akoro七)
amole(akemer)
一
・mach)
(ii)namesofonenon-CP七erm[七er皿semployedareas
a.na皿esreferring七
輯
噂
1
2
1
dwarf(91rc9!!iE)
3.
1
2.
ノ◎ 14 1
individuals)
〇 七hecolorandshape(12
tal1(eewoi)
ノ◎ 1
referring七
1.
togli七
噂
1
b.na皿es
一一
一
apatch(塑)
1
[akindofcolor](-EiiiET『
4.
1
迦)
鱒1
3.
2
1.
〇七aユ
e皿ployedareasfol=Lows】
〇thecolor(12individuals)
2
referring七
●names
cameldonkey七
七le
0
41 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.a
goa七ca七
〇ck
(con七inued)
(iii)na皿esoftwonon_CPter皿s
a・namesreferring七
〇 七heco=Lor
七ermsle七c.,aredescribed[inbrackets].
,e。9.,propernounst
specialTurkana
-
ForCPandnon-CPterms,8eetext.
DNameelement8untransla七able
41■
里(hairy&round-headed3-chekes+-1im)
461
3.三L≦ 蛭Lエ
七〇ron)
1
1・neewoiakwara(10ngspear3-woi+akwara)
2・ 幽(gen七lehilユ3emoru+一
1
1
411
(1individual)
座+幽)
〇theshape(3individuals)
4■■
1● 幽(alegornamen七=皇
b●namesreferring七
ApPendix4・1・ivestocknamesreferringtocharac七eris七icsofthe
animalsother七hani七sapPearance
na皿es,their皿eaning,
ca七egoryandnu皿ber
andthetermse皿ployed
ofユive8七
(1)namesreferring七
〇bir七hsi七ua七ion:22individuals
3individua=Ls(K2,
12individuals(KlO,
6individua=Ls(K2,
A・[geographicalfea七ure]
B●[na皿eofplace]
C・othertermsofplace
1・[Plantna皿e]
2・are[viユ1age,
or七heplaceoneusuallylives]
3.naawi-a-Loma七
〇ck
〇r[ho皿estedof+
(aman曾sna皿e)】
anok+akaali]
4.nanOkaakaali[Came1StenCIOSUre:
e1。u+一
5・el。unyang[yell。whide:
些9]
D1)
D2)
D4)
1K,1D
D
D
D
K
D●happeningattheti皿eofbir七h
1.asuri
[runningawayfro皿enemytsa七
ロー一 一一一 〇一噌 一一一一 一一一一 一一一 一一一
(2)namesreferring七
D
七ack]
一一一一 一一一噌 噌噂一一 一一一一 一一一
一
一一 一一一 一一一 一一一 一一一噂 〇一一一
〇the七ransfeゴ320individuals
Kl,D3)
A.[personaユname】(◎fformerowner)311individuaユs(G7,
B●[nameofgroup](七
〇whichtheforme
,rownerbelongs)3
4individuals(G2,
C●other七ermsreferring七
3individuals(G1,K1,
1・ 皇paakan鐸[皿ygrandfa七her:皇p里+ユ
ニ響]
2●amasUkini[poorman:fro皿maskiniinKiswahiri]
3。i㎞angiworya[i㎞a(childof)+(anage-setna皿e)]
D●wayoftransfer2individual8(G1,
1.互apuro七
〇(exchangedwi七h皇p匹[liquor])
2●nakora(exchangedwi七hngikora[he-goa七s】)
一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 噌 一 一 一 一 一 囎 噂 一 側 哺 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ■ 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 口 薗 一6一
(3)namesreferring七
1.
aleleuwa[blea七con七inuously]G
2.
abelobelo[rollabou七]G
〇thebehavior:13individuals
3.
anaka七
4.
narUkoko皿01i[blea七+-ko皿oli(CPterm)]G
5.
幽[foolish]1G,1K
6.
nabaangakori[foolish+-kori(CP七er皿)]C
7.
habura七a[blea七]K
8.
9.
〇polo[suckZeaf七erbeinggrown-up]G
eloi七[mi=Lkingdevice]2K
naunoi(fro皿auno[rope]to七iea七
10.
napuda㎞ui[s七eponbranches]K
11。
ageringasaaja[refusecarryingbaskets]D
七hetimeofmilking)K
G:goa七,C=ca七tle,K:ca皿el,D:donkey・
ForCPandnon-CP七ermst8ee七ex七
Kl,D1)
〇for皿eromer3
・
D1)
G
K
D
D1)
G
D
一 一臼一 一一一一 一一一輔

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