argument structure - Harvard University

L2 Acquisition of Grammar:
Japanese as an SOV Language
Wesley M. Jacobsen
Harvard University
First Language (L1) Acquisition
A complex and perfect grammar is internalized:
• on the basis of limited, fragmented data
• without formal instruction
• very early, during “critical period” (by age of 3)
 Innateness theory of language acquisition
 Universal grammar hypothesis
•
•
•
•
Second Language (L2)
Acquisition
Typically after critical period is past
Unclear whether innateness device is still active
(Therefore) other means of learning required: STUDY
L1 has already been internalized: possible effects
 How are invisible structures acquired in L2 acquisition?
 Role of linguistic research in clarifying invisible
structures.
Language typology
 Greenberg (1963) observed the following correlations
between basic word order and grammatical characteristics
If a language is

Non-verb final
(SVO, VSO)
Verb-final (SOV)
Nouns are marked
by:
Prepositions
Postpositions
Order of modifier
and modified
elements is:
Modified - modifier
Modifier-modified
Location of question
marker is:
Initial position in
clause
Final position in
clause
Order of main verb
and auxiliary verb is:
Aux V – Main V
Main V- Aux V
Joseph H. Greenberg. 1963. Universals of Language. London: MIT Press
Japanese as an SOV language
A. Predicate (verb, adjective, copula) comes at the end
(1) ジョンが新聞を
買った.
Jon-GA shinbun-O
kat-ta.
Jon-SUBJ newspaper-OBJ buy-PAST
‘Jon bought a newspaper.’
(2) 値段が
安かった.
nedan-GA yasu-katta.
price-SUBJ cheap-PAST
‘The price was cheap.’
Japanese as an SOV language
A. Predicate comes at the end
B. Has postpositions (case particles) rather than prepositions.
(3)
ジョンはレストランで
真理と昼を食べた.
Jon-WA resutoran-DE Mari-TO
hiru-O
tabeta.
Jon-TOP restaurant-LOC Mari-WITH lunch-OBJ eat-PAST
‘Jon ate lunch WITH-Mari AT-the restaurant.’
Japanese as an SOV language
A. Predicate (verb) comes at the end
B. Has postpositions (‘particles’) rather than prepositions.
C. Modifiers precede what is modified.
(4) [おもしろい]本を読んだ.
[Omoshiroi] hon-o
yonda.
[interesting] book-OBJ read-PAST
‘(I) read an [interesting] book.’
(5) [友達が
紹介してくれた] 本を読んだ.
[Tomodachi-ga shookaishite-kureta] hon-o
yonda.
[friend-SUBJ introduce-give me] book-OBJ read-PAST
‘I read a book [that a friend introduced to me].’
Japanese as an SOV language
A.
B.
C.
D.
Predicate (verb) comes at the end
Has postpositions (‘particles’) rather than prepositions.
Modifiers precede what is modified.
Auxiliary verb follows the main verb.
(6) 今朝はなかなか起きられなかった.
Kesa-wa nakanaka oki-rare-na-katta.
this-morning-TOP just get-up-can-NEG-PAST
‘I just couldn’t get up this morning.’
(7) ケーキを食べさせられたくなかった.
keeki-o tabe-sase-rare-taku-na-katta.
cake-OBJ eat-CAUS-PASS-want-NEG-PAST
‘I did not want to be made to eat cake.’
Japanese as a pronoun-dropping
language
(8) A: 先月
貸してあげた
本、どうしたの？
[Sengetsu kashite-age-ta]
hon, doo shita no?
[last-month lend-give-you-PAST] book, what happen-PAST Q
‘What happened to the book I lent you last month?’
B: まだ読んでいる．もうすぐ返すよ．
Mada yonde-iru. Moo-sugu kaes-u
yo.
still read-ing soon
return-will
‘ (I’m) still reading (it). (I’ll) return (it) soon.’
--knowing what’s left out (comprehesion) and what to leave out
(production).
Structure type 1:
How many nouns does a verb
need?
Verbs can be put in classes according to how many nouns they take.
Every verb has a hidden structure formed by the pattern of nouns
it takes, whether you see the nouns or not.
This pattern is called argument structure.
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
One-place predicates: Xが走る (n=1)
X-ga hashiru
‘X runs’
Two-place predicates:Xが Yを食べる (n=2)
X-ga Y-o taberu
‘X eats Y’
Three-place predicates: Xが Yを Zにあげる (n=3)
X-ga Y-o Z-ni ageru
‘X gives Y to Z’
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
In natural conversation, most clauses come with only one noun
(8) A: 先月
貸してあげた本、どうなっている？
[Sengetsu kashite-age-ta]
hon, doo natte-iru?
[last-month lend-give-you-PAST] book, what become-STATE-Q
‘What happened to the book I lent you last month?’
B: まだ読んでいる．もうすぐ返すよ．
Mada yonde-iru. Moo-sugu kaes-u
yo.
still read-ing soon
return-will
(I’m) still reading (it). (I’ll) return (it) soon.
But every hidden slot in the argument structure has to be filled in to
make sense of the meaning.
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
(9) もうすぐ返すよ。
Moo-sugu kaesu yo.
soon
return-will
‘(I’ll) return (it) (to you) soon’
… X-ga Y-ni Z-o kaesu. 
… (X-ga) (Y-ni) hon-o kaesu 
…(watashi-ga) (anata-ni) hon-o kaesu
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
Transitive/intransitive verbs:
n(Vin) = n(Vtr) - 1
n=1 (intransitive)
n=2 (transitive)
あく aku “open”
あける akeru “open”
直る naoru “be fixed” 直す naosu “fix”
上がる agaru “rise”
上げる ageru “raise”
n=3
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
Some verbs have no partners
n=1 (intransitive)
泣く naku “cry”
歩く aruku “walk”
Ø
Ø
n=2 (transitive)
Ø
Ø
殴る naguru “hit”
食べる taberu “eat”
n=3
In such cases the causative SASE form and passive RARE
form step in to fill in the blank.
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
Some verbs have no partners
n=1 (intransitive)
n=2 (transitive)
n=3
泣く naku “cry”
Ø --> 泣かせる nakaseru “make cry”
歩く aruku “walk”
Ø --> 歩かせる arukaseru “walk”
Ø -->殴られる nagurareru “be hit”
殴る naguru “hit”
Ø -->食べられる taberareru “be eaten”食べる taberu “eat”
SASE acts to INCREASE the number of noun slots, and
RARE acts to DECREASE the number of noun slots in
argument structure:
n(Vsase) = n(V) + 1
n(Vrare) = n(V) - 1
Structure type 1:
Argument structure
What happens when SASE and RARE are combined?
n((Vsase)rare) = n(Vsase) - 1 = (n(V) + 1) - 1 = n(V) + 0 = n(V)
(8) 子供が納豆を食べる.
Kodomo ga nattoo o taberu “The child eats nattoo”
 母親が子供に納豆を食べさせる.
Hahaoya ga kodomo ni nattoo o tabe-SASEru
“The mother makes the child eat nattoo”
 子供が（母親に）納豆を食べさせられる.
Kodomo ga (hahaoya ni) nattoo o tabe-SASE-RAREru
“The child is made to eat nattoo (by the mother).”
Structure type 2:
Information structure
Old information: information that both the speaker and hearer
know of or are able to identify from previous context
New information: information that either the speaker or
hearer does not know of or is unable to identify from
previous context
Patterns of interaction between these two types of information
in text or discourse are referred to as information
structure.
Structure type 2:
Information structure
WA and GA and information structure:
In general, WA marks noun that are old information (called
“topics”) and GA marks nouns that are new information.
Structure type 2:
Information structure
A basic pattern of GA and WA in story-telling:
(9) 昔々あるところにおじいさんとおばあさんがいました。
Mukashi-mukashi aru tokoro-ni ojiisan-to obaasan-GA imashita.
once-upon-time certain place-LOC old-man-and old-woman-GA bePAST
ある日おじいさんは山の方へ芝刈りに出かけました。
Aru hi, ojiisan-WA yama-no hoo-e shibakari-ni dekakemashita.
one-day old-man-WA mountain direction-to cut-wood-PURP set-outPAST
‘Once upon a time there was AN old man and old woman. One day,
THE old man set off for the mountains to gather firewood.’
Structure type 2:
Information structure
But whether a noun is old or new information can only be determined
in relation to the rest of the sentence in which it occurs.
In the following sentences of the type ‘N1 is N2’, both N1 and N2 can be
considered ‘old information’, yet both N1-GA and N1-WA are
possible
(10) あの白い建物がホワイトハウスです。
Ano shiroi tatemono-GA Howaito Hausu desu.
that white building-GA White House
be-NONPAST
‘That white building is the White House.’
(11)あの白い建物はホワイトハウスです。
Ano shiroi tatemono-WA Howaito Hausu desu.
that white building-WA White House
be-NONPAST
‘That white building is the White House.’
Structure type 2:
Information structure
(10) あの白い建物がホワイトハウスです。
Ano shiroi tatemono-GA Howaito Hausu desu.
that white building-GA White House
be-NONPAST
‘That white building is the White House.’
--> This sentence is in answer to the (perhaps unspoken) question
‘Which building is the White House?’
(11) あの白い建物はホワイトハウスです。
Ano shiroi tatemono-WA Howaito Hausu desu.
that white building-WA White House be-NONPAST
‘That white building is the White House.’
--> This sentence is in answer to the (perhaps unspoken) question
‘That white building there: what is it?’
Structure type 2:
Information structure
GA-marked noun
New
WA-marked noun
Old
Rest of the sentence
Old
Rest of the sentence
New
GA is also possible in New-New information flow (as in the story-telling
case) and WA is also possible in the Old-Old information flow (this
is called the “contrastive” use of WA)
Understanding WA and GA requires thinking not only in terms of the
noun itself that takes WA or GA, but its informational relationship
to the rest of the sentence.
Structure type 3:
Sentences are trees
(12) ジョンは真理からもらったチョコレートをビルにあげた。
Jon wa Mari kara moratta chokoreeto o Biru ni ageta.
Jon-TOP Mari-from received chocolate OBJ Bill-to give-PAST
‘Jon gave to Mari the chocolate he got from Bill.’
[ジョンは][真理から][もらった][チョコレートを]
[ビルに][あげた]。
[Jon wa] [Mari kara] [moratta] [chokoreeto o]
[Biru ni] [ageta].
[ジョンは][真理からもらった][チョコレートを][ビルに][あげた]
[Jon wa] [Mari kara moratta] [chokoreeto o] [Biru ni] [ageta].
[ジョンは][真理からもらったチョコレートを][ビルに][あげた]
[Jon wa] [Mari kara moratta chokoreeto o] [Biru ni] [ageta].
[ジョンは][真理からもらったチョコレートをビルにあげた]
[Jon wa] [Mari kara moratta chokoreeto o Biru ni ageta].
S'
S
NP
ジョンは
Jon
NP
S
NP
V
真理から
from Mari
NP
ビルに
to Bill
V
あげた
gave
N
チョコレートを
chocolate
もらった
received
Sentences, like trees, have both vertical and horizontal structure!
Structure type 3:
Sentences are trees
Thinking about WA and GA in terms of trees:
(13)
花子は食事をしている間に家を出た。
Hanako-WA shokuji-o shiteiru aida-ni uchi-o
deta.
Hanako-TOP dinner-OBJ do-ing while house-OBJ leave-PAST
Hanako left the house while (we) were eating.
(14)
花子が食事をしている間に家を出た。
Hanako-GA shokuji-o shiteiru aida-ni uchi-o
deta.
Hanako-SUBJ dinner-OBJ do-ing while house-OBJ leave-PAST
While Hanako was eating, (we) left the house.
S’
NP
花子は
Hanako
S
NP
S
NP
V
家を出た
house left
N
間に
while
NP
V
∅
食事をしている
(was) eating
S’
S’
NP
花子は
Hanako
S
NP
S
∅
NP
S
NP
V
家を出た
house left
N
間に
while
NP
V
∅
食事をしている
(was) eating
NP
S
NP
花子が
Hanako
NP
V
家を出た
house left
N
間に
while
V
食事をしている
(was) eating
Structure type 3:
Sentences are trees
Thinking in terms of trees when the going gets tough:
(19) 異なった学説もしくは思想を持つ者たちが、一つの一致点に到達
し、もしくは一定の政策を全体の決定として承認するためには、国
家もしくは団体の意思を分裂させることが討論の目的であるのでは
なく、よりよき一致を目ざせばこその討論であり批判であることを認
識し、討論・批判の精神および方法についての思想的ならびに技
術的訓練を積まねばならない。
（矢内原忠雄著「言論自由の思想的根拠」より）
SUMMARY
Cultivating an awareness (covert or overt) of these three
structure types by:

Paying attention to the hidden slots that have to be filled
with EVERY verb and predicate and understanding how
those slot patterns change with different verb forms.

Noticing the interaction between what is already known
and what is new or unknown in Japanese discourse, and
letting WA and GA be your guide to that.
Thinking in terms of up and down, not just left to right,
as sentences become more complex.

ご清聴ありがとうございました。
Thank you for your kind attention!

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