ThediachronicdevelopmentofEnglishnominals

115
Thedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentofEngl
i
s
hnomi
nal
s:
whyi
st
hear
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em s
odi
f
f
i
cul
t
?
FuyoOSAWA
Abs
t
r
act
Thi
spaperdi
s
cus
s
est
hedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentofnomi
nals
t
r
uct
ur
esofEngl
i
s
h.Iar
guet
hata
f
unct
i
onalD s
ys
t
em wasabs
enti
near
l
i
erEngl
i
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keOl
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ys
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em eme
r
gedl
at
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i
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hasas
ynt
act
i
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cet
ocompens
at
ef
ort
hel
os
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phol
ogi
calcas
e.Thes
ynt
act
i
cDPi
sa
new comert
ot
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i
s
hl
anguage.Thef
unct
i
onofaDi
si
dent
i
f
yi
ngt
her
ef
er
ent
i
al
i
t
yofanomi
nal
andchangi
ngi
ti
nt
oanar
gume
nt
.However
,t
hi
sf
unct
i
oni
snotal
wayst
ake
ncar
eofbyaD.Wi
t
hout
aD,
mor
phol
ogi
calcas
ecandot
hes
amet
as
k.I
nOl
dEngl
i
s
h,
mor
phol
ogi
calcas
eat
t
achedt
onomi
nal
s
coul
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hanget
hem i
nt
oar
gume
nt
s
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es
ul
toft
hedemi
s
eofmor
phol
ogi
calcas
edi
s
t
i
nct
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ons
,t
hi
s
devi
cebecameunavai
l
abl
e.Subs
equent
l
yaf
unct
i
onalDs
ys
t
em hasdevel
opedt
odot
hes
amej
obi
n
Engl
i
s
h.ThePr
es
ent
day Engl
i
s
h DP i
sas
ynt
act
i
cneces
s
i
t
y andappear
edass
uch i
nt
heMi
ddl
e
Engl
i
s
hper
i
od.
A Ds
ys
t
em bel
ongst
of
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
eswhos
ef
unct
i
oni
sgr
ammat
i
calr
at
hert
hans
emant
i
c.
orJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
sofEngl
i
s
h.I
ti
sver
ydi
f
f
i
cul
tf
or
Thi
sc
aus
est
hedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yofl
anguagel
ear
ni
ngf
J
apanes
el
ear
ner
st
ounder
s
t
andaDs
ys
t
em.Thes
emant
i
ccont
r
i
but
i
onofaDs
ys
t
em i
ss
e
condar
yand
t
hen,i
ti
snoteas
yf
orl
anguagel
ear
ner
s
,s
i
ncel
anguagel
ear
ner
sandchi
l
dr
enar
emor
edependenton
s
emant
i
ccues
.Thedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yofaDs
ys
t
em i
si
nher
enti
ni
t
snat
ur
e.
0.I
nt
r
oduct
i
on
I
nt
hi
spaper
,wet
akeupt
hedi
achr
oni
cde
vel
opmentofnomi
nals
t
r
uct
ur
esi
nt
hehi
s
t
or
yof
.Ther
ear
et
woai
msoft
hi
spaper
.Thef
i
r
s
t
Engl
i
s
h,put
t
i
ngaf
ocusont
heeme
r
genceofar
t
i
cl
es
ai
mi
st
os
how t
hatt
heEngl
i
s
hdet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em（DP）i
sas
ynt
act
i
cneces
s
i
t
yandappear
edas
i
s
hper
i
od.I
ndoi
ngs
o,Ial
s
os
how t
hat
,gi
vent
henonuni
ver
s
al
i
t
yof
s
uchi
nt
heMi
ddl
eEngl
ai
ns
s
on
（1996）Os
awa
（2003）andOs
awa
f
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
（Gel
der
en1993）,Fukui
（1995）,Thr
（2009）,t
hevi
ew t
hatt
hes
amef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
ess
houl
dexi
s
ti
nal
ll
anguagesatanys
t
ageof
hei
rdevel
opme
nti
snotal
wayscor
r
ect
.Rat
her
,
i
twoul
dbebet
t
ert
ot
akeaf
l
exi
bl
evi
ew ont
he
t
i
es
:
l
anguagedevel
opmentandonf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
（ 1） Languagevar
i
at
i
oni
sduet
odi
f
f
er
encesi
nt
hedegr
eet
owhi
chf
unct
i
onalf
eat
ur
esar
e
,i
.
e.
,whet
hert
heyar
eupgr
adedt
of
unct
i
onalcat
ecodi
f
i
e
dasgr
ammat
i
calcat
egor
i
es
gor
i
eswhi
chhavet
hei
rownpr
oj
ec
t
i
oni
nt
hec
l
aus
es
t
r
uct
ur
eandi
fs
o,
whi
chf
eat
ur
es
eupgr
aded.
ar
（Os
awa2003:4）
Thes
econdai
mi
st
os
how t
hatt
hedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yoft
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em i
sas
cr
i
bedt
oi
t
s
116
文学部紀要
第 72号
hi
s
t
or
i
caldevel
opmentwhi
chi
sme
nt
i
onedaboveandi
t
snat
ur
easaf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
y.I
ti
s
orJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
si
st
hecor
r
ectus
eoft
he
of
t
ens
ai
dt
hatoneoft
hemos
tdi
f
f
i
cul
tpr
obl
emsf
Engl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
esa/anandt
he
.Aswewi
l
ls
eel
at
eri
nt
hi
spaper
,i
nas
t
udyofgr
ammat
i
caler
r
or
s
apanes
es
t
udent
s
,t
hear
t
i
cl
eus
ehadahi
gherper
cent
ageofmi
s
t
akest
hananyot
her
madebyJ
opoi
ntoutt
hati
ti
snotal
wayst
he
gr
ammat
i
calcat
e
gor
y
（Ki
mi
z
uka1967）.I
twoul
dbebet
t
ert
f
aul
tofJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
s
,
butt
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em,
orr
at
heradet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em hass
ome
obl
ems
.Concer
ni
ngt
hi
s
,L1i
nt
er
f
er
encewi
l
lbedi
s
cus
s
edf
r
om adi
f
f
er
entvi
ewpoi
nt
.
pr
erdes
cr
i
beshow di
f
f
i
cul
ti
ti
sf
or
Theout
l
i
neoft
hi
spaperi
st
hef
ol
l
owi
ng:t
hef
i
r
s
tchapt
J
apanes
el
ear
ner
st
ous
eEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
escor
r
ect
l
y.Thes
econdchapt
erdeal
swi
t
ht
hehi
s
t
or
i
cal
os
how t
hatt
her
ewasnodet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em i
nOl
dEngl
i
s
handt
hes
ys
t
em emer
gedl
at
er
f
act
st
mi
ners
ys
t
em or
i
nt
heMi
ddl
eEngl
i
s
hper
i
od.Thet
hi
r
dchapt
erar
guest
henat
ur
eofadet
er
r
at
heraf
unct
i
onalc
at
egor
yi
ngener
ali
nPr
es
ent
dayEngl
i
s
h.
est
hedi
f
f
er
encesbet
ween
Thef
our
t
hchapt
ert
akesupt
heJ
apanes
el
anguageanddi
s
cus
s
Engl
i
s
handJ
apanes
e,whi
chmayaf
f
ectJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
s
・acqui
s
i
t
i
onofEngl
i
s
h.Fi
nal
l
y,we
s
i
onoft
hi
spaper
.
concl
udet
hedi
s
cus
1.Japanes
el
ear
ner
s
AsSwan（1980:
§63）s
ays
,t
hecor
r
ectus
eoft
hear
t
i
cl
es
（a/anandt
he
）i
soneoft
hemos
t
t
i
cl
es
,bot
hdef
i
ni
t
eandi
ndef
i
ni
t
e
di
f
f
i
cul
tpoi
nt
si
nEngl
i
s
hgr
ammar
.I
ndeed,t
heEngl
i
s
har
ar
t
i
cl
esar
edi
f
f
i
cul
ti
t
emsf
orJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
sofEngl
i
s
ht
ol
ear
n.
t
i
gat
edt
hear
t
i
c
l
eus
eofJ
apanes
es
t
udent
sandhasar
guedt
hat
Ki
mi
z
uka
（1967）hasi
nves
y.She
t
hear
t
i
cl
eus
ehadahi
gherper
cent
ageofmi
s
t
akest
hananyot
hergr
ammat
i
calcat
egor
wr
i
t
es
:
（ 2） J
apanes
ehasnopar
tofs
peech e
qui
val
entofEngl
i
s
h ar
t
i
cl
es
.
.
.Thatar
t
i
cl
eus
age
emsf
ort
heJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
si
svi
vi
dl
yr
eveal
ed
cons
t
i
t
ut
esoneoft
hegr
eat
es
tpr
obl
i
nt
hehi
ghf
r
equencyofmi
s
t
akes
,
t
hehi
ghes
tofal
lt
hes
t
r
uct
ur
ali
t
ems
.TheJ
apanes
e
t
udentmus
tnotonl
yl
ear
nt
henumer
ousr
ul
esf
ort
heus
agewi
t
hasmanyexceps
et
ol
ear
n
t
i
ons
,buthe/s
hemus
tal
s
opr
act
i
cet
hem bydr
i
l
l
.I
ti
scompar
at
i
ve
l
ys
i
mpl
t
her
ul
es
,buti
ti
snotequal
l
ys
i
mpl
et
oappl
yt
her
ul
est
oact
uals
i
t
uat
i
ons
（Ki
mi
z
uka1967:7879）
t
i
cl
esbel
ongst
ot
henew cat
egor
yf
ort
heJ
apanes
e
Ki
mi
z
ukaal
s
os
t
at
est
hat・
t
heus
eofar
s
t
udent
s
・
（Ki
mi
z
uka1967:78）.
eoft
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em of
Mor
er
ecent
l
y,
Mut
o
Humphr
ey
（2006）hasexami
nedt
heus
J
apanes
es
t
udyi
ngEngl
i
s
hasas
econdl
anguage
.Mut
o
Humphr
ey
（2006）hascol
l
ect
edt
hedat
a
as
ksf
r
om 36uni
ver
s
i
t
ys
t
udent
s
（f
r
es
hman,mal
eandf
emal
e）i
nNagoya,J
apan.
f
ort
hewr
i
t
t
ent
i
s
h.St
udent
swer
ef
i
r
s
tr
equi
r
ed
Al
ls
t
udent
sar
eEngl
i
s
hmaj
orandt
hen,
mot
i
vat
edt
ol
ear
nEngl
t
or
eadas
hor
ts
t
or
yandt
henpr
oducef
ourwr
i
t
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ent
as
ks
（200250wor
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uchas
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i
）ans
wer
i
ngaques
t
i
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i
i
）cr
eat
i
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equel
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v）wr
i
t
i
nga
i
ngas
ummar
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nves
t
i
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nt
ot
al
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i
t
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ent
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Thedi
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hnomi
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s
117
wr
i
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ent
as
ksoutof144wer
eus
edf
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as
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i
f
i
cat
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ar
t
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agei
ss
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nt
het
abl
e1:
Tabl
e1
144wr
i
t
t
ent
as
ks
（t
ot
al
）
Tot
alnumberof
ar
t
i
cl
es
a/an
32wr
i
t
t
ent
as
ks
（r
andom s
ampl
e）
Per
cent
ageof
ar
t
i
cl
est
ot
ot
al
（％）
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alnumberof
ar
t
i
cl
es
Per
cent
ageof
ar
t
i
cl
est
ot
ot
al
（％）
758
26
212
28
t
he
2,
165
74
526
72
Tot
al
2,
923
―
738
―
eus
agear
edi
vi
dedi
nt
o3t
ypes
:
（i
）omi
s
s
i
on,
（i
i
）unneces
s
ar
yi
ns
er
t
i
on,and
Er
r
or
sofar
t
i
cl
e2:
（i
i
i
）conf
us
i
on.Ther
es
ul
toft
heanal
ys
i
si
ss
howni
nTabl
Tabl
e2
Omi
s
s
i
on
a/an
Unneces
s
ar
y
I
ns
er
t
i
on
Conf
us
i
on
Tot
alnumber
ofer
r
or
s
74
16
33
122
t
he
128
17
34
179
Tot
al
201
33
67
302
Theomi
s
s
i
ont
ypeofer
r
orhass
hownt
hehi
ghes
tf
r
equency
（201）.Omi
s
s
i
onmeanst
hel
ack
er
t
i
oni
ndi
cat
e
sar
t
i
cl
esar
ei
ns
er
t
edwher
et
hey
ofanar
t
i
cl
ewher
ei
ti
sr
equi
r
ed.Unneces
s
ar
yi
ns
ar
enotneeded.Conf
us
i
onmeanss
i
t
uat
i
onswher
eai
sus
edi
ns
t
eadoft
heorvi
cever
s
a.
ear
es
omeexampl
ese
numer
at
edbel
ow:
Ther
A.Omi
s
s
i
onofa/an
（ 3） Andhet
ookout
［a］kni
f
et
hathehi
di
nhi
spocket
.
e.
（ 4） It
hi
nk,i
ti
snot
［a］goodi
deaf
ort
hepeopl
（ 5） .
.
.
hebecameunhappy.
［A］Few decadesl
at
er
,t
hebr
aveman.
.
.
B.Omi
s
s
i
onoft
he
lj
udgment
.
.
.
（ 6） .
.
.i
sdeci
dedbyusand
［t
he］peopl
edeci
def
oral
（ 7） .
.
.waspl
eas
ed.Hel
i
ked
［t
he］br
aveands
t
r
ongman.
C.Unneces
s
ar
yI
ns
er
t
i
onofa/an,t
he
houl
dgeton*
a*peopl
e.
（ 8） It
hi
nkt
hatpol
i
t
i
ci
anar
es
（ 9） .
.
.
peopl
ecoul
dwat
ch*
a*f
i
ght
i
ngwhi
chi
ncl
udeds
ol
di
er
s
.
.
.
（10） .
.
.
ofhi
scount
r
yand*
t
he*peopl
e
.
.
peopl
el
i
kedt
os
ee*
t
he*bl
ood.
（11） .
D.Conf
us
i
on:a/anus
edi
ns
t
eadoft
he
（12） Andt
hepr
i
nces
sand*
a*
［t
he］wor
kergotmar
r
i
edand.
.
.
118
文学部紀要
第 72号
（13） .
.
.
ki
ngdi
dn・tknow t
hat*
an*
［t
he］accus
edwor
kerwas
.
.
.
E.t
heus
edi
ns
t
eadofa/an
i
s
m.
（14） .
.
.
t
her
ewas*
t
he*
［a］ki
ngwhohads
emi
bar
bar
（15） Theki
nghad*
t
he*
［a］ver
ybeaut
i
f
uldaught
erandhe.
.
.
How s
houl
dweaccountf
ort
hos
eer
r
or
smadebyJ
apanes
es
t
udent
s
? Somer
es
ear
cher
s
（cf
.
Mut
o
Humphr
ey2006）ar
guet
hatt
hi
si
spar
t
l
yduet
ot
heways
t
udent
sl
ear
nt
hear
t
i
cl
esat
ess
ol
vest
hi
spr
obl
em t
os
omeext
ent
.
s
chool
.Then,t
hei
mpr
ovementoft
eachi
ngpr
ocedur
Ther
ehasbeenwi
deagr
eementamongr
es
ear
cher
sont
heef
f
ectofL1.Aspoi
nt
edoutabove,
anguagehasnoar
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em,andhence,t
hi
smayexpl
ai
nt
hehi
ghes
tf
r
equency
t
heJ
apanes
el
ys
ed200Engl
i
s
h
ofomi
s
s
i
ont
ypeer
r
or
smadebyt
heJ
apanes
es
t
udent
s
.Br
yant
（1984）hasanal
es
s
ayswr
i
t
t
enoverat
hr
eeyearper
i
odbydi
f
f
er
entgr
oupsofJ
apanes
euni
ver
s
i
t
ys
t
udent
swho
nt
ens
i
veEngl
i
s
hs
ummerpr
ogr
ammeatanAmer
i
canuni
ver
s
i
t
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epor
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st
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at
t
endedanI
i
anandSl
avi
cs
t
udent
swi
t
h
er
r
or
sofar
t
i
cl
eswer
ef
r
e
quent
l
yencount
er
edes
peci
al
l
yamongAs
noar
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em.Fur
t
her
mor
e,t
heJ
apanes
el
anguagedoesnothaves
i
ngul
arandpl
ur
alf
or
m
ei
snopl
ur
almar
ki
ngequi
val
entt
ot
heEngl
i
s
hendi
ng（e
）s
.Al
t
hought
he
di
s
t
i
nct
i
on.Ther
i
mi
t
edt
ohumans
.Thes
edi
f
f
er
ences
pl
ur
almar
kert
ac
hii
savai
l
abl
e,
i
t
sus
ei
snotobl
i
gat
or
yandl
mayal
s
oaf
f
ectt
heacqui
s
i
t
i
onofar
t
i
cl
esofJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
s
.
f
er
encehascont
r
i
but
edt
ot
hear
t
i
cl
eus
agee
r
r
or
smade
I
tcannotbedeni
edt
hatt
heL1i
nt
er
byJ
apanes
es
t
udent
s
.Howe
ver
,i
twoul
dbeus
ef
ult
ol
ookatt
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em f
r
om a
di
f
f
er
entpoi
ntofvi
ew.I
ndeed,t
heus
ageoft
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
esi
sof
t
ens
ai
dt
obeunl
ear
nabl
e
r
edt
hr
ough nat
ur
alexpos
ur
et
ot
hel
anguage
andunt
eachabl
e,becaus
ei
tcan onl
y beacqui
.
.
.t
o
（Dul
ay,Bur
t
,andKr
as
hen1982）.Cel
ceMur
ci
aandLar
s
enf
r
eeman
（1983:172）ar
guet
hat・
agr
eatext
ent
,wedependondi
s
cour
s
econt
extt
odet
er
mi
newhati
sdef
i
ni
t
eandwhati
si
ndef
i
ni
t
e.
・
m t
hatt
hedi
f
f
i
cul
t
y oft
hePr
e
s
ent
Day Engl
i
s
h ar
t
i
cl
e
I
nt
hes
ubs
equents
ect
i
ons
,Icl
ai
dEngl
i
s
h
s
ys
t
em mi
ghtber
el
at
edt
ot
hedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentoft
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em.Ol
（700t
o1100）l
ackedt
hecur
r
entar
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em,
mor
epr
eci
s
el
yadet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em（DP）,
andt
he
ddl
eEngl
i
s
hper
i
od.Thedet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em wasani
nnodet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em appear
edi
nt
heMi
tt
hatL1
vat
i
oni
nt
r
oducedr
el
at
i
vel
yr
ecent
l
yi
nt
ot
heEngl
i
s
hl
anguage.Fur
t
her
mor
e,Is
ugges
i
nt
er
f
er
encewhi
chi
sment
i
onedabovemi
ghtbebet
t
erexpl
ai
nedi
nt
er
msofaf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
y.
2.Hi
s
t
or
i
calf
act
s
:t
hel
ackofDPi
nOl
dEngl
i
s
handi
t
semer
gencei
n
Mi
ddl
eEngl
i
s
h
2.
1.NPsandDPs
Her
ei
nt
hi
sc
hapt
er
,It
akeupt
hehi
s
t
or
i
calemer
genceofas
ynt
act
i
cdet
er
mi
ners
ys
t
em i
n
i
s
hi
sNP,
notDP.Thi
smeanst
hatOl
dEngl
i
s
hhad
Engl
i
s
h.Icl
ai
mt
hatt
henomi
nali
nOl
dEngl
noar
t
i
cl
ess
uch asa/an,t
he
. Accor
di
ngt
ot
heDP anal
ys
i
s
（Abney 1987;Longobar
di1994）,
Thedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentofEngl
i
s
hnomi
nal
s
119
nomi
nal
si
nPr
es
ent
dayEngl
i
s
har
eas
s
umedt
obeapr
oj
ect
i
onofaheadD,notaheadN.The
s
t
r
uct
ur
eofnomi
nal
si
st
hef
ol
l
owi
ng:
（16）
DP
D
NP
t
he/a/my.
. dog
sdes
cr
i
bedasf
ol
l
ows
.AsLongobar
di
（1994:
628）ar
gues
,
Thedi
f
f
er
encebet
weenNPandDPi
uchass
ubj
ectand
NPsar
ei
nher
ent
l
ypr
edi
cat
i
veandt
huscannotoccuri
nar
gumentpos
i
t
i
onss
obj
ect
.I
ndeed,pr
edi
cat
i
venoun phr
as
esexpr
es
s
i
ng t
hepr
of
es
s
i
on,s
oci
als
t
at
us
,s
ex et
c.of
ar
l
yt
endt
obebar
e
（Lyons1999,104）.NPsar
enotr
ef
er
ent
i
al
;r
ef
er
ent
i
al
humanbei
ngspar
t
i
cul
i
ngapar
t
i
cul
arent
i
t
yi
nt
he
nomi
nal
smaybepar
aphr
as
e
das・
t
hos
et
hatar
eunder
s
t
oodasdenot
uni
ver
s
eofdi
s
cour
s
e・
（Rapopor
t1995:154）.Thi
si
sexempl
i
f
i
edi
nt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngs
ent
ences
:
schai
r
manoft
heCommi
t
t
ee.
（17） a.J
ohni
b.*
Imetchai
r
manyes
t
er
day.
c.*
Chai
r
mandonat
edal
otofmoneyt
ot
hei
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
on.
ei
nher
ent
l
ypr
edi
cat
i
veandnotr
ef
er
ent
i
al
.Onl
yDP
Asi
scl
ai
medi
nLongobar
di
（1994）,NPsar
canoccuri
nar
gumentpos
i
t
i
ons
.AsLongobar
di
（1994:628）ar
gues
,acommonnouni
ski
ndef
er
r
i
ng,notr
ef
er
ent
i
al
.
r
（18） DPcanbeanar
gume
nt
,NPcannot
.
（Longobar
di1994:628）
s
umedt
obet
akencar
eofbyaf
unct
i
onalDi
n
Ther
ol
eofpi
cki
ngoutapar
t
i
cul
arr
ef
er
enti
sas
Pr
es
ent
DayEngl
i
s
h;
t
her
ol
eofaf
unct
i
onalDi
st
ochangepr
edi
c
at
i
venomi
nal
si
nt
oar
gument
s
.
spi
cki
ngoutoper
at
i
oni
sbes
te
xpl
ai
nedbyt
het
heor
yoft
het
abi
ndi
ngpr
opos
edby
Thi
i
mpl
enounl
i
kedoghasanopen
Hi
ggi
nbot
ham（1985）.Accor
di
ngt
oHi
ggi
nbot
ham（1985）,as
pl
acei
ni
tands
odenot
eseachoft
hevar
i
ousdogs
.Thi
sopenpl
acei
sar
ef
er
ent
i
alar
gumenti
n
eoft
hewor
ddog,whi
chi
scal
l
ed・
Ref
er
ent
i
alr
ol
e・
,
orRr
ol
e
.Thi
spos
i
t
i
on
t
hear
gume
nts
t
r
uct
ur
tbe
mus
tbeboundf
oranNPt
obeanar
gumentasdi
s
cus
s
edabove.Thati
s
,anomi
nalmus
s
peci
f
i
edasei
t
herdef
i
ni
t
eori
ndef
i
ni
t
ef
ori
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
on.Thi
sbi
ndi
ngme
chani
s
mi
si
l
l
us
t
r
at
ed
bel
ow:
（19）
［DP［DDNP］］
DP1*
D1*
D
NP1
t
he
N1
N 1
dog
120
文学部紀要
第 72号
Thet
agr
i
dss
howni
nangl
ebr
acket
sar
epr
oj
ect
edf
r
om l
e
xi
cali
t
emsandar
ecar
r
i
edoverby
st
het
aboundbyD,t
hati
s
,t
he
ever
ynodei
nt
het
r
ee.TheRef
er
ent
i
alar
gumentpos
i
t
i
on1i
pos
i
t
i
on i
sdi
s
char
gedby t
het
abi
ndi
ng.Theas
t
er
i
s
ki
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hepos
i
t
i
on cl
os
esori
s
yt
het
ar
ol
ei
nanas
s
oc
i
at
edt
het
agr
i
di
sdi
s
char
ged,wecans
ayt
hata
di
s
char
ged.Whenever
i
t
i
onsar
edi
s
char
ged
cons
t
i
t
uenti
ss
at
ur
at
ed.Thecompl
et
ephr
as
eDPi
ss
at
ur
at
ed,i
.
e.al
lpos
andt
hephr
as
ei
st
hemat
i
cal
l
ycompl
et
e
（cf
.Hi
ggi
nbot
ham 1985:561）.
Thebar
enounmi
l
ki
saDPheadedbyanul
ldet
er
mi
ner
:
（20）
DP
D
NP
mi
l
k
Nounsl
i
kemi
l
k,wat
e
r
,orwi
near
emas
snounsandhaveani
ndef
i
ni
t
eexi
s
t
ent
i
ali
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
on.
tdet
er
mi
ner
sar
eal
s
ounder
s
t
oodasbel
ongi
ng
Pl
ur
alcountnounswhi
chcanoccurwi
t
houtover
t
ot
hi
sc
at
egor
y.Thi
sr
eadi
ngcomesf
r
om t
hepr
i
nci
pl
es
t
at
i
ngt
hatanempt
ydet
er
mi
neri
s
ectt
ot
heuni
ver
s
alcons
t
r
ai
ntt
hati
thasanexi
s
t
ent
i
ali
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
onbydef
aul
t
:
s
ubj
］＝ def
aul
texi
s
t
ent
i
ali
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
on
（21）［D e
（Longobar
di1994:641）
enceofot
herel
ement
sl
i
ke
Si
ncei
ti
sadef
aul
t
,t
hi
si
nt
e
r
pr
et
at
i
onmaybeover
r
ul
edbyt
hepr
es
quant
i
f
i
er
soradj
ect
i
ves
.
2.
2.Abs
enceofaDs
ys
t
em i
nOl
dEngl
i
s
h
i
on ofa D i
si
dent
i
f
yi
ng t
he
I
nt
hepr
evi
ouss
ect
i
on,wehaveobs
er
ved t
hatt
hef
unct
r
ef
er
ent
i
al
i
t
yofanomi
nalandchangi
ngi
ti
nt
oanar
gument
.However
,t
hi
sf
unct
i
oni
snot
phol
ogi
calcas
ecandot
hes
amet
as
k.I
nt
hi
s
al
wayst
akenc
ar
eofbyaD.Wi
t
houtaD,mor
s
ect
i
on,It
ur
nt
ot
heOl
dEngl
i
s
hper
i
odands
how t
hatt
hi
si
si
ndeedt
hecas
ewi
t
hOl
dEngl
i
s
h.
i
s
h.Icl
ai
mt
hatwi
t
houtaDs
ys
t
em,mor
phol
ogi
calcas
eboundt
he
Ther
ear
enoDPsi
nOl
dEngl
hhad
Rr
ol
eofanomi
nalandchangei
ti
nt
oanar
gumenti
nOl
dEngl
i
s
h.Al
t
houghOl
dEngl
i
s
t
wodemons
t
r
at
i
ves
,s
e
（s
e
o/t
）,ande
s
（i
s
/e
os
）,t
her
ewe
r
enoar
t
i
cl
es
（def
i
ni
t
eori
ndef
i
nPr
es
ent
dayEngl
i
s
h.I
ti
swi
del
yaccept
ednotonl
yi
n
ni
t
e）wi
t
ht
hepr
oper
t
i
est
heyhavei
t
r
adi
t
i
onalwor
kss
uchasQui
r
kandWr
enn
（19
55:6972）,Mi
t
chel
landRobi
ns
on
（1992:106）,and
Pyl
esandAl
geo
（1993:
114,
128）butal
s
oi
nt
hemor
er
ecentl
i
t
er
at
ur
el
i
keAbr
aham（1997:
2961）,
us
t
i
（1997:7793）,t
hatt
hes
edemons
t
r
at
i
vesar
enotdet
er
mi
ner
s
,
Phi
l
i
ppi
（1997:6293）andGi
cher
.Tr
augot
t
（1972:8587）
al
t
hought
het
r
eat
mentoft
hei
s
s
uevar
i
esf
r
om r
es
ear
chert
or
es
ear
al
r
eadys
t
at
est
hatoneoft
hemos
ts
t
r
i
ki
ngt
hi
ngsaboutt
heNPi
nOl
dEngl
i
s
hi
st
heal
mos
t
r
ect
l
ycor
r
es
pondi
ngt
oaandt
he
.Mor
er
ecent
l
y,
Phi
l
i
ppi
（1997）
compl
et
eabs
enceofanyt
hi
ngdi
opment
;
l
anguagesl
i
keGot
hi
c,
Ol
d
s
t
at
est
hatt
hee
mer
genceofar
t
i
cl
esi
sar
el
at
i
vel
yr
ecentdevel
Hi
ghGer
man,Ol
dSaxonandOl
dEngl
i
s
hdonothaveadef
i
ni
t
eorani
ndef
i
ni
t
ear
t
i
c
l
e.Thi
s
s
umpt
i
ont
hatar
t
i
cl
esanddemons
t
r
at
i
vesdonotcons
t
i
t
ut
eahomogepos
i
t
i
oni
sbas
edont
heas
r
at
i
veshavet
hes
t
at
usofN.
neouscat
egor
y
（s
eeGi
us
t
i1997:95123）.Iar
guet
hatdemons
t
Fi
r
s
t
,l
ookatt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngOl
dEngl
i
s
hpar
adi
gm,whi
chs
howsnounsi
nf
l
ect
edf
orcas
e,
Thedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentofEngl
i
s
hnomi
nal
s
121
ge
nderandnumber
:
（22）
OLDENGLI
SH NOUN DECLENSI
ON
St
r
ong
Mas
cul
i
ne
Si
ngul
ar
（s
t
one）
Neut
er
（deer
）
Femi
ni
ne
（l
ove）
Nomi
nat
i
ve s
t
an
deor
l
uf
u
ve
Accus
at
i
deor
l
uf
e
s
t
an
Geni
t
i
ve
s
t
anes
deor
es
l
uf
e
Dat
i
ve
s
t
ane
deor
e
l
uf
e
Nomi
nat
i
ve s
t
anas
deor
l
uf
a
Pl
ur
al
Accus
at
i
ve
s
t
anas
deor
l
uf
a
Geni
t
i
ve
s
t
ana
deor
a
l
uf
a
Dat
i
ve
s
t
anum
deor
um
l
uf
um
Weak
Mas
cul
i
ne
Si
ngul
ar
（name）
Neut
er
（eye）
Femi
ni
ne
（s
un）
Nomi
nat
i
ve nama
eage
s
unne
Accus
at
i
ve
naman
eage
unnan
s
Geni
t
i
ve
naman
eagan
s
unnan
Dat
i
ve
naman
e
agan
s
unnan
Nomi
nat
i
ve naman
eagan
s
unnan
Accus
at
i
ve
naman
eagan
s
unnan
Geni
t
i
ve
namena
eagena
s
unnena
Dat
i
ve
namum
eagum
s
unnum
Pl
ur
al
Thedemons
t
r
at
i
veswe
r
ef
ul
l
yi
nf
l
ect
edj
us
tl
i
kenounsaccor
di
ngt
ot
hecas
e,
genderandnumber
heymodi
f
i
ed:
oft
henounst
（23）
PARADI
GM ofs
eDEMONSTRATI
VE
Ne
ut
e
r
Fe
mi
ni
ne
Pl
ur
al
Nom.
Mas
c
ul
i
ne
Se
t
s
eo
a
Acc
.
one
t
a
a
Gen.
s
s
e
r
a
ar
Dat
.
m
m
e
r
m
Wher
ewewoul
dus
eadef
i
ni
t
ear
t
i
cl
e,oneoft
het
wodemons
t
r
at
i
veswast
ypi
cal
l
yus
ed:and
wher
ewewoul
dus
eani
ndef
i
ni
t
ear
t
i
cl
e,ei
t
hert
henumer
alan・
one・ors
um ・
acer
t
ai
n・coul
dbe
us
ed. Numer
al
s
（f
r
om onet
ot
hr
ee）i
n Ol
d Engl
i
s
hi
nf
l
ect
ed accor
di
ng t
ogender
,cas
eand
122
文学部紀要
第 72号
number
,t
oo.However
,mor
ei
mpor
t
ant
l
y,Ol
dEngl
i
s
hf
r
equent
l
yhadnowor
datal
lwher
ewe
:
woul
dexpectanar
t
i
cl
et
oday.Cons
i
dert
hef
ol
l
owi
ngexampl
es
（24） wl
s
t
owe
ge
wal
d
bat
t
l
ef
i
el
d
（f
em.Gen.
） command
・
commandoft
hebat
t
l
ef
i
el
d・
（25） f
r
am
f
r
om
be
aduwe
bat
t
l
e
（mas
.Dat
.
）
l
e・
・
f
r
om t
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cl
esi
saf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
y
nt
hi
ss
ect
i
on,Idi
s
cus
st
henat
ur
eoff
unche
adD,whi
che
mer
gedi
nEngl
i
s
hr
at
herr
ecent
l
y.I
t
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
,whi
chi
sr
el
at
edt
ot
hedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yofl
ear
ni
ngt
heEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
es
ys
t
em ment
i
onedabove.Whyar
et
hef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esdi
f
f
i
cul
tf
orf
or
ei
gnl
ear
ner
st
ol
ear
n? I
nor
der
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esar
e.
t
oans
we
rt
hi
sques
t
i
on,wemus
texami
newhatt
hef
AsAbney
（1987）ar
gues
,t
henat
ur
eoff
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esi
smul
t
i
f
acet
ed.Ihaveenumer
act
or
sbel
ow,bas
edonAbney
（1987:64f
.
）:
at
edi
mpor
t
antf
（36） 1. Funct
i
onalel
ement
scons
t
i
t
ut
ecl
os
edl
exi
calcl
as
s
es
.
egene
r
al
l
yphonol
ogi
cal
l
yandmor
phol
ogi
cal
l
ydependent
.
2. Funct
i
onalel
ement
sar
cal
l
y
Theyar
es
t
r
es
s
l
es
s
,of
t
encl
i
t
i
csoraf
f
i
xes
,ands
omet
i
me
sevenphonol
ogi
nul
l
.
3. Funct
i
onalel
ement
sper
mi
tonl
yonecompl
ement
,
whi
chi
si
ngener
alnotanar
gu）
ment
.
（Theys
el
ectI
P,VP,NP,butnotCP,PP,andDP.
4. Funct
i
onalel
eme
nt
sar
eus
ual
l
yi
ns
epar
abl
ef
r
om t
hei
rcompl
ement
s
.
i
ccont
r
i
but
i
oni
s
5. Funct
i
onalel
eme
nt
sl
ack・
des
cr
i
pt
i
vecont
ent
・
.Thei
rs
emant
s
econdor
der
,
r
egul
at
i
ngorcont
r
i
but
i
ngt
ot
hei
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
onoft
hei
rcompl
ement
.
at
i
onalf
eat
ur
es
,r
at
hert
hanpi
cki
ngoutac
l
as
sof
Theymar
kgr
ammat
i
calorr
el
obj
ect
s
.
Noneoft
hes
epr
oper
t
i
esar
ecr
i
t
er
i
ali
ndeci
di
ngwhet
heranel
ementi
sl
exi
cal
（t
hemat
i
c）or
f
unct
i
onal
,
al
t
houghAbneys
ayst
hatt
hef
i
nalchar
act
er
i
s
t
i
ci
si
ns
omes
ens
et
hec
r
uci
alone.But
,
126
文学部紀要
第 72号
eachoft
hes
epr
oper
t
i
escons
t
i
t
ut
e
sat
endency.Notal
loft
hes
epr
oper
t
i
esneedt
obes
har
edby
al
lf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
.
hatOl
dEngl
i
s
hdemons
t
r
at
i
vesar
enotaf
unct
i
onalD.TheOl
dEngl
i
s
h
Wehavear
guedt
i
onof
demons
t
r
at
i
veswhi
chhavebeenobs
er
vedabovemadeani
mpor
t
ants
emant
i
ccont
r
i
but
t
hei
rown.Thes
edemons
t
r
at
i
veswer
eus
edt
odenot
eaper
s
onorat
hi
ngpoi
nt
edoutorpr
es
ent
t
her
mor
e,al
t
hought
heus
eofanors
um
dei
ct
i
cal
l
y,andat
t
ent
i
onwasdi
r
ect
edont
ot
hem.Fur
i
sr
ar
e,
whent
heyar
eus
ed,
t
heyme
ans
omet
hi
ngmor
et
hanj
us
t・
one
（
・cf
.
Mi
t
chel
landRobi
ns
on,
1992）:
（37） anmg・
acer
t
ai
nt
r
i
be・
（38） s
um mon・
acer
t
ai
nman・
,andcanSe
condl
y,Abneys
ayst
hatar
t
i
cl
esar
es
t
r
i
ct
l
yi
ns
epar
abl
ef
r
om t
hei
rcompl
ement
notoccurwi
t
houtt
hem ase
xempl
i
f
i
edi
n
（39）.
（39） a.Is
aw t
he/a*
（boy）.
b.*
Thei
sagr
eatki
ng.
henounornomi
nalel
ement
s
,
However
,demons
t
r
at
i
vesi
nOl
dEngl
i
s
hwer
enotdependentont
butt
heywe
r
ei
ndependentl
exi
calel
ement
s
.Theevi
dencet
os
how t
hi
scomesf
r
om t
hef
actt
hat
edasdemons
t
r
at
i
vepr
onounswi
t
houtt
hecompanyofnomi
nal
s
.
t
heywe
r
eus
t
r
at
i
ves
Thef
eat
ur
esenumer
at
edbyAbney
（1987）s
t
r
ongl
ys
ugges
tt
hatOl
dEngl
i
s
hdemons
s
uchass
e
/s
e
owe
r
enotaf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
y,butal
exi
calcat
egor
y.
nl
yf
unct
i
onalcont
entandf
or
m
Li
ket
hi
s
,f
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esar
eas
s
umedt
ohavemai
cl
os
edcl
as
s
es
.Ther
ei
snoagr
eementonhow manyf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
eswes
houl
dpos
i
ti
n
ei
swi
deagr
eementont
hepr
es
enceofDP,CP,andTP/I
P.Car
ei
s
l
anguages
,al
t
hought
her
neededwhenwepos
i
tt
hei
nvi
s
i
bl
eori
nact
i
veel
ement
si
nl
anguages
.If
ol
l
ow t
hepr
opos
al
s
ai
ns
s
on
（1996）andFukuiandSakai
（2003）.FukuiandSakai
（2003:329）ar
guet
hat
madebyThr
nal
anguage,butt
heyar
enotact
i
ve,whatdoest
hei
r
・
i
ft
hef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esar
epr
es
enti
exi
s
t
enceme
an exact
l
y?
・They pr
opos
e・
TheVi
s
i
bi
l
i
t
y Gui
del
i
nef
orFunct
i
onalCat
egor
i
es
・
ongs
i
mi
l
arl
i
neswi
t
hThr
ai
ns
s
on
（1996）.
al
（40） TheVi
s
i
bi
l
i
t
yGui
del
i
nef
orFunct
i
onalCat
egor
i
es
（i
.
e.det
ect
abl
e）i
nt
hepr
i
mar
yl
i
ngui
s
t
i
cdat
a.
Af
unct
i
onalcat
egor
yhast
obevi
s
i
bl
e
（FukuiandSakai2003:327）
Thr
ai
ns
s
on
（1996）ar
guest
hatl
anguagesmayvar
ywi
t
hr
es
pectt
ot
hef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
t
heyhave,andpr
opos
est
her
ealMi
ni
mal
i
s
tPr
i
nci
pl
e:・
As
s
umeonl
yt
hos
ef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
vi
dencef
or
・
.
t
hatyouhavee
I
nt
hecas
eofPr
es
ent
dayEngl
i
s
hDP,vi
s
i
bl
eel
ement
ss
uchasa/an,t
he,ar
epr
es
entand
i
s
hi
sc
onf
i
r
med.Cons
i
der
i
ngt
hedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yoft
hePr
es
ent
day
t
hen,t
hepr
es
enceofDPi
nEngl
ant
,whi
chi
sr
epeat
ed
Engl
i
s
hdet
er
mi
ne
rs
ys
t
em,Is
ugges
tt
hatt
hef
i
f
t
hf
eat
ur
ei
smos
ti
mpor
t
bel
ow:
Thedi
achr
oni
cdevel
opmentofEngl
i
s
hnomi
nal
s
127
5. Funct
i
onalel
ement
sl
ack・
des
cr
i
pt
i
vecont
ent
・
.Thei
rs
emant
i
ccont
r
i
but
i
oni
ss
econdpr
et
at
i
onoft
hei
rcompl
ement
.Theymar
k
or
der
,r
egul
at
i
ngorcont
r
i
but
i
ngt
ot
hei
nt
er
gr
ammat
i
calorr
el
at
i
onalf
eat
ur
es
,r
at
hert
hanpi
cki
ngoutacl
as
sofobj
ect
s
.
Thati
s
,
t
hef
unct
i
onofDPi
sgr
ammat
i
calr
at
hert
hans
emant
i
c,
andJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
sofEngl
i
s
h
r
ect
l
y.Aswehaveobs
er
ved
ar
er
equi
r
edt
ounder
s
t
andt
hi
si
nor
dert
ous
eEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
escor
i
nt
hepr
evi
ouss
e
ct
i
ons
,
t
hePr
es
ent
dayEngl
i
s
hDPi
sas
ynt
act
i
cneces
s
i
t
yandappear
edass
uch
i
s
hper
i
od.I
ti
sver
ydi
f
f
i
cul
tf
orJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
st
ounde
r
s
t
andt
hi
ss
ys
t
em
i
nt
heMi
ddl
eEngl
hes
t
r
uct
ur
esoft
hel
anguage
f
ul
l
y.Is
uppos
et
hatJ
apanes
el
ear
ner
sus
emeani
ngt
odi
s
covert
t
hatt
heyar
el
ear
ni
ng
（s
ees
emant
i
cboot
s
t
r
appi
ngpr
opos
edbyPi
nker1984）,
aschi
l
dr
enwhoar
e
r
i
ngEngl
i
s
hast
hei
rL1dos
o.Theknowl
edgeofs
emant
i
cshel
psi
nacqui
r
i
ngs
ynt
ax.I
ti
s
acqui
i
s
h）af
unct
i
onalDi
sal
s
os
uppos
edt
oeme
r
ge
s
ugges
t
i
vet
hati
nf
i
r
s
tl
anguageacqui
s
i
t
i
on
（Engl
l
at
er
（Br
own1973）.Thi
ss
ugges
t
st
hatt
hef
unct
i
onalD i
snoteas
yf
orEngl
i
s
hchi
l
dr
ent
oace,ei
t
her
.I
nt
er
es
t
i
ngl
y,t
hechi
l
d・
se
ar
l
ygr
ammat
i
caldevel
opmentcanbedes
cr
i
bedast
he
qui
r
d1990）.Asi
swe
l
lknown,t
hechi
l
d・
sf
i
r
s
tl
anac
qui
s
i
t
i
onofgr
ammat
i
calc
at
egor
i
es
（Radf
or
guagedevel
opmenti
sdi
vi
dedi
nt
ot
hef
ourmai
ns
t
ages
:
（41）（ⅰ） pr
el
i
ngui
s
t
i
cs
t
age
0～12mont
hs
wor
ds
t
age
（ⅱ） one-
12～18mont
hs
（ⅲ） ear
l
ymul
t
i
wor
ds
t
age
18～24mont
hs
（ⅳ） l
at
ermul
t
i
wor
ds
t
age
24～30mont
hs
oci
at
epar
t
i
cul
ars
oundss
equenceswi
t
hpar
t
i
cul
ar
Att
heonewor
ds
t
agechi
l
dr
enbegi
nt
oas
s
e
concept
s
.Theypr
oducef
i
r
s
twor
ds
.However
,att
hi
ss
t
aget
hewor
dspr
oducedbychi
l
dr
enar
acat
egor
i
al
,t
hati
s
,t
heyhavenogr
ammat
i
calpr
oper
t
i
es
.Chi
l
dr
enpr
oceedt
ot
het
wowor
d
egor
i
esonl
y.Thes
t
agei
nvol
vi
ngf
unc（ear
l
ymul
t
i
wor
d）s
t
agewhi
chcons
i
s
t
sofl
exi
calcat
l
y
t
i
onalcat
egor
i
esi
naddi
t
i
ont
ol
exi
calcat
egor
i
e
scomesaf
t
ert
hi
ss
t
age.Thes
t
r
uct
ur
esofear
chi
l
dgr
ammar
sar
oundt
heageof24mont
hs
（＋/－ 20％）l
ackaf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
yD,andi
t
s
t
spr
oj
ect
i
onNP,butnoDP.Ther
er
el
at
eds
ynt
act
i
cphenomena.Thati
s
,t
her
ei
sonl
yN,andi
f
or
e,t
heabs
enceofDPsandt
heabs
enceofr
e
l
at
edphenomenaar
eexpect
edi
nt
heacqui
s
i
t
i
on
tt
hi
spr
edi
ct
i
on
（Radf
or
d1990:8384）:
dat
a.Theexampl
ess
uppor
（42） a.Wher
ehel
i
copt
er
?
/He
r
ehel
i
copt
er
.
/Wher
ebee?
（St
ef
an17mont
hs
）
.
/Wantc
ar
b.Opendoor
./Wantbal
l
（St
ef
an19）
c.Opencan.
/Openbox.
/Eatcooki
e
（Al
l
i
s
on22）
i
s
h.
NounsorNPscanoccuri
npl
aceswher
eDPsar
eexpect
edi
nt
hecor
r
es
pondi
ngadul
tEngl
Theabs
enceofdet
er
mi
ner
si
nt
heaboveexampl
esl
eadst
oungr
ammat
i
cal
i
t
yi
nt
headul
tgr
amt
i
esr
el
at
edt
ot
hel
exi
calcat
egor
yN,
whi
l
et
hei
r
mar
s
.Li
ket
hi
s
,
chi
l
dr
enacqui
r
es
emant
i
cpr
oper
gr
ammar
sl
ackphenomenai
nvol
vi
ngDP.Al
t
houghi
tneedsmor
eel
abor
at
edi
s
cus
s
i
onbef
or
e
l
udi
ngt
hatchi
l
dr
en・
sear
l
ys
peechi
sor
gani
z
edpur
el
ys
emant
i
cal
l
y,i
ti
ss
af
el
ys
ai
dt
hat
conc
sal
s
or
el
yons
emant
i
cbas
edgr
ammarwhen
chi
l
dr
enr
el
yons
emant
i
ccues
.J
apanes
el
ear
ner
t
heyar
el
ear
ni
ngEngl
i
s
h.
lent
i
t
i
esar
edi
f
f
i
cul
tt
o
Fur
t
her
mor
e,al
t
houghar
guabl
y,Is
ugges
tt
hatt
hephonol
ogi
calnul
128
文学部紀要
第 72号
acqui
r
e,t
houghi
ti
spos
s
i
bl
e
（cf
.Machi
da1999
）.I
ti
spoi
nt
edoutt
hatf
unct
i
onalel
ement
sar
e
cal
l
ydependent
.Theyar
es
t
r
es
s
l
es
s
,of
t
encl
i
t
i
csor
gener
al
l
yphonol
ogi
cal
l
yandmor
phol
ogi
es
ent
day
af
f
i
xes
,
ands
omet
i
mesevenphonol
ogi
cal
l
ynul
l
.Aswehaveobs
er
vedi
nc
hapt
er2aPr
Engl
i
s
hD headcanbeanul
ldet
er
mi
ner
.Thephonol
ogi
calnul
lel
ement
si
ns
econdl
anguage
tne
edsmuchcl
os
erexami
nat
i
onofacqui
s
i
t
i
onf
act
s
.
l
ear
ni
ngar
enoteas
yt
oacqui
r
e,al
t
houghi
4.Japanes
e
I
nc
hapt
er1,wehaveobs
er
vedt
heef
f
ectofL1i
nt
er
f
er
encei
nt
hear
t
i
cl
eus
ageer
r
or
smade
hi
sL1i
nt
er
f
er
encei
sr
el
at
edt
ot
henat
ur
eof
byJ
apanes
es
t
udent
s
.I
nt
hi
schapt
er
,Icl
ai
mt
hatt
（1995）
t
heJ
apanes
el
anguage.Thati
s
,t
heJ
apanes
el
anguagel
acksf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
es
.Fukui
ar
guest
hatJ
apanes
el
ackst
hef
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esCandD,al
t
houghi
tmayhaveadef
ect
i
veI
,
eat
ur
e.I
ti
sawel
l
es
t
abl
i
s
hedf
actt
hatJ
apanes
edoesnot
whi
chcont
ai
nsnor
el
evantagr
eementf
escanoccurf
r
eel
y
havet
hee
qui
val
ent
sofEngl
i
s
har
t
i
cl
ess
uchasaort
he
.Thus
,nounphr
as
wi
t
houtbei
ngacc
ompani
edbyanyt
hi
ng,i
r
r
e
s
pect
i
veofdi
f
f
er
encesi
nnounss
uchas・
count
ur
al
:
abl
e・
,or・
mas
s
・
,ands
i
ngul
arorpl
（43） a.J
ohnga
J
ohnnomi
nat
i
ve
hono
kat
t
a
bookaccus
at
i
ve
bought
ohn boughtt
he
Li
t
er
alt
r
ans
l
at
i
on ・
J
ohn boughtbook＝ J
ohn boughtabook/J
book.
・
cf
.*
J
ohnboughtbook
（Pr
es
ent
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Nom.
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kos
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om J
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ongl
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/Ti
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or
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i
cal
l
ypr
oj
ect
i
onsofV,r
at
hert
hant
hos
eofI
/T.
（cf
.Fukui
1995,10819）.
Bas
edont
heevi
dencedi
s
cus
s
e
dabove,wecanconcl
udet
hatt
heJ
apanes
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anguagel
acks
nceofDPf
ol
l
ows
.Thi
sabs
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i
ni
t
el
yaf
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ect
sJ
apaf
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esandt
hen,t
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e
nt
er
f
er
ence
nes
el
ear
ner
sofEngl
i
s
h.Thi
sl
ackoff
unct
i
onalcat
egor
i
esi
sanot
heras
pectofL1i
i
ns
econdl
anguageacqui
s
i
t
i
on.
5.Concl
us
i
on
I
nt
hi
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er
vedt
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unct
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onalDs
ys
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em eme
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gedl
at
eri
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s
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ynt
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sofmor
phol
ogi
calcas
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ynt
act
i
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sanew comert
ot
heEngl
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s
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anguage.The
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em i
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hen,
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s
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cc
ues
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f
f
i
acqui
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i
ncel
anguagel
ear
ner
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hi
l
dr
enar
emor
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emant
cul
t
yofaDs
ys
t
em i
si
nher
enti
ni
t
snat
ur
e.
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swor
ki
ss
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t
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ant
i
nAi
df
orSci
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i
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i
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