Senri Ethnological Reports 29
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
OF
CAMBODIA
SAM-ANG SAM
National Museum ofEthnology
Osaka 2002
PREFACE
()lill[]b/rgda,V'/lg,:rrl8.n./1!n,tjs:aSdim:i;,{;.:hc:/1'i.ge:mXMgie.!.t3,il,IEes,:,g,li//nrm,st,ii-.i/1.na,tyCa:rga.",Edsstililia¥:ne,dt'.
Cambodia. Second, they have been treated extensively elsewhere in works on European
musical instruments. Reflecting on this, this book should be more appropriately entitled
Traditional Musical Instruments of Cambodia. But, I choose to drop the word
"Traditional."
Up until the present, there are three manuscripts, which treat single musical
instruments ofCambodia at length. Yet, they have not been published nor have they
been seen or read by anyone but a few with whom the manuscripts are shared by the
authors. One manuscript on the khsae muay (musical bow or monochord) and another
on a complete spectrum of musical instruments in Cambodia entitled "Heritage of
Khmer Music" are authored by Narom Keo. There is another research project
conducted in the refugee camp (Site II), along the Khmer-Thai borders, in the early
1 990s under the guidance ofmy late brother Yang Sam, on the tror Khmer or tror khsae
bay (three-stringed spike fiddle) by Sambath Sok. In 1994,I was introduced to two
more works on musical instruments of Cambodia, one authored by Sarin Hun
(unpublished) and another entitled Traditional Musical Instruments of Cambodia
published by the UNESCO (1 994). Otherwise, musical instruments ofCambodia have
been treated as part of a body of works on other topics than musical instruments
specifica}ly (Mao ( 1 998), Mao (1 996), Yun (l 995), Sam and Campbell (1 991 ), Giuriati
(1988), Sam (1988), Traditional Music of Cambodia (1987), Cravath (1985), Pich
(1970), Musique Khmere (l969), and de Gironcourt (1942)).
This book attempts at providing a spectrum of musical instruments of
Cambodia, whether or not they belong to the Khmer or the various nationalities
(minority ethnic groups) in Cambodia. It also intends to put the instruments in question
in an organological perspective. The latter is indeed a preliminary and first time ever
attempt to undertake such a study on musical instruments ofCambodia. The study will
examine both the world view and practice oforganology versus the Khmer perspective
on organology as it has been practiced by Khmer musicians,
I include in this work sixty-five musical instruments and thirteen music
ensembles. They are the most prominent and used today. When talking about musical
instruments ofCambodia, I refer to those man-made objects consciously intended to be
musical instruments. Thus, "voice," for example, is not included here. They are to
make "music" and to be used in ensembles or as solo instruments. They are not made to
be children toys, and because they make sounds, one might consider them "musical
instruments." This is a debatable topic, which needs a special attention on its own.
iii
iV
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
Researchers, who have read literature on musical instruments of Cambodia,
should have noticed that there has not been a standard in terms of instrument sizes, as
instruments in Cambodia are hand-made and there has not been a standardized system as
to what size an instrument should be made. Measurements provided in this book are
actual and taken from instruments of my own collection, instruments belonging to
Khmer musicians in the United States, instruments at the Royal University ofFine Arts
in Phnom Penh, and instruments in the collection ofthe National Museum ofEthnology
in Osaka, Japan.
I use my own devised system ofRomanization ofKhmer vvords (in italics). All
fbreign words appear in italics throughout. Titles, proper names, and place names
appear with initial capital letters. These foreign words appear only in the singuiar form
in both the singular and plural contexts.
I prefer the word "Khmer" over "Cambodian." Ifthe latter appears in the text
of this book, it is a word used in the original quote or title of a work that I use as
reference.
The variegation ofspelling is not a typography, but because it is used that way
by different authors in their original works, i.e., grap (7lrrapLpV, ranat froneaij, khong
wong (korng vung), khim (khimnij, pinpeat CPinnpeaij, bassac (basaklt), Arab (Arabb),
Mon (Morn), phnom (phnomm), Angkor Wat (Angkor Vatt), and Ayutthaya (Ayuth aya).
All photographs in this book belong to the author, except when they are
indicated otherwise. I extend my appreciation to Sam Ath Nguon for providing me with
the photographs numbers 7, 24, 29, 52, and 55. Lastly,Iwould like to thank Sothira
Hav for her kindness and time reading my manuscripts.
January 16, 2002
Sam-Ang Sam
National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PREFACE ..........･･････････････-･･･'''''''''-'---'``'''`'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' iii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ................................. vii
ROMANIZATION OF KHMER WORDS: A TRANSCRJPTION SYSTEM ....... ix
CHAPTER 1: A BRIEF HISTORY OF CAMBODIA .................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: MUSIC OF CAMBODIA .................................................. 5
Tuning System-Scale-Mode-Metabole-Tempo and RhythmComposition-Score and Notation
CHAPTER 3: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF CAMBODIA ..,........,........... 17
Aerophones-Chordophones-ldiophones-Membranophones
CHAPTER 4: AEROPHONES ......,..................................................... 25
Circular Breathing
CHAPTER 5: CHORDOPHONES ..........................,,........................... 43
CHAPTER 6: IDIOPHONES .......................................,...................... 67
CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANOPHONES ................................................... 95
CHAPTER 8i ORGANOLOGY ,..,....................................................... 113
Beyond Hornbostel and Sachs
Greek-Chinese-Indonesian-African and Arabian-Indian-Khmer
CHAPTER 9: MUSIC ENSEMBLES OF CAMBODIA .............................. 143
Vung Phleng Arakk- Vung Phleng Kar- Vung Phleng Pinn Peat- Vung
Phleng Mbhori-Vung Phleng Korng Skor-Vlring Phleng Pey KeoVung Phleng Skor Chhneah- Vung Phleng Pradall- Vung Phleng Yike-
Vung Phleng Basakk-Vung Phleng Ayai-Vung Phleng Chrieng
Chape" Vung Phleng Ken
v
vi
Musical Instruments pfCambodia
CONCLUSION ..................
.-..""""..HH""....."H."153
REFERENCES CITED . . . . . . . . .
""""...-..."....."".."." 155
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
L
Saing.,.................................................................................26
2.
KhloyAek............................................................................28
3.
Snaeng................................................................................29
4.
PeyPork..............................................................................3O
5.
RIep....................................................................................31
6.
Play.,,................................................................................32
7.
Ken.........................................................,...............,,.........33
8.
PeyPrabauh........................................................................,.34
9.
SralaiCarving at Angkor Vatt ............................................,........ 36
1O.
Sralai 7"buch .......................................................................-･ 37
IL
Sralai 7HIPiomm ....................................................................... 37
12.
SralaiChvea.........................................................................38
13.
Angkuoch (Made ofBamboo) .........................,........................... 40
14.
Angkuoch (Made ofMetal) ,,,......,.....,...,..........,......,.................. 40
15.
Slekk...................................................................................41
16.
Pinn Carving at Bayon ..................................,,,,,......................... 44
17.
Memm Carving at Bayon ......................................................･--･･. 46
18.
Khsae Mitay Carving at Bayon .............................................,..... 48
19.
Khsae Mbeay ......................................................................... 49
20.
b'or Chhe ............................................................................ 51
21.
Tror So 7lauch ....................................................................... 52
22.
Tror So Thomm ..,...,,,....................................................,,...... 53
23.
Tror Ou ,..,,..,......................,................................................ 54
24.
7>"or Ou Chamhieng ................................................................ 55
25.
Tror Thomm ......................................................................... 56
26,
7>"or Khmer ...............................................................,.......... 58
27.
Chapelv Dang Veng ................................................................. 60
28.
Khimm Tlauch ........................................................................ 62
29.
Khimm 77iomm ...................................................................... 62
30.
Krapeu................................................................................63
31.
Anthuot...............................................................................64
32.
Korng Ring ........................................................................... 65
33,
RoneatAek...........................................................................70
34.
Roneat 71hung ..................................................................,..... 71
35.
RoneatDaek..........................................................................72
36.
Korng Carving at Angkor Vatt ....................................................... 74
vii
Viii
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
37.
Khmuoh...............,....................................................,.,.......75
38.
KorngChhmol.......................................................................76
39.
Korng Mong ........,................................................................. 77
40.
Korng?Vhi,....,......................................................................78
41.
PeatCarving at Angkor Vatt ......................................................... 79
42.
Korng Vbeng Tbuch ....................................,,･･･.･･･････--･-･････-･---･･･ 81
43.
Korng Vizng 71homm .......................,,,.......................................81
44.
Chhing Carving at Angkor Vatt ....,....,.,................................,.,,.... 83
45.
Chhing..................................................................,.,,..........83
46.
Chhap ...................................,,..................................,...,,,,,. 84
47.
Kandoeung......................,,........................................,,..........85
48.
K}'app Kou ....................................................,...................... 86
49.
K}"app Chroluonh .......,,...........................................,.,............. 87
50.
Klrapp Phlett ......,,.....................................,.,.......................... 88
51.
,Ifrapp Popeay Chapp ......................,........................................ 89
52.
Pann........................................,..........................................90
53.
54.
K}"apeah...............................................................................91
55.
Kanhchraim .,........................................................................ 93
56.
SkorArakk...,........................................................................96
Kbnhchhae............,..,...........................................................92
57.
Tliaun.................................................................................97
58.
Skor Chhalyaim ..................................................................... 98
59.
Rumanea..............................................................................99
60.
Skor Yike ............................................................................. 1OO
61.
Sampho Carving at AngkorVatt ................................................ 102
62.
Sampho ...................................................,........................... 103
63.
Skor77iommCarvingatAngkorVatt................,.,,.,,.,...................105
64.
S:kor 7-]homm ......................................................................... 106
65.
Skor Chey ..........................,,.,,............................................ 107
66.
Skor }'blCarving at Angkor Vatt ,............................................... 1O8
67.
SkorSZ2ingna........................,................................................109
68.
SkorKhaek...........................................................................11O
69.
SIkorPhluoh...................................................................,......111
ROMANIZATION OF KHMER WORDS:
A TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM
T:tgok&Bl/P,20,wCljn}gi:,t8,V,hCi.i"zxt.ht.egRsft･s//･&:p:oZ#･,!l':b,zOt:,,".ue.eM.t:.Z,t,,On/,d.,I/1/F8i:phCig:eil,}",h.V¥arcElli,
Khmer sounds, which are transcribed with thirty-three coRsonants, twenty-fbur vowels,
and fifteen special vowels. However, despite the complexity and variety ofphonemes
within the Khmer language, I have devised a system that is consistent throughout the
pages ofthis book.
KHMER SOUND
ENGLISH SOUND
TRANSCRIPTION
carp
(poem)
Single-Vowel Sounds:
app
app
cup
kap
dap
khapp
top
sapp
at
cart
kat
(corpse)
(ID card)
at
ought
that
(drawer)
att
cut
batt
(lose)
att
lot
chatt
(bitter)
ay
eh
tie
bay
(rice)
yes
she
(horse)
en
plain
ven
(turn)
ap
ap
job
men
Chenn
ey
(no sound close to Khmer)
ih
police
sray
nih
in
mpan
inn
wm
(no sound
enn
ok
okk
orng
(no
(no
(no
(no
(no
ut
put
om
omm
or
sound
sound
sound
sound
sound
close
close
close
close
close
close
to
to
to
to
to
to
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
(bottle)
(thick)
(Chinese)
(female)
(this)
masin
minn
(machine)
lok
tokk
(monk)
rom
(fur)
(not)
(tab)e)
kromm
(group)
tror
(fiddle)
korng
(gong)
chhut
(act)
ix
Musical Instruments ojACambodia
X
Double-Vowel Sounds:
(no sound close to Khmer)
naen
(tight)
al
fight
dai
(hand)
.
alm
some
praim
Baraing
hao
kraom
(five)
aen
.
amg
ao
(no sound c}ose to Khmer)
how
(French)
(call)
(under)
(cheap)
(change)
(duck)
aom
aok
(no sound close to Khmer)
(no sound close to Khmer)
au
low
ea
eah
ear
tea
(no sound close to Khmer)
(no sound close to Khmer)
(no sound close to Khmer)
milieu
Preah
yeak
(Buddha)
keo
chheu
(glass)
Ie
.
clear
tien
oam
warm
roam
moat
(candle)
(dance)
eak
eo
eu
oat
thaok
dau
what
you
your
(giant)
(wood)
(mouth)
keou
khuor
(teacher)
(no sound close to Khmer)
puoh
(snake)
(no
(no
(no
(no
peou
punloeu
noeung
(youngest)
roeurng
(story)
(no sound close to Khmer)
church
(no sound close to Khmer)
cake
(no sound close to Khmer)
chek
(banana)
chhoeu
chhngay
khaim
(sick)
khnhomm
(I)
singer
(ogre)
p
canyon
speak
nguoh
nhaim
Pl
(two)
ph
pen
phoum
(viilage)
ou
uo
uoh
(brain)
Triple-Vowel Sounds:
eou
oeu
oeung
oeurng
sound
sound
sound
sound
close
close
close
close
to
to
to
to
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
Khmer)
(light)
(and)
Consonant Sounds:
ch
chh
chhng
kh
khnh
ng
nh
(far)
(bite)
(eat)
CHAPTER 1
A BRIEF HISTORY
OF CAMBODIA
Af.RSsl.ie:S.g.di:,o,"eh2M,ze'B,:･:.'ht.&//･L:sY.･lh,teg:･2.gigf:o÷g.ieiglhf:,toC,:･l/ilgS,ele,･r:,8d."dieXf:a:,'?,ig,
first King ofFounan (Funan), Kaundinya had the title "King ofthe Mountain" (ibid.:53).
The Founan center was situated on the lower Mekong delta, but its territory coyered the
southern part ofVietnam, the middle Mekong, and a large part ofthe Menam valley and
the Malay peninsula. It is impossible to pinpoint exactly the capital of Vyadhapura,
which means "The Hunter's City."
Toward the middle ofthe sixth century A.D., Founan was in an acute decline.
Chenla, a state located primarily in the middle Mekong in the Bassac region (southern
part of present Laos), was under the domination of Champa at the end of the fifth
century A.D. According to T'ang history, around 706 the country was divided into two
states. The North, filled with mountains and valleys, and therefore known as Chenla
Kok (Land Chenla), occupied lower and middle Laos in the Bassac region. The South,
bordering the sea and covering the lakes, known as Chenla Toeuk (Water Chenla),
stretched along the Mekong basin, from the fa11s ofKhon to the sea.
Jayavamian II (802-850), a descendant of the eighth-century dynasties, was
belieyed to have taken refuge in Java at the confutation ofsuccession. Right at the
beginning ofthe ninth century, he returned, liberated, and unified Chenla. He is known
to be the founder of the Angkorean kingdom. The unjfication of the country began
around 800, with control eventually centering above the great lake Tonle Sap.
Cam bodia was assimi]ated by the Khmer near the end ofthe 800s, after which the Mon
territory along the shores ofthe Gulfof Siam was also brought under Khmer control.
The kingdom remained unified until the middle of the tenth century. The first
civilization ofChenla left numerous traces-temples, statues, and inscriptions-which
constituted what has been known to us as the "pre-Angkorean arts." King Jayavarman
II then founded his capital near Roluos in the province ofSiem Reap in the early ninth
century (Groslier 1962:9l, Coedes 1963:79, Stierlin l983:17-19).
From the religious point ofview, it has been said that all religions practiced in
Cambodia have come from India, first Brahmanism and then Buddhism. For a long
time, Shivaism had been a state religion, while Vishnuism was practiced only in the
court. However, Buddhism, which was introduced to Southeast Asia as fhr back as the
1
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
2
third century B.C., was widely accepted by the indigenous people, and coexisted with
other religions (Pang 1 98 1 :92, Sam 1 987:1 , Pak Nam 1 988:82). During the pre-Angkor
period, Hinduism did not really touch the masses; it was practiced only by the leading
classes. The masses practiced ancestral animism-the old Mon-Khmer cult. Khmer
civilization vvas essentially religious. Temples vvere symbols ofthe divine order. One
saw thereafter that the first gesture ofthe founder ofthe Khmer kingdom-Jayavarman
II-established his authority on a religious abode, instituting the Deva Raja cult or the
cult ofGod-King (the King who was identified as God).
Angkor vvas the most opulent and glorious era of Khmer history. The
culminating period (ninth-fifteenth centuries) was synonymous with the magnificent
temple ofAngkor Vatt, which was built by King Suryavarman II (1 1 1 3-- l 1 50), and the
Khmer classical arts-architecture, sculpture, literature, dance and music,
Jayavarman VII (1181-1218) was a Buddhist, very pious and fu11 of
compassion. It was during this time (early twelfth century) that Mahayana Buddhism
had strong royal support and consequently became the state religion for the first time.
Later ofi, by the beginning of the fburteenth century, the Khmer had converted to
Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism and have continued to practice it until the present
(Sam l987:1). It should be noted that during this time King Jayavarman VII was
regarded as Buddha Raja or "Buddha-King" (the King who was identified as Buddha),
replacing the old image of Deva Raja (Coedes 1 963 :98).
Jayavarman VII took povver in l 181 and established a new capital, Angkor
Thomm, where he built the great temple of four faces known as the Bayon. After his
death in 1218,i there was no more construction oftemples. The most glorious period
was then ended. Under his first successor, Khmer power declined. In 1352 the Siamese
successfu11y took Angkor and occupied it until 1357. In 1430 the Siamese launched
their second attack at Angkor, fbrcing the Khmer to abandon it in 1432 (Delvert
1983:34). The Lungvek-Oudong period (fifteenth-nineteenth centuries), which
fbllovved, was an obscure one. After the fall ofAngkor, the country became unable to
resist the steady Siamese invasions, which resulted in the absorption of province after
province of Khmer territory. The Khmer subsequent}y moved their capitals time and
time again. Finally, with the help ofthe Siamese in 1 842, Ang Duong retook Oudong.
A peace treaty was signed in 1846, and Ang Duong was crowned King by
representatives from Siam and Dai Viet (Vietnam). He reigned from 1847 to 1860,
vvhen he died (Leang 1965: l 3). The period ofdecline (fifteenth-nineteenth centuries),
after the glorious Angkor er4 provided us little account on Khmer arts. It was not until
King Ang Duong ascended the throne, that Khmer arts were revived and began to
flourish again. The nineteenth century marked a very important period and could be
called the "Period ofRenaissance," since the country for the first time, after the decline,
1
Giteau dated the death ofJayavarman VII in l219 (1965:288).
A BriefHisto,y ofCambodia
3
was ruled by an educated and matured King. King Ang Duong boosted education and
worked to reorganize the country's infrastructure (Leang 1965:72, Ly 1969:83).
Fo]lovving the Oudong period, the capital was moved to the present city seat.
The city of Phnom Penh was established on the fbur confluences ofthe Mekong river,
thus known as Chaktomouk, meaning "fbur faces," after which this period is named.
During the Chaktomouk period, from 1864-1953, Cambodia was under the French
protectorate. The Khmer Monarchy, under Prince Norodom Sihanouk reigned
Cambodia until March 1 8, l 970 when the Republic, led by Marshal Lon Nol overthrew
the Monarchy and controlled Cambodia until April 17, 1975 when it was taken by the
Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot until January 7, 1979. The Khmer Rouge was deposed by
the more socialist-communist People's Republic ofKampuchea under Heng Samrin.
On October 21, 1991 a peace accord was singed in Paris by all the waning factions,
which resulted in a national election in 1993 under the sanction ofthe United Nations
Transitional Authority in Cambodia(UNTAC). Fotlowingthe 1993 election, Cambodia
adopted a new constitution, which re-instituted the Monarchy with Norodom Sihanouk
being King ofCambodia.
Under the Khmer Rouge (l975-1979), Cambodia was plunged into a "Hell on
Earth." Almost two million Khmer were killed or died oftorture, starvation, and illness.
The Khmer Rouge radical regime deyastatingly destroyed the Khmer foundation oflife
and family. They created mass ignorance, mistrust, demoralization, and poverty.
After }979, Khmer culture has been revived and survived to the present day.
Artists came together, regrouped, and worked hard to reestablish their cultural
foundation. The cultural institutions are now reopened and the Khmer artistry is once
again taught and learned. There have been effbrts to revive, conserve, preserve, and
promote Khmer culture. Some ofthe dying traditions, namely, the sbaekpoar (colored
puppetry),2 lkhaon ape ((u)e theater), lkhaon pol sray (fema}e narrative theater), and
lkhaon ken (mouth organ theater) have been revived. There have also been effbrts to
establish programs to support cultural exhibits, festivals, publications, recordings,
touring, and cultural exchange.
2 The Khmer Culture Association, a non-profit Non-Governmenta] Organization (NGO), in
Cambodia received support from the Slawsons (USA) to produce a set of colored puppet panels. A
production entitled Churning of the Ocean of Milk NN'as mounted and had its premiere performance at
the Chaktomouk Theater in Phnom Penh on March 24, 2000.
CHAPTER 2
MUSIC OF CAMBODIA
KllMgei.ie,FS,uS,gi4ih:Sg･:,fiifo,igel,?h,igc:o,fiii,gge,e;ifo,5R,eg'g,"Pc¥'1'S',:.:,2it"7:'Y8ellCi,i,ighi'
can be seen in religion: Brahmanism, Hinduism, and Buddhism; in literature, the
Ramayana; and in music, the shawms and double-headed barrel drums. The Chinese
influence can be traced back to the two-stringed fiddles, hammered dulcimers, drums,
and cymbals, vvhereas the European phenomenon is attested by the musical notations
and instruments.
Musically speaking, Cambodia is very much homogeneous, differentiating only
between the Khmer proper or sometimes referred to as Khmer Kandal meaning `CMiddle
Khmer" and the nationalities or minority ethnic groups.
Khmer civilization reached its peak during the Angkor period, from the ninth to
fifteenth centuries. In its compound, scores ofgigantic masterpieces stand, symbolizing
the union ofcelestial and earthly beings. Carved on the walls ofthose great temples in
the Angkor vicinity, we see figures ofthe apsara (celestial nymphs or dancers), along
with various musical instruments, namely, the pinn (angular harp), memm (bowed
monochord), khsae mucty (musical bow or plucked monochord), sralai (quadruple-reed
shawm or oboe), korng (gong), chhing (small finger cymbals), sampho (small doubleheaded barrel drum), skoryoi (suspended barrel drum), and skor thomm (large doubleheaded barrel drums).
Instruments ofthe present day Khmer music and the make-up ofensembles are
similar to those we see presented on the bas-reliefs ofAngkor, Consequently, we have
every reason to believe that the present Khmer musical fbrrns are the living continuation
of the musical tradition of the ancient Khmer.
There are several types ofmusic ensembles in Cambodia, including the arakk
(worship ofthe spirit), kar (wedding), yike (fblk theater ofMuslim origin), and basakk
(theater ofChinese origin). It is seldom that these ensembles are perfbrmed merely fbr
listening to, rather, they are usually played in a context, be it vvorship ofthe spirit,
wedding, funeral, or dance and theater perfbrmances.
Musical instruments used in the above ensembles are numerous. They
encompass buffalo horns, pipes, fiutes, shawms, fiddles, dulcimers, zithers, lutes,
xylophones, gongs, cymbals, and drums. Khmer composers and their compositions are
not known. Traditional[y, pieces are not written down, but passed on orally from master
to pupil. Khmer music consists ofpolyphonic stratification and is based predominantly
on the pentatonic (five-tone) scale, but the heptatonic (seven･-tone) scale is also used. It
5
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
6
is built linearly devoid of harmony in the Western sense. Embellishment or
ornarnentation is an inherent characteristic in the rendition ofKhmer music. Musicians
in the ensemble have a collective melody in mind, but do not play it. Instead, they
embellish that melody.
Khmer music is an important aspect of Khmer life and culture. It epitomizes
the history ofCambodia, its society, people, art, customs, and beliefs. This importance
can be observed in the significance ofmusic to the performing arts as well as to the
traditional and religious ceremonies-weddings and worship of the spirits.
Khmer music has a dual function: ritualistic and entertaining. In the former, it
has the power to bring a medium into trance and to please the spirits. In the latter, it
enhances the atmosphere and enlivens the listener's mind. It is said that music
accompanies every Khmer as far back as his cradle. It reflects the soul and character of
the Khmer people.
Examining the present day music ensembles, instruments, and repertoires, it
indicates tangibly that both the secular and religious musics ofCambodia have grown
out of ritualistic contexts. It is definite that the Khmer entertainment music is a later
make up ofmusic and ensemble in Cambodia.
In Cambodia, the only institution that provides formal education in music is the
Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh. Primary and secondary schools do not
include such courses in music in their cunicula, like for instance in the United States.
Besides the University, music transmission is passed on orally from master to pupil in an
informal situation most often within a family ofmusicians. Virtually every village in
Cambodia possesses a music ensemble. Female musicians are not commonly found.
Female vocalists, however, are genera}ly the norm.
TUNING SYSTEM
Throughout this book, unless specified, the term "equidistance" refers only to
seven equal intervals to the octave. The word "key" refers to a given pitch-percussion
bar or gong, or an aerophone fingering, not necessarily "key" in the Western sense. For
instance, the references to C and G are the same as bar (roneat) or gong (korng) number
3 and 6 respective}y.3
The concept and claim of"equidistant interval" in Khmer or Southeast Asian
music are but a cliche (Duriyanga and Silapabanleng 1994:42, Frederick 1 981 :359, Tran
k9.8.tt'gRillrlg?rt7?!,liZ7,2･51.'.7'i,G,aJfi,,9Z,i,9,Z5.l`?6,D,VgLY,a:,g8,ifi,g3,:g,-2',ne,ge.f.i26,9fiAg'
3 Khmer musicians count their xylophone bars and gongs from top to bottom.
4 For Khmer tuning system, see also Sam-Ang Sam (1988, pp. 1OO-107).
Music ofCambodia
7
not been able to put this utopian theory into the practice of Khmer music.
Can a musician start apiece ofmusic on any key-the theoretical]y fundamental basis
ofequidistance, which would comfbrtably allow a musician to do so? On the complete contrary,
Khmer musicians in an ensemble must begin and end a piece on a certain predetermined pitch,
for starting and ending on another would produce not an equal transposition ofthe original pitch
level but indeed a different mode. In pairing p]aying a Khmer piece with speaking the Khmer
language, when playing a piece in an inappropriate key is like the Khmer language being spoken
by the Chinese or Vietnamese. It is understood but with a heavy accent.
The equidistance is one theory and system. In actual practice, each Khmer
musician has hisfher own tuning system when tuning an instrument Among Khmer
ensembles and instruments, there are no two xylophones, which sound alike.
When tuning a tror, a good player aims at the perfect fifth. Otherwise, it is out
.
oftune.5 Khmer musicians tune their instruments using the concept ofperfect
fourth, fifth, and octave. While, by and large, the 3-4 and 7-8 degrees are more
or }ess half steps.
Khmer vocalists do not sing equidistant intervals. As avocalist, I acquire and
.
sing hundreds ofKhmer songs, and I do not sing equidistant intervals. I cannot
sing them even ifI wanted to.
There is such a thing as "wrong key" in Khmer music, contradicting the
.
concept and theory of equidistance, in which eyery key is a right key, because
all the intervals are the same. Starting a piece on a wrong key will put the
sralai in an awkward situation.6
Interestingly enough, Khmer music can also be played on Western instruments
with a degree ofsatisfaction. There is a modern and popular music ensemble
known as mohori samai, using Western instruments, namely, flute, violin,
banjo-mandolin, guitar, and accordion to play the traditional Khmer music.
.
These instruments are not conventionally constructed to produce seven
equidistant intervals to the octave.
In short, when the vocalists do not sing equidistant intervals, the instrument,
such as sralai is not built to produce equidistant intervals, the fifth is perfect, Western
instruments used to play Khmer music are incapable of producing seven equidistant
intervals to the octave, and musicians cannot start a piece just on any key, the concept
and claim ofequidistance in Khmer music are but beyond doubt and the merit ofthe
concept and claim must be cal}ed into question.
5
6
Provided equidistant intervals are desired for the tuning, the fi fth would be diminished, notperfecL
Sraiai is mxi main specialized instrument.
i
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
8
SCALE
Khmer music is based principally on two main scales: the five-tone pentatonic
and seven-tone heptatonic. The former is the fbundation ofthepinnpeat and mohori
repertoires, whereas the latter is prominent in the arakk and kar. However, there haye
been just a handfu1 of studies and writings on Khmer scale (Giuriati (1988), Sam
(1988), Brunet (1974, 1969), Danielou (1957), Musique Khmere (1969), de
Gironcourt (l942)). There had not been a Khmer term for scale until recently,7 when
scholars and researchers began to be interested in it. One ofthe earliest writings on
Khmer scale vvas by de Gironcourt (1942:85) which was again shown in the book
Mllsique Khmere without reference or explanation (1969:13). The book Musique
Khmere also presented the pentatonic and heptatonic scales (without discussion)
(ibid.:40). On thejacket ofa sound recording A Musical Anthology ofthe Orient:
Cambodia (BM 30 L 2002), Danielou discusses Khmer scales without providing any
documentation to support his claims:
He believes that the Khmer have borrowed the gandhara-grama scale from the
.
Indians.8
He suggests that the Khmer have a halfltone scale without the fifth and
augmented fburth.
.
He thinks that the Khmer have borrowed the pentatonic scale from the Chinese.
.
The Khmer scale is tempered heptatonic [equidistance], because the Khmer
.
tuning is.
By this time, he sees that the Khmer have two scales: the pentatonic and
.
heptatonic. The former is Chinese and the latter could possibly (as he did not
say) be Khmer replacing the fbrmer.
He divides Khmer compositions into "ancient" and "traditional" (and although
he does not say, I assume he implies that there is another type ofcomposition
.
vvhich is "modern.") The so-called ancient pieces are based on an ancient scale,
which is replaced by the Chinese pentatonic scale. Therefbre, the Khmer have
three scales: the ancient (Khmer-ldest), the pentatonic (Chinese), and the
heptatonic (apparently Khmer).
7
The Khmer term fbr"scale" is kaim samieng.
8Viswanathan,
an Indian flute master and exponent ofCarnatic music, told me that even the Indians
do not have the gandhara-grama scale anymore today, and they have come to believe that the scale has
already gone to heaven (personal communication, l987).
Music ofCambodia
9
Turning to the materials at hand, there are two scales: the pentatonic, or more
precisely, anhemitonic pentatonic scale consisting of five pitches devoid ofhalfsteps,9
and the heptatonic scale having seven pitches of more or less half and whole-step
intervals.
The Khmer use two scale types, vvhich are based on instrument tunings and on
the pitches used in a given piece. In the pinnpeat context, the scale is based on G
(approximate Western key equivalent), regardless what pitch apiece ends on. This basis
ofscale compels Khmer musicians to play a piece only at the designated level. Thus,
the characteristics of Khmer scale can be summarized as fbllow:
The ayailability of all pitches (five in the pentatonic and seven in the
.
heptatonic), based on the tuning ofKhmer instruments, which can be used in a
piece.
The central pitch ofa scale is alvvays constant (referring to a set of intervailic
.
structure, not final; in the case ofpinnpeat, it is G (in the case ofmohori, it is
C).
The ditlbrence between the pentatonic and heptatonic is the different number of
important pitches used in a piece-five pitches in the former and seven in the
.
latter. The anhemitonic pentatonic scale has the structural pitches of 1 2 3 5 6 8
or G A B D E G or M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 with the fburth and seventh degrees as
passing tones, whereas the heptatonic scale has all the seven pitches equally
important. In other words, all the seven pitches available in the tuning system
are considered structurally significant.
Provided there are only two scale types, there are only two distinct intervallic
.
structures. One is 123568orGABDEGor M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 and
another is 1 234S678 or GABCDEFG or M2 M2 m2 M2 M2 M2 m2.
Since it is non-equidistance, the 1 2 3 5 6 8 pattern, fbr instance, can begin only
.
in a certain note or key, and not all the five or seven. More precisely, one can
only play a piece in G, Changing the central pitch, the scale is changed. For
example, the G scale 1 2 3 5 6 8 or G A B D E G or M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 cannot
be changed to l 2 3 5 6 8 or A B C E F A, because its intervallic structure
would be changed from M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 to M2 m2 M3 M2 m3. This is
9
Hood calls it -gapped scale" (1971 :325), a term which is opposed by Scholes who has stated:
"Scales consist of five notes within the octave and exist in several forms, are
sometimes misleadingly terrned C gapped' scales, by comparison with seven-note
diatonic scales (which hosN'ever are themselves 'gapped' in terms ofmicrotonal
scales); but the pentatonic scale is no less complete than any other scale, and
the tcrm Cgapped' is bcst ayoided." (l983:1622)
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
10
incorrect. Clearly, when the central pitch G ofthe G scale ofthepinnpeat is
changed to C with the same intervallic structure, it becomes a C scale and thus
a mohori scale.
MODE
Like scale, there is no Khmer term for mode, and Khmer musicians do not
verbalize about it. It is even difificult to ask a Khmer musician what a mode is.
Nonetheless, the notion and concept exist and knowledge is acquired implicitly.
In the study ofKhmer mode, I suggest that the basis for Khmer mode lies in a
set of five, six, and seven pitches or tones, and a hierarchical system of pitch
relationship. It neither has names nor conveys feelings like the modes ofother nations in
Asia: Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Korean, and Chinese (Garfias 1 975:44,
Morton 1976:1 15-1 79, Lee 1978:42-43, Ho 1983:l33-l34). Khmer modes are based on
the same scale with different finals, as required by a given piece, unlike Indian music, in
which the tonic is part of the echelle generale (Powers 1980:430). Powers said:
does not mean Cfinal' nor `predominant' nor any other tonal function. The
tonic in Indian music belongs to the system as a whole, not to individual modal
"' Tonic'
complexes" (ibid.). This modal practice is striking}y different from the one which is
practiced by other cultures in Asia, such as Khmer (ibid.:436). The hierarchyin Khmer
mode correlates with point of rest, piece ending, cycle ending, phrase ending, and
cadential resolution, all essential to the identification ofmode because they govern the
basic structure ofa piece.iO
An overview ofKhmer mode can be made, including the fbllovving parameters:
Mode cannot be separated from scale whose central pitch is, for example, the
.
constant G (in a6 scale), to which all finals (including G itselD relate.
Mode, therefore, is recognizable according to its final in relationship with the
.
principal pitch ofthe scale.
In this realm, scale is the echelle generaie, whereas mode is the gamme
.
particuliere.
Because mode is based on different finals, it manifests different intervallic
.
structures; each is distinctive to each mode. Thus, it is theoretically possible to
have twelve modes altogether, but practically less.]i Five modes are generated
from the five-tone scale (G A B D E) and seven from the seven-tone scale (G A
10
11
For detailed study of Khmer mode, see Sam-Ang Sam (1988, pp. 1 14-141 ).
This is because Khmerpinn peat pieces are not likely to end on F.
Music pfCambodia
11
B C D E F), each vvith a different final. However, under a given circumstance,
only six tones selected from the heptatonic scale may be used.
.
.
Khmer modes are identified by their final pitch rather than being generated
from the same tonic as in classical Indian music.
It is a practice in Khmer music to create a new modal stmcture by shifting the
tonal emphasis from one pitch to another within the same tuning or scale.
Consequently, Khmer musicians are carefu1 when staning and ending a piece.
With a wrong start in an inappropriate key or pitch, the piece will end in a
wrong final and will put it in a wrong mode, because it affects the intervallic
structure.
.
Thus, the five- and seven-tone scales, when starting and ending in diffk)rent
tones and appearing in different orders are capable ofproducing various modes.
METABOLE
Listeners who do not know Khmer music might have the impression that Khmer
pieces all sound the same. This, to some extent, is true. The majority ofKhmerpinn
peat pieces are rendered in relation to the G scale. However, some pieces, like Lo and
Rev, use a metabole switching to a different tonal level. Metabole functions in a manner
similar to transposition. It is a term developed and presented by Brailoiu (l955), Tran
(1962), and Morton (1976), who all agree that since "modulation" is a Western terrn
denoting a change or switch of key or tonality within a harmonic system, it is
inappropriate fbr describing a change or switch ofa basic pitch-leve[ ofan Asian nonharmonic and linear system ofmusic. The metabolic process ofKhmer music is simple.
First, it does not feature the harmonic preparation and resolution to the home key or
tonality that marks Western modulation. Second, it does not shift key or tonality, but
simply switches to a new tonal level (usually at a fburth or fifth above or below the
original leyel). Third, the new level is exactly the same as the previous section in terms
oflength ofthe piece, tone progression, and structure, except that it might be expressed
through a dififerent melodic motion. This is due to the range limitation of the
instruments, which requires octave displacement, as shown in the example below,
Fourth, the metabole in Khmer music occurs only after the piece has completed its full
cycle.
The below example illustrates that the metabole of Lo takes place at a fburth
above or fifth below the original key with the exact same pitch progression.
G(32 measures) C(32 measures)
I---------------------------------IV
I
F
IV
?Lftisical lnstruments ofCambodia
12
AAEA
EEAA
AGDD
EAGG
AAEA
EEAA
AGDD
EAGG
DDAD
AADD
DCGG
ADCC
DDAD
AADD
DCGG
ADCC
TEMPO AND RHYTHM
There are no tempo markings in Khmer music. In a performance, the rhythmmarking instrument-the drum-sets the tempo for the ensemble. In terms ofrhythmic
organization, one should not get confused vvith "strong beat" and "stressed stroke." The
strong beats mark phrase sections and rhythmic cycles. The very last strong beat ofa
rhythmic cycle gives musicians a feeling of final resolution, which might not necessarily
fa11 on a stressed stroke. In other words, the final beat (strong) ofa cycle could occur on
a stressed or unstressed stroke ofthe drum.
The shortest Khmer rhythmic cycle has at least eight beats (two measures if
transcribed in 4/4). Only the last stressed stroke ofthe cycle marks its end. A rhythmic
cycle starts on a weak beat and thus ends on a strong beat.
Pieces are grouped according to their rhythmic patterns, i.e., muoy choan, pi
ehoan, and bay choan. Thus, pieces are known as Toch Yomm Muoy Choan, Khyall
Bakk Cheung Phnomm Pi Choan, Chvea Srokk Morn Bey Choan, and so on.
The three rhythmic patterns are differentiated by the length ofcycle, i.e., muay
choan has eight beats,pi ehoan has sixteen beats, and bay choan thirty-two beats. Each
rhythmic cycle has a rhythmic phrase and nuance, which match the melodic phrase of
the same length. Therefbre, it is only appropriate to use the one-level rhythmic pattern
in the one-level piece.
COMPOSITION
There are over one thousand traditional Khmer compositions in the current
practice ofKhmer music. These compositions bear no names oftheir composers. Mr.
Phon Chheng, fbrrner Minister ofCulture, once claimed: C`There are 1,080 pieces of
Khmer music" (personal communication, 1985). Today, several hundreds ofthose are
gone with the memories of the music masters who passed away and took them along
with them. As the Khmer continue to wage wars, which destroy lives and create
hardship and poverty, more pieces will continue to be lost as old masters will pass away
and young musicians do not possess large repertoires. Many ofthe pieces are known
only by their names and titles; the music is gone. Through several programs now in
place, there have been efforts to notate and audio record the remaining pieces.
Music ofCambodia 13
Khmer compositions are grouped into the fo11owing categories:
Descriptive:
e OmmTouk (RowaBoat)
e Khyall Bakk Cheung Phnomm (The Wind Blows at the Foot ofthe Mountain)
Sentimental:
e SdechSaok (A KingWeeps)
Another group ofcomposition bears generic names or national accents: Khmer,
Morn, Phoumea, Chvea, Chenn, Baraing, and Arabb. Because their names relate to
specific groups, their compositions have a certain character, style, and general manner
proper to each.
Khmer:
e KhmerKrangPhka (KhmerStringFlowers)
Mom:
. Morn Chauh Touk (Morn Get On a Boat)
Phoumea:
e PhoumeaHo (BurmeseWhoop)
Chvea:
. Chvea Srokk Morn (Javanese from the Morn Country)
Chenn:
e Chenn Sae (Chinese Medical Doctor)
Baraing:
e Baraing Srav Puor (French Pull the Rope)
Arabb:
e ArabbThvayPor (ArabWish)
Khmer compositions are principally categorized into two major groups:phleng
chrieng (singing music or music with song) and phleng skor (drum music or music set
to specific drum pattern, also knovvn as action tune) orphleng laim (dance music or
Mitsical Instruments ofCambodia
14
music for dance). The former is set to the drum patterns ofmuoy choan, pi ehoan, and
bqy chean, whereas the latter is set individually to specific patterns appropriate fbr the
piece, for example, Sathukar music is set to Sathukar drum pattern, Krao Nai music is
set to Krao Nai drum pattern, and Punhea Doeur music is set to Punhea Doeur drum
pattern. The former, with songs, is generally used more freely forvarious situations; the
latter, without songs, is called for specific actions, i.e., Sathukar fbr invocation ofthe
spirit, Krao Nai for battle of monkeys, and Punhea Doeur fbr marching of human
characters in the Khmer court dance and dance drama, masked play, and shadow play.
Khmer music is linear in character devoid ofharmony. The musical system is
essentially modal and melodic with a successive tonal progression. The composition is
based primarily on important structural points, which determine and dififerentiate one
song from another. Each line contributes to the integral part ofthe intricate whole ofa
composition, each with its delicate balanceea process known as polyphony or
polyphonic stratification,
Musicians in a Khmer ensemble have a collective melody in mind that no one
person really plays.i2 The collective melody serves as the guideline for all the musicians
to fbllow from beginning to end, and also as a dynamic to hold them together as an
ensemble.
SCORE AND NOTATION
Musical scores and notations are recent phenomena in Cambodia. They have
been introdueed to Khmer musicians by the Europeans. The most common musicians
who utilize the musical scores and notations are those ofthe Royal University ofFine
Arts, particularly at the Faculty of Music, and the popular musicians. Traditional
musicians ofany sort do not have knowledge ofscores and notations and consequently
do not utilize them. They teach, learn, and perform pieces from memories. This
situation, in fact, is characteristic of Khmer music, in that it gives Khmer musicians
great fiexibility and freedom in the rendition ofthe pieces. There are no two renditions
alike.
In Khmer music, one can merely talk on the basis of "constant key" or
"conceptual key," and not actual pitch (measured in cents), The actual pitch varies
depending upon the tuning of instruments, Whatever the tuning might be, Khmer
musicians always play a piece in the designated key and fingering. IL for instance, a
piece is played by two ensembles, the result ofwhich is that one sounds one tone lower
l2 For further study on "collective melody," see Sam-Ang Sam (1988), and for analogous
concept in another Southeast Asian music, see "Inner Melody in Javanese Gamelan" (1976) by
Sumarsam.
Music pfCambodia
15
than another, it does not mean that musicians change their key (xylophone key or bar)
from number 6 to 7 or G to F, but because the tuning ofone ensemble is one tone lower
than another. Consequently, it is only reasonable to transcribe a piece using a constant
G as the basis. This transcription should be a generic one. Transcribing a piece, fbr
instance, in A will tell Khmer musicians to play on a different level than G (svvitching
from the xylophone bar number 6 to 5) and thus put the sralai in an awkward position to
play the piece. This is simply because Khmer musicians set their mind to attach pitches
to instrument keys and fingerings. The difference between G and A is not only the
difference in pitches, but atso keys and fingerings. In some situations, G can be even
higher than A, provided the tuning ofthe ensemble vvhich plays the piece in G is tuned
higher than that vvhich renders the piece in A. Two versions of the Apsara Dance
performed by the court ensembles result one in the approximate C and another in the
approximate Bb (personal collection ofsound recordings).i3 Are they played in different
keys? No, they both center on C or roneat bar number 3. It is the tuning which is
approximately one tone different. The point is that a transcription ofa Khmer piece in
G can be played on any ensemble ofwhatever tuning. On the contrary, a transcription
other than G cannot be translated back to the "right" key and fingering of Khmer
instruments. It isjust like original term being better than a translated one, because a
translated term can be incorrect when translated back to the original term.
13
These are mohori ensembles w'hose key is C.
CHAPTER3
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
OF CAMBODIA
ince the olden times, Khmer music has been associated with and inspired by the
village }ife and its natural environment. Music events are centered around rimals
and ceremonies which are called for, be it birth, ordination, maniage, funeral,
installation ofa village chieC or the crowning ofa king or queen.
Cambodia is home to over sixty musical instruments and over a dozen music
ensembles. The richness ofthis musical tradition ovves itselfto the heavenly blessed
natural resources from which musical instruments are made, i.e., clay, bamboo, wood,
plant, iron, copper, brass, bronze, nylon, and animal parts (gut, skin, hair, bone, ivory,
and shell). One can often hear the sound of a bamboo flute played by a young boy
riding on the back of water buffalo in the middle ofa pond, or under a straw hut while
watching his rice fields keeping them away from birds.
Included here are instruments fbund in Cambodia belonging to the Khmer and
different nationalities.
1
AEROPHONES
11
Conchshell
111
12
Saing
Flute (Klhlay)
121
High-pitched duct or fipple flute
Khlay aek
122
Low--pitched duct or fipple flute
KhlQy thomm
13
Free-read pipelorgan
131
Sjng]e free-reed hornlpipe
1311 Bamboofree-reedbuffalohorn
Snaeng
17
Musicai Instruments ofCambodia
18
1312 Brassfree-reedpipe(sideblown)
Paypork
132 Free-reed mouth organ
1321 Single free-reed
13211 Rlep
1322 Multiplefree-reed
13221 Gourd resonator
Play
13222 Woodenresonator
Ken
14
Double-reed pipe
141 Pey prabauh
15
Quadruple-reed shawm
Sralai
151 High-pitched quadruple-reed shawm)
Sralai taueh
1 52 Low-pitched quadruple-reed shawm
Sralai thomm
153 Quadruple-reed bell-like shawm ofJavanese origin
Sralai Chvea
16
Jew's harp
161 Angkuoch
l7
Leaf
171 Slekk
2
CHORDOPHONES
21 Harp
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
211
22
19
Angular harp
Pinn
Monochord
221 Bowed monochord
Mbmm
222 Musical bow or plucked monochord
Khsae muoy
23
Fidd1e (7">'oi;J
231
Two-stringed fiddle
2311 High-pitchedtwo-stringedfiddte
7>or chhe
2312 Mediumhigh-pitchedtwo-stringedfiddle
7->"or so tauch
2313 Medium low-pitched two-stringed fiddle
7}or so thomm
2314 Low-pitchedtwo-stringedfiddle
7)"or ou
2315 Medium-sizedtwo-stringedfiddle
7)or kandal
2316 Large-sizedtwo-stringedfiddle
7'beor thomm
232
Three-stringed fiddle
2321 Three-stringedspikefiddle
7izor Khmer aror khsae bop
24
Lute
241 Long-necked lute
Chopey dang veng
25
Dulcimer (Khimm)
25 1 High-pitched hammered dulcimer
Khimm taueh
A`htsical Iizstruments ofCambodia
20
252 Low-pitched hammered dulcimer
Khimm thomm
26 Zither
261 Three-stringed floor zither
toapeu
262 Four-stringed zither
Anthuot
263 Tube zither
Korng ring
3
IDIOPHONES
31 Xylophone (Roneat)
311 Bamboo!wooden xylophone
3111 High-pitchedxylophone
Roneat aek
3112 Lovv-pitchedxylophone
Roneat thung
312 Metallophone
3121 High-pitchedmetallophone
Roneat daek
3122 Low-pitchedmetallophone
Roneat thaong
32 Gong (Korng)
321 Flat gong
3211 Smallgong
Khmuoh!Zo
3212 Largegong
Korng chhmol
322 Bossed gong
3221 Smallgong
Korng mong
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
21
3222 Largegong
Korng nhi
323
Halfmoon gong
3231 Peat
324
Circular frame gong
3241 High-pitchedcircularframegong
Kbrng vung tauch
3242 Low-pitchedcircularframegong
Korng vung thomm
33
Cymbal
33l
332
Thick-rimmed
Chhing
Thin-rimmed
Chhap
34
Bell
34I Kandoeung
35
Clapper (Kkapp)
35l
Paired clapper
Krapp kou
352
Stick clapper
K7app chroluonh
353
Fan clapper
K}'crpp phlett
354
36
Grippingpopeay clapper
keapp popeay ehcrpp
Woodblock
361
Pann
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
22
37 Slit bamboo
371 Krqpeah
38 Rattle stick
381 KanhchhaeKanhchraimi4
MEMBRANOPHONES
4
41 Gob}et drum
41 1 Fat-bodied drum
Skor arakk
412 Slim-bodied drum
77iaun
42 Long drum
421 Skor chha tya im
43 Framed drum
431 Small framed drum
Rumanea
432 Large framed drum
Skoryike
44 Barre] drum
441 Small double-headed barrel drum
Sampho
442 Large double-headed barrel drum
Skor thomm (Large drum)
14
Also known as konhchrorm,
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
Skor toap (Military drum)
Skor chey (Victory drum)
Skoryeam (Watched drum)
45
Cylindrical drum
451 Single drum
4511 Skorsaingna
4512 SkorKhaek
452 Twin drum
4S21 Skorphiuoh
23
CHAPTER 4
AEROPHONES
I:o,Cgk,ls:b:.:･g'lg//･xa:ei:ene,:･tine,gsll,:g'S,:,afipsClihlel"g,Mm,la2kle:,Raeg,tt,u[sll/S.tj,g,hgrbiy:,lrh:e;':istl,i"/",:,afi
This is true that a circular breathing technique must be acquired by Khmer wind players,
CIRCULAR BREATHING
Most commonly, Khmer wind players are the masters ofthe technique known as
"circular breathing" which enables them to produce notes and sounds without a break in
the music, thus making the music flow better. Students learn this technique early in
their study, at the same time as they learn to acquire the instruments.
First, player inhales. Second, seconds before he runs out ofbreath, he expands
his cheeks with the remaining breath, then, he takes a new breath quickly through the
nostriIs while pushing out the air through the mouth and instrument It is very important
to note that this `Cinhaling" and "pushing out" (or exhaling) the air must be done at the
exact same time and in a quickest manner possible in order to circulate the air
continuously.
Perhaps, it is easier to understand thjs technique and process by observing how
the bagpipe works. The piper blows into the bag to fill it vvith air. For the air to flow
continuously to the pipe, the piper presses the bag under his armpit. As the air goes out
through the pipe, he keeps blowing into the bag to re-supply it, Khmer wind players do
not use the bag. Thus, they use their cheeks to serve as the bag, indeed, a much smaller
bag or air chamber.
ll
Conchshell
111 The saing (conchshell) is perhaps the oldest wind instrument fbund in
Cambodia today. The book Musique Khmere traces the root ofthis instrument to the
musical culture ofthe local Mon-Khmer origin (1 969:5). Similar instruments are fbund
elsewhere in other parts ofthe world. In India, for instance, the conchshell is called
sankhu. It is used only in the religjous context and thus found in every temp]e and is
sounded during ceremonies, in processions, and before the shrines of Hindu deities
(Vaidyanathan 1994:167, 172). Used outside of the secular context, it is sounded
during religious ceremonies-in processions and before the shrines ofBuddhist deities.
25
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
26
In Cambodia, the saing is most commonly used only by the Brahmin priests in
royal ceremonies. It serves at certain court devotional functions during the propitiatory
ceremonies or to signal the arriyal of the sovereign.iS Each of these instruments
produces only a single pitch. Although it is not capable to play a multiple-pitched
melody, it provides a deep and mellow drone and modulation by the manipulation ofthe
player's lips and breath.
Saing, a white seashell, is also used by the Brahmin priests to scoop holy water
during a royal ceremony in the court.
1. Saing
15
Smithies wrote:
"Brahmin priests still serve, as has been seen, at certain court functions and are
a curious survival in a Buddhist court. They originally came to Ayutthaya from
Angkor afier the Thai conquest ofthe Khmer capital, and the Ayutthayan kings,
seeking to take over the mantle ofthe Khmer empire and legitimize their claims
to power, took over the rites as wetl." (1986:72)
Aerophones
27
12 Flute (Khlay)
Bamboo flutes are commonly fbund throughout the world, where bamboo is
accessible to make the instruments. They are ones ofthe oldest musical instruments,
perhaps as old as the human race itselfi The Chinese, fbr instance, date their bamboo
flute caljed dizi back to more than 7,OOO years ago (Yew 1994:91). In Cambodia, the
khlay is an end-blown vertical flute, made ofseyeral kinds ofbamboo (dak mai,ping
pung, or pork), wood, plastic, or metal with a length of 1 5 inches and a diameter of
approximateiy 1 in￠h. It is commonly known as a duct or fipple flute. It is used in the
mohori and kar ensembles, or as a solo instrument. In Cambodia's countryside, it is
often found a boy or a man under a straw hut or on the back ofhis water buffalo playing
a bamboo flute while watching his cattle keeping them from eating the rice paddies.
The tone of the khlay is produced by blowing into the duct at the tip of the
instrument, It has a range ofapproximately two octaves from D to C.i6 There are two
sizes of khlovethe sma}1 called khlay aek (1 2 1 ) and the large called khlay thomm (1 22).
Khlay thomm, meaning "large-sized flute," is actually larger in size than the khlay aek.
The khlay thomm is not commonly found in the current practice.
The khlo.v does not have keys like the Western metal flute, but six (some have
seven) fingerholes and a thumbhole (some do not have this hole). Some musicians
prefer a membrane and therefore another hole toward the upper part ofthe instrument is
drilled. The membrane is made ofeither rice paper or bamboo skin, which provides a
bright and crisp sound.
16Some
khlo.v have another hole added to the lower part of the instrurnent. The closing of this
hole by the little finger on the lower hand produces the lower C, making it a full two-octave range.
Mbesical lhstruments ofCambocfia
28
i:J{k･il:;xi.;i::･l'l,l'.:]1]':1'I:llll･,}I'l t,.
],:.x,iE;';IS";:i:/'#,i'):#A'
,'
: ;/e'; :;i :)" :'"t;. ;i. 'l,'; / ' '.'t .', .
,= o: '',:,' ',]t'""t'': t:: ;.
tt'
u u,htt
'E'f t'
y -c' ,stlt
s:s,l tcv
Ifl'lilli;li';il'lilili'ii i･l :[ j.i[ 1 i ･ ･i :･ E･
:･ ' ･･:･: ･ IC/I/l I:M:: x i.::l
tt tt .t ... .t, t.. .t. .t
) :)tt t :; : : tt; t tt/t :.:t.t
3. .. .,, .. ..,, ... , .
:l) :ll':':/l 1 :.･ 'l ][･･]･l･l[:l'/l , ]l:l.1: :, ･ L
2. KhlovAek
13
Free-reed pipe!organ
l31
Single free-reed homlpipe
1 3 l 1 An aerophone made ofan animal hom (buffalo or ox) is called snaeng or khlqy
snaeng (Pich 1970:23). It comes in different sizes, but the most commonly found is
approximately 12 inches. The horn is cut at both ends, which serve as fingerholes. In
approximately the middle ofthe horn, a rectangular hole is made in "ihich a bamboo
reed is placed and sealed with bees･-wax. The player blows (inhaling and exhaling in the
manner similar to playing an harmonica) into this hole. The snaeng has a perfect fourth
(from lovvest to highest notes), the shortest range among all Khmer wind instruments.
The snaeng is used by cattle herders, firevvood and bee collectors, especially to signal
the time for meals or for returning to the village. However, it is most commonly known
for its use in elephant hunting expeditions.i7 It is also used in thepithi lieng arakk
17A hunter on the back ofhis tame elephant blows the snaeng. He enters the deep forest on his
elephant hunting expedition. According to traditional Khmer beliefl the hunter knows wei1 that ifhe
has a successfu1 and safe expedition, his wife at home must tru]y ]ove him and be faithfu1 to him while
he is on the trip. The wjfe at home should not open the cover ofthe rice cooker while the rice is being
cooked. Acting contrary to this, the husband wou]d not catch anlr wild elephant. She should not fbld
the blankets or bed sheets while the husband is away on hunting trips. This might cause the death of
her husband. Wearing coconut oi] on the hair or combing the hair is also prohibited. This would
make the ropes, which are used to tie the captured "'ild e]ephant slippery and cause the elephant to
furiously charge the hunten
29
Aerophones
(worship of the spirit ceremony) when playing the piece called Bangkauk Snaeng
inviting a spirit to come and preside over the ceremony. The deep sound ofthe snaeng
is nostalgic and can be heard from far away in the deep forest and to the bottom of
valleys. Upon hearing the sound ofthe snaeng, wild elephants approach the source of
the sound with tears in their eyes, and often look for their females in the familiar places
where they used to roam.
.ee
"][ll]"e.ft'e!.l{l.,.k
thk",nc"
at}E,
'g
'
･`; ･lt :･ ;e-kigvrv･
g･
tt:
t:' it･ l' v t: ･1
I
･l
ttt
' ･t'
l, i l; ;l I･ i} ;l il,, il
tt tt
:/t t :) tt)tt
, . { ･: s..: ;.. ,,: ',l l,':
"'' "'･ ' ' ."" k='.'
.･･ ･,･,,-･ # -.) ･
,.:.; t..r, ,'. :. r.:x:'..
tt tt tttt
;ti:･iSii;ii･ilill(lli"
t.t;tt t t ttt/tt ctt
t/"'''
' l'til
･.i
l
:'}i' ;''''; "C.'. ,i 'w ]t
i- I. EIII'ii.,.li,･lll ll
il[i･iyiliil,rl'l'
l,llllii'l[,)l･
' . ' ;u/ '" , ='= :t
''' '",･t.': :u, .; .,
.t
' c'i . ' .[ 's.l: :') J4., ./
,Ili
3. Snaeng
tt" tt't't:tX[tt'
t 't
. t.ttttttt)xtc
S
'
.'[..Z..,c t. ;,}-t.
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
30
1312 Pqypork is aside-blown single free-reed pipe. The playerplaces thepart ofthe
instrument (reed side) in the mouth horizontally and blows into it. The body is made of
wood or bamboo calledpork from which it takes its name. There are seven fingerholes
and one thumbhole The reed is made ofbronze and placed in a hole approximately 1
inch from one end ofthe body. The range ofthepaypork is a little over an octave.
Similarly to the snaeng, it is used in the arakk ensemble to play the piece called
Surin to invite a spirit to come to the ceremony. Today, it is mostly found performed as
a solo instrument, or accompanying instrument to a vocalist.
wa/ig'"1¥lk'i,,ih
:i,e.l.ii.,3ikE
<
Xx,es
ct
tst
'
i Sfi#t
't{'xi :s
,
as
'
t
,
ee
l//Iil･;l/rilllli/s;'it:･ ,,
'
'
ll;;l.,.;'j･ll si
4
1
l,itlil,lll/ii/ii,f;,il':rt;'E:
;
-l
lt s ""q
t
;iS:'E?,
i
.s t"pt` ' '
s iil"Ls S t
.Yf
iJu `l ' s,x
I Stv
.ll [
ISt .
. I{ii , ',
I/}}{ ;ic`'"ifi /
;,l' l .{ ,
3E: . ,r
'
l
Vt ki -" e･i
F} -ts" ,E ,
".nll]
;aF:Ii,;dia
l
'
l 1
t{cgcl )
"cFiLt
-)
Ke: ta.
iil}i'lis ,s,,
'
'l
:gtgl e,ct
;.t,{nV'
ee '
e;t
;{ t s
}s
tEr
v{ :l{'j lie l? ls ': ' I t"l
:
s
4. Pay Pork
Aerophones
31
132
Free-reed mouth organ
1321
Single free-reed
13211 The rlep (flute with gourd resonator)i8 can be fbund among the Bu Neur
nationality (Musiqlle Khmere 1969:15). It has a blowing tube attached to the gourd
resonator in which the reed is placed. Another longer tube (diameter: O.5 inch), on
which three fingerholes are made, is extended horizontally and attached from the gourd
to the bamboo resonator (diameter: 1 .5 inches) at the end ofthe instruments. The length
ofthis instrument is approximately 13.5 inches.
1
<?<Nge.
'tY}Lg
ke
,2
1
K
,,ti,,x･･
or
' f;'
tttt
¥E:xl',
5. Rlep
(Source: Musique Khmere)
18
Pich refers to this instrument as riet (1970:1l).
imsical Instruments ofCambodia
32
l322
Multiple free-reed
13221 Plqy is a free-reed instrument. The number ofpipes, made ofbarnboo, varies
from five to seven. Its resonator box is made from dried gourd. Each ofthe pipes has
one fingerhole and reed, and sounded when a player covers the fingerhole, inhales, and
exhales through the opening ofthe gourd.
Theplay, also known as m 'baut, can be found among the Bu Neur nationality in
Boutoy district, Mundul Kiri province, and other ethnic groups such as the Por and
Kuoy in the provinces of Kampung Chhnaing, Pursat, and Siem Reap.
'
SiS!}TMIiAl : ., " -,
vw l' rv 'iA': E}.ix ;,
Lpa lv
,,ti ,g.ti.,
.t' .rr'L"":sl
t,..
,{iiii
iiliX
.igts
]ge.,.. - .s ,,
.nt.,],
Alt:.:,
6. Play
fls/?･.?11,i.g
tvkn.a
ptSl`ll. s･1 'k
Aerophones
33
13222 Ken is amouth organ found in Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos, where the
instrument is considered to be the national instrument. It consists of two rows of
fixed-pitched bamboo pipes (twelve, fourteen, and sixteen, etc,), each with its own free
reed ofcopper or silver, connected centrally by an air reservoir made ofcarved wood.
The whole instrument varies in length. A kind ofbees-wax or gum-lack is used to seal
any holes in the construction. Each bamboo pipe has a fingerhole, which is coyered to
cause that pipe to sound.
The ken, exclusively played by men, is held slightly tilted with hands cupped
over the air chamber. It can be sounded by either inhaling or exhaling, allowing for a
continuous musical flow even without the circular breathing technique. It is
traditionally played either solo or as an accompaniment to singing. In Cambodia, it is
mostly used in the folk dance ofthe same name.
7. Ken
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
34
14
Double-reed pipe
141 Also known as pay a, thepayprabauh has its body made of bamboo or wood.
The reed or tongue (loam or andot in Khmer) is made of an aquatic plant called
prabauh, from which the instrument takes its name. Its body measures approximately
12 inches on which one membranehole and seven fingerholes are drilled. The reed is
approximately 3 inches, one end placed into the upper end ofthe instrument, while the
other end is shaved so it can vibrate. It is principally used in the arakk and kar
ensembles in which it functions as the tuning fork, and to which other instruments are
tuned.
8. Pey Prabauh
Aerophones
15
35
Quadruple-reed shawm (SralaO
,Sbealai is an old Khmer quadruple-reed shawm. Scholars who write about this
type ofinstrument often refer to it as an "oboe." Its origin can be traced back to at least
the Angkor period. On the walls of the Angkor temples, along with other musical
instruments, the sralai was carved. It is used in thepinnpeat ensemble to accompany
the court dance, masked play, shadow play, religious ceremonies, and boxing events.
There are two sizes of sralai-sralai tauch (small) and sralai thomm (1argeFand
another flared end called sralai klang Khaek or sralai Chvea (shawm of Javanese
origin) used in the skor chhneah '(klang Khaedy ensemble.
The body is made ofhard wood kakaor, beng, neang nuon, or ivory. It is
important to mention that the sralai maker is very conscious about the wood he uses to
make the instrument. When cutting a tree, the maker marks which end is the top and
which is the bottom, as constructing an instrument upside down will make it hard to
blow. In other words, the end ofthe sralai where the reed is inserted must be the top
end of the tree.
The body ofthe sralai tauch and sralai thomm is made in a bulging shape at the
center and an outward flare at both ends. The inside is hollovved out in aslightly conical
shape the entire length ofthe body. Around the center bulge, sixteen pairs ofrings are
carved, in between which six fingerholes are bored-fbur in one group on the upper end
and two in another on the lower-separated by a noticeable space. These rings are
shaped for beauty and attractiveness, as well as to help keep the fingers from slipping.
Spaces (between the two groups of fingerholes mentioned above) between rings are
usefu1 as they serve as a measurement forthe length ofthe reed. The body length ofthe
sralai tauch (151) varies from 12.5 to 13 inches, with a diameter of each end of
approximately 1 .5 inches. The length ofthe sralaithomm (152) varies from 16 to 16.75
inches, with adiameter at each end ofapproximately 1.75 inches.
The reed has two parts: the tube and the tongue. The tube is made ofbronze,
brass, silver, or sometimes gold. It is tapered-the end that fits into the top ofthe sralai
is a little largerthan the other end to which the tongues aTe fastened. This largerend is
wound with thread for a tight fit when being inserted into the instrument To play, the
entire reed (tube and tongue) is placed in the mouth with the lips resting against the
sralai. The reed is made ofpalm leafcut into four little tongues and fastened to the tube
with thread, The length ofthe sralai tauch reed is approximately 2.25 inches, whereas
the reed ofthe sralai thomm measures approximately 2.75 inches.
A complete formation ofthepinnpeat ensemble includes both the sralai taueh
and sralai thomm. This practice, however, can be fbund more often in the village and
the Royal Unjversity of Fine Arts traditions, when accompanying the lkhaon khaol
(masked play) and lkhaon sbaek (shadow play). In the palace, only the sralai thomm is
used. Sometimes, it is even replaced by the khlay (duct flute) (Traditional Music of
Cambodia, The Goddess Dancer ofCambodia). The sralai tauch takes a solo role in
36
imsical instruments ofCambodia
the situation when two sralai are used. However, when only one sralai is needed, the
sralai thomm is preferred over the sralai tauch, due to its relative range to the ensemble.
va
eeiilil.iiiliiisll, em't･r:':"";'i
tw
L gacif.
ts
,ge.es.
K-
#i
s"
tw
're'i' '
/･
ee ･
'tsl..
eet'･
xntx
pss
3$$2-
ge
ee
.$ss
$lj,:1･
Eil'l{itt.ma .
gek x eg
sc'di'asl t
･tiet-
,:･.,-.sg .n･
K .Zs -?l, ieeltt/･ttits:,,za, 1i
9. Sralai Carving at Angkor Vatt (Twelfth Century A.D.)
37
オε7ρρ乃0ηε5
轡
10． 5ン6∼101乃〃ご乃
藷鞭
ll灘．．
ll． 8ro10’7力0〃7〃7
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
38
153 S}'alai Chvea (shawm of Javanese origin) or pqy Chvea (pipe of Javanese
origin) is sometimes referred.to as sralai klang Khaeh meaning "shawm used in the
klang Khaek(funeral) ensemble." The body is made, in one or two parts, ofivory or
wood. The reed is the same as that ofthe sralai tauch and sralai thomm, but different
size. Ithas seven fingerholes and one thumbhole. The sralai Chvea is often used inthe
funeral and boxing ensembles.
12. SralaiChvea
Aerophones
39
16 Jew's harp is one of the musical instruments fbund worldwide. Its wide
distribution includes Southeast Asia and the Oceania. It has been around in Cambodia
for a long time and is used by the cattle keepers. It is often heard as a solo instrument or
sometimes accompanying a vocalist.
161 Jew's harps in Cambodia are called angkuoch or kangkuoch (Pich 1970:23).
Organologically speaking, it is a debatable issue as to what category it should belong to,
whether it is an idiophone (Hornbostel-Sachs ] 96 1 : 1 6i Balfbur 1 903:6), a linguaphone
(Jenkins 1970:16-17), or an aerophone. In the Khmer practice, it is referred to as an
aerophone, for Khmer musicians use the verb phlomm which means "to blow" when
describing the playing action on jevv's harps.
Angkuoch is usually made of bamboo or iron. When made of iron, it has an
outer frame (commonly fbund 4 to 6 inches long by O.5 inch wide) in which a movable
vibrating tongue, wider toward the attached end, is set with its end protruding upward.
The frame fo11ows the outline ofthe tongue, When made ofbamboo, it is similar to that
of iron, except it does not have its end protruding upward.
The player holds the angkuoch firmly, usually in the left hand between the
thumb and index fingers, sets part of the frame within the lips, keeping the jaws
somewhat open so that the hollow ofthe mouth serves the purpose ofa sound chamber.
He then vibrates the tuning devices with his right finger by creating soft backward
strokes. Various pitches can be obtained by altering the resonant cavity ofthe mouth.
By altering the shape and size ofthe oral cavity and the player's tongue position as well
as inhaling and exhaling, a variety oftimbres, including isolation of overtones, can be
obtained. It is used for selfeajoyment or by couples of lovers to communicate and
serenade one another.
Musical lhstruments ofCambodia
40
l
'
I,
'
,¥.il,I,;liiSi{,1,;,/lli,l-i･l{'i･!11/,9gi/,ec/?･as#f"i ,,
,e
>
){ 'iiiil'･:"`il'l,l/i/L/il'i.i･･lk･iL･i"ifitiil.pa,.,,,,,11111t,f,fi,,/{,x,ibe/jge./i'itiilillll.g/,i.i
,`.,igk- sel;:V,:1,":;//tg",',E.SS..:,S.,tmfZ.diTl'
fi.g di""" , ,. tg. ,El:;::.tg'i.` 2.}/"Y{:sEl.ll.. l:"iC.'
,;e
di vl
" ss) 't : )i iti::Itl.l; Es l]iOt- t:."s
3 t N -u"E v?t{-y)
g.t:Ct .I)+
+
l St tSc---txt
c" I
tAS
SI
s
'
L
13.
Angkuoch (Made ofBamboo)
E . t"
f l"
'
-T
l ""s
s tT
" {rA.t-.': ll.
ttt ve.#3,
:Nt tPt
l
:
"
#
::-11iS:l/'$ "}, :' tr l:,x
tPesN
1
x{
s
'
'
'c
'
'
ll
14, Angkuoch (Made ofMetal)
'
Aerophones
17
41
Leaf
171 Slekk is a tree lea￡ The player selects a }eaC vvhich is stiff and thick enough
being free to vibrate, including the leafoflumpuoh, puoch, or kravann. The player
picks a leaC fblds the edge along its length, and places it in between his lips and blows
over the folded edge. It is used in the wedding ensemble or most often as a solo
instrument. In the vi}lage, the leaves are played by cattle herders or hunters to imitate
the animal cries.
l5 Slekk
CHAPTER 5
CHORDOPHONES
he chordophones ofCambodia encompass harps, monochords, fidd}es, floor
zithers, and board zithers. The Khmer stone inscriptions and carvings attest their
existence to the ancient Khmer at least over a millennium ago.
Harp
21
2 1 l Pinn (angular harp) was prominent in Cambodia during the Angkor period, as it
was carved on the walls ofseveral temples in the Angkor vicinity. It leaves us no trace
today. Even the Khmer court music ensemble takes its name, pinn peat, after this
instrumenti9 Although some scholars, such as Curt Sachs, thought that vina derived
from the Egyptian vin (l940:224), most others believe that it is of Indian origin
(Chonpairot 1981 :98, 105;Brunet 1974:213; Pich 1970:2-3). In Indian mythology, vina
is often associated with Sarasvati, the beautiful wife ofBrahma. She rides a vvhite swan
and plays this instrument.
19
For an in-depth study of the pinn peat ensemble, see
"7-)eie Pin Peat Ensemble: Its
Historv, Music, and Context " by Sam-Ang Sam ( 1 988).
43
?Ldetsical Instruments ofCambodia
44
℃
,:･y..ec:
tw
va
' -a[ E -e-, ,""'4 .. -).
liirfiSkli
erISIIirie[ ,l･l
･:･:,-i?iet'gksrel'
ljxews
esi' ' tmi`
'wa i
g
":vN.
t pt;;･ lsi. ;.
16. Pinn Carving at Bayon (12th-13th Centuries A.D.)
(Photograph by Yang Sam)
x
Chordophones
45
Monochord
22
221 Memm is an old bowed monochord in Cambodia dated back to at least the
Angkor period as evidenced by the carving on the Bayon temple ofa female musician
playing it (The Culture and Arts Magazine 2000, (1 ): 1 9-24). k has disappeared from
the music scene in Cambodia, at least to the knowledge and awareness ofthe central
Khmer. Recently, a team of researchers led by H.E. Tum Kravel Pich, has fbund the
memm among the Kroeung and Tumpuon nationalities in the Aur Chum district,
Rattanak Kiri province.
Memm does not have a resonator box attached to the instrument body. Thus, a
cotton thread, at one end, is tied to the bottom ofthe instrument, whereas the other is
tied to a 1izardscale and placed in the musician's mouth in between his upper and Iower
teeth, using the mouth as a resonator box.20 The musician holds on to the string (tied to
the lizardscale) in the manner ofbaby sucking a nipple or pacifier. This "sucking" is
called memm in Khmer. This is perhaps the sound after which the instrument takes its
name (The Culture and Arts Magazine (2000), (I):19).
The memm fingerboard is made of bamboo (ping pung) about 1 inch in
diameter and 23.5 inches in length. The bow is made ofa strip ofbamboo devoid of
bowhair. The bow is used on its back ofthe bamboo, where the part is smooth. Rosin
or choar sa-aung is also used.
The Kroeung and Tumpuon nationalities use memm along vvith two or three
other instruments in an ensemble, or as a solo instrument.
20 The
sucking or holding on to the lizardscale in the mouth is more difl]icu]t for old
musicians than the young, as old musicians lose their teeth. Thus in today'ssituation, the cotton thread is
tied to a can or bamboo tube instead. This can or bamboo tube is held by another person during
perfbrmance (The Culture and Arts Magazine (2000), ( 1):20).
46
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
1 7. Mkimm Carving at Bayon
(Photograph by Narom Keo)
Chordophones
47
222 Also known as say diev and khsae diev, khsae muQy, a chordophone, means
"string one" or "one string." It is considered by Khmer musicians as one ofthe oldest
musical instruments in Cambodia.2i The sound resonator (8 inches in diameter) is made
from a nice round dried gourd slashed at one side, which is placed against the player's
chest. Onto the uncut side, the fingerboard (approximately three-fbot long) is securely
attached with wire, One steel, metal, or brass string runs along the fingerboard from the
lower end to and around the peg at the upper end. The khsae muay is played vvith a
metal or bronze plectrum, which the player wears in his index or most frequently middle
fingen While plucking the string, the player damps it by placing the thumb against the
string and immediately releases it to create a taum taum sound. To project this sound
characteristic, the khsae muay is stylistically played by placing the notes before or after
the beats. The khsae inuay is used mainly in the old arakk and kar ensembles. Jt is
sometimes used as a solo instrument or to accompany a vocalist.
The resonator is made ofa dried gourd called khlok, specifically khlok ka-am
(vase or goblet shaped gourd).22 The cut gourd is left open without covering with skin
1ike other instruments. During perfbrmance, the player places the gourd (opening side)
against his chest. To obtain a vibrating effect, the player shakes the instrument while
perfbrming. The fingerboard is made ofseveral kinds ofhard wood, such as kranhoung,
beng, or neang nuon slightly bending at its end, where it is often beautifu11y carved into
dragonhead or snakehead. Tuning to thepqy prabauh, the khsae muqy possesses a
varied range dependent upon the string it has on, i.e., E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,A (for
metal or stee} string) and B,C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E (fbr brass string) (Musique Khmere
l969:52).
Considered by Khmer musicians to be one ofthe most difficu}t instruments to
master, the khsae muay is less popular than other instruments and not commonly found
nowadays in Cambodia.
21 Chonpairot
claims that the singie-stringed musical bow is the predecessor of all stringed
instruments ( 198 1 : l OO).
22Today,
it is more likely to find the gourd resonator replaced by a wooden one, as gourds are
harder to find.
48
Musical lhstruments ofCambocfia
ggX'
ge･
ias'tii
i":/''iftwt di
si
t- r'
ltgel/e"':""
,x u'k
as
ssee ･asiww
'x･-
ge
1ex･
tu,IY'
tt
ss-.
ss
Iiisiajl
fu".
ut:' 'i:1
egli aj'
va･mab:
,.vaik.,Gg￡liss
18. Khsae Muay Carving at Bayon
(Photograph by Yang Sam)
es
C乃。励助。ηθ5
49
炉
峠
炉 も
「艸
ノ
㌧
冨
凸
w
い
潮
き
曽
｛
毛
毛 μ
3
し
苦
髭
難・
斗鼠
匙
曽
仲黒
㌔
髪㌦蜜㌧ヅ㍉
尊帖
19κ乃鷹協の7
Musical lnstrorments ofCambodia
50
23 Fiddle dioi;)
A number of important chordophones are integral to traditional Khmer music.
The tror is a bovved lute, once considered a folk fiddle. T>"or is a generic term used in
reference to all bowed lutes in Cambodia, and there are eight types oftror (in the Khmer
common practice). They are tror Khmer or tror khsae bey (three･-stringed spike fiddle),
tror chhe, tror so tauch, tror so thomm, tror ou, tror ou chamhieng, tror kandal, and
tror thomm. The tror Khmer, the only Khmer three-stringed spike fiddle, resembles the
Thai saw sam sai, Indonesian rebab, and Persian rebec.
The acoustic effect ofKhmer fiddles is close to that ofhuman voice, thus giving
a strong character in expression. Khmer fiddle are used in several ensembles, including
the arakk, kar, mohori, yike, ayai, and basakk or sometimes in solo or accompanying a
vocalist situation.
231 The Khmer two-stringed fiddles are believed to be a modification of the
Chinese two-stringed fiddles, which were used in the Chinese ensemble ofhi theater
brought to Cambodia around the turn of the twentieth century (Jacq-Hergoualc'h
1982:1O, Pich 1970:21), The tror has a range ofapproximately one octave(in normal
position). When using second position, third, fourth, and so on, the range is extended.
23I 1 7>"or chhe, also known as tror aek (Pich 1970:21 ), is a cornposite high-pitched
two-stringed fiddle. Its resonator (length: 4.5 inches, diameter: 2.5 inches) is made of
bamboo (roeussay nak), several kinds ofwood lkhnaor, keanhoung, neang nuon, beng,
kralanh), or ivory covered with snakeskin. Attached to the resonator is the neck (length:
26 inches) made ofvvood. The two tuning pegs (upper: 7 inches, lower: 6.5 inches) also
made ofwood are inserted through holes drilled in to the instrument toward the upper
end ofthe neck. The two strings are made ofmetal; the high string is called khsae aek
and the low khsae kor, one end inserted in to the tuning pegs, and another tied to the
bottom end of the neck underneath the resonator box. The strings run over a bridge
made of bamboo, wood, bone, or ivory and tuned a perfect fifth apart D-A. }t is the
highest in pitch among its family of fiddle. A bow (length: 26.5 inches),23 which is
placed in between the two strings, is called chhak made ofwood, whereas the hair is
made ofhorsehair or fine nylon. Like bowed string instruments in the West whose hair
is rubbed vvith rosin, the hair ofthe tror is rubbed with a local rosin called choar srall or
choar koki. To set the range ofthe instrument, and thus pitch, a necked string cailed
khsae ka is made ofthreads or metal tied around the neck and strings leaving space in
23 As a general rule, the bow is shorter than the total length ofthe instrument and a little longer than
the neck (from the resonator box to the top). In the case ofthis particular tror chhe, the length is 29 inches
and neck is 26 inches. Ifa bow is fbund longer than the instrument itselC it is not properly made. It could
even be a borrowed bow from another instrument.
Chordophones
51
between approximately 1 inch (dependent upon how musicians like and hold their
instruments). Range and pitch can be slightly adjusted by moving the necked string.
The name chhe could be onomatopoeic.
glt
t=,: y'
pm- th"･
Gt,k"'rek･:'
it ,
l
20. 7>"orChhe
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
52
2312 T7orso tauch (medium high-pitched two-stringed fiddle) is similar to the tror
chhe, except it is bigger. Its resonator is 3.5 inches in diameter and5 inches in length.
The neck is 35 inches long. It is used in the arakk, kor, mohori, and ayaiensembles asa
leading instrument. The tuning ofthis instrument is G-D.
7)or so tauch resonators are made ofbamboo or wood covered with snake or lizardskin.
Both use two metal strings, in between which runs a bow hair made of horsehair,
pineapple fibers, or thin nylon threads.
.assu
1.ee/'lee'exza.
tt)t-tt
E
l
:
- tv
t ove)t
v C
+
21. 7leorSo Tauch
53
Chordophones
23l3 Tle'or so thomm (medium low-pitched two-stringed fiddle) is the largerversion
of the tror so tauch. In the olden days, its resonator was made of tortoiseshell.
Nowadays, it is made ofdark wood kranhoung or neang nuon. Its general function is
similar to that ofthe tror so tauch, except the leading role. 77or so thomm resonator is
made of tortoiseshell, bamboo, or wood covered with snake or lizardskin. 7}'or so
thomm uses two gut or metat strings, which are tuned D-A (one octave lower than the
tror chhe). The bow hair is made ofhorsehair or pineapple fibers.
Among the tror family, the tror so thomm is perhaps the most unpopular instrument,
particularly amongvillage musicians. }t is often found only in ensembles ofthe Royal
University ofFine Arts and ensembles in the city, such as Phnom Penh, and principally
in the mohori ensemble.
wa
'';k}ti,..-11iE,tr.t･t･5'.ll:';/'
.. .nvitfg'. '.. /' '
'-:tlaj"r'{"i' ':'･-'?ill4k
matw-.get,Tiee
tge
?g'f,
22. 7)orSo Zhomm
･ igew.pmng
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
54
2314 T7or ou is a low-pitched two-stringed fiddle. Its two strings are made ofsilk,
gut, nylon, or metal, running over a bridge made of bamboo, wood, bone, ivory, or
seashell. The resonator, varied in size, is made ofcoconutshell covered with snakeskin
or thin and light wood roluoh or spung. The dried coconutshell is carefully selected;
one, which has the shape of an elephant's head, is most preferable. Many are found
with resonator boxes carved into beautifu1 designs. The neck is 35 inches long. A bovv
hair made ofhorsehair, palm fibers, or fine nylon is placed in between the two strings
and is not detachable. The tuning ofthis instrument is C-G.
It
E ..
-t
l
'
'
E 'l"･'
il ;i.
,
'
t4
]
;
}
buva"um--cu
23. ZrorOu
Chordophones
55
[I}'or ou chamhieng resonator is made ofcoconutshell covered with snakeskin,
lizardskjn, or a thin piece of wood. The distinction between the two types oftror ou,
i,e., tror ou and tror ou chamhieng, is the former's resonator is made ofan almost whole
coconutshell, whereas the latter's is made ofhalfcoconutshell, which gives its name
"chamhieng," meaning "half" The strings are made ofgut, silk, metal, or nylon.
ewee
.; ll'x .:; l' l]･ ;i it 1･i//x't e･ ij e.'el#is
{gme
,l[li/ilg･i,"i'ili,;li'llliig･,li,l･ll'iE･//･'lil'･f,i#f..i
･]ll･:1,i'ill:･]li'l'll/i,/1,i･/lll･r,,g///get,,g
E ]: 'l,I '] :['r･g) r. eep ;･:･ ;･li li/ t･ ,i r, it
ewk
ifee/s
as
ee
24. 77or Ou Chamhieng
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
56
There are two other tror called tror thomm, meaning "big or large fiddles."
More specjfically, the smaller of the two is called tror kandal (medium-sized
two-stringed fiddle) (23 1 5) and the larger one is tror thomm (23 1 6). They both are used
only at the Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh. During my student years in
Cambodja in the 1960s,Iused to play one. The higher one ofthe two is tuned G-D,
whereas the }ower one is tuned D-A. This is a more recent development, which takes
place at the University as part of its new creation and experimentation. They are not
found perfbrmed by Khmer folk musicians outside ofthe University.
25. 77or T7iomm
Chordophones
57
7>`or chhe:
7}'or so tauch:
7}'or so thomm:
77or ou:
7)"or ou chamhieng:
7>'or konclalr
77or thomm:
232
D-A
G-D
D-A
C-G
C-G
G-D
D-A
Three-stringed fiddle
2321 7>'or IVimer is also known as tror khsae bay, which literally means
"three-stringed fiddle." The precise origin oftror Khmer is unknovvn. However, oral
history reyeals that the instmment has existed side by side vvith the KhmeF people (Keo
et al. I994:7). It has been used in the arakk and kar ensembles for millennia.
Among the oldest Khmer rnusical instruments, its resonator (side to side is 6
inches, and top to bottom is 8 inches) is made from a dried coconutshell cut in thirds
covered with lizardskin (pungrouD or snakeskin (puohpramaay). Glued directly on to
the skin is a piece ofwax or blob ofa thumb-size to create a vibration and nasal sound, a
tone quality desired by Khmer musicians. The neck connected from the resonator is 3 l
inches long. The strings are made ofsilk or nylon. A detachable bow, vvhose hair is
made of horsehair, sugar-palm fibers, or nylon threads, is used to play the instrument.
Tuning ofthe tror Khmer is:
G
D
A
High string
Middle string
Low string
58
ル1〃∫κα〃η5！γ〃切θη’5（∼ズCα〃め0（ノ’α
響照影蕪四三懇三
けギ
、 野｛・
：旧
藩無毒｝ll謬驚：1欝鑓
、、ノ
＿ 下冗．曜㌦疋ノ；：・。
蒔・ 畿蜘 中 ，」∵瓦
〉
≧
乳
←
う
工
、
う
け
ア
／野ζ㌣ ＝ン蒔 、 1
、
｛
許
ノ≧ ，蚕卜・』 ご
．
・
A
ぎ三
㌧
｝
噛 も
く メ
，
卍
亡
㌦：’ き∵’㍉、サン伊
ハ ノ
戸・バ隈し∵
・’㍉’ぎ
く
昏
ア
吊甘
モ
＾甘
’モ
」 毛㌔
｝ 蒔・ 卜卍｝ 上汐
A
高
o 津
｛許弔 エ
訓失
け
，
甘
ウ
ド
欝
ひ
｝
｝
卜嘱
字
セ きモ
ぬ
ま
7舘 中 丘モ等潔
蟻畠
許
㍗｛
蒔5
砧 玉鴨ノ
モ㌦悪・瀞諺じ
忘㌧」ヤゼ振舞
嵩毛 ． ㍉ 葺凸
㌧剛
静
｝セ
，
冊
望
邑
忽
貌
リウセ
沙
ホ ほ
註葉．甘
1曳
「竹
歩
、叡
｝礎
・癩難
26． 7レor・κ乃”2θア
＝・f
τ ト
詐P
卜
な
｛
甘
κ 艸
モ
甜
59
Chordcbpkones
24
Lute
241 Chcu7ay dang veng (also chapey veng) is a long-necked lute. Its snauk
(resonator) (side to side is 12 inches, and top to bottom is 16 inches) is made ofa
selected wood cal)ed raing, khnaor, or beng, not round, not square or rectangular, but in
a shape ofthe bodhi tree or pineapple. The dang (fingerboard) (36 inches long) is made
of krasaing, resonator box covered with a piece of thin wood (santeah) called khtum,
kingkuok or kranh (bridge) ofthnung, twelve frets ofbone. In the middle ofeach ofthe
twelve frets, a hole is drilled, through which a string is put to hold them together
protecting them from dropping and losing. There is a Khmer saying to describe this
tnstrument:
Snauk raing
Dang krasaing
Santeah khtztm
Kingkuek thnung
Khtung ehha-oeung.
Translation:
The
The
The
The
resonator box made ofraing
fingerboard made ofkrasaing
piece ofthin wood made ofkhtum
bridge made of thnung
The frets made of bones.
The two strings or tvvo courses of two strings are made of gut or nylon and
tuned a fourth apart vv'ith the fo11owing scales:
Low string:
e F,GAB,CP,E,F,G,A,B,C,D
High string:
. B,C,D,E,F,G,A,B,C,D,E,F,G
(Keo et al. 1994:16, Musique Khmer 1969:54).
Chapey dang veng is used in the older formation ofthe arakk and kar ensembles, but
most popularly used in the chrieng chapqy (epic singing) in which the vocalist
accompanies himselfon this instrument. Although the chapay dang veng is traditionally
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
60
tuned as shown in the chart above, it is, normally, tuned fo11owing thepayprabauh).24
In solo situation, the chopey dang veng has more flexibility in its tuning. Often times,
one finds that it is tuned according to the comfortable range ofthe vocalist to whom the
instrument accompanies.
27. Chapay Dang Vleng
24 Even the tuning fork, in this case, thepeyprabauh, some are lowcr or highcr than others.
Chordophones
61
25 Dulcimer (Khimnz)
K]himm is a chordophone belonging to the board zither family. Today, board
zithers can be found in many places under different names such as Persian santir, Soviet
chang, Indian santoor, Korean yangum, Swiss hackbrett, Iraqi santir, Chinese yang
chin, Hungarian cimbalom, Thai khim,25 and Khmer khimm. It is believed that the
present board zithers are developed from the Middle Eastern qanum.
The Khmer khimm is believed to be brought over to Cambodia by the Chinese
along with their theater.26 lt has been adopted and modified to be used in the Khmer
basakk theater. There are two sizes of khimm used in the basakk ensemble: khimm
tauch (high-pitched hammered dulcimer) (251) and khimm thomm (low-pitched
hammered dulcimer) (252). While the fbrmer plays the melodic line, the latter plays a
reduced and counter melody. Today, the khimm tauch, in particular, is commonly used
in the mohori and kar ensembles as weil.
25 k"him is spelted this Nva>J with only one "m," tbllowing the system that is most commonly
adopted by the Thai.
26The
Chinese claim that their hammered dulcimer called yang chin 6Jangqinj' was brought to
China from Persia during the Ming dynasty (Yew 1 994:98).
62
ルf麗5κα〃η∫〃〃〃2eη∫∫｛∼ズCα〃め04’α
芝 ＾
蘇
｛
ウ
く
宅
28．。κん〃∼加7hπc乃
o
臥 ヘ
へ
卜 鴇
ワ
亡
モ く
「 ♪，
キな
｝
’きヤ，
喝
h
‡
き うや モ之臨写モ
＾
㌦、L拷毒
ア
ロ チモウ
藩1講難聴難識灘1、
菖 宅 蒔∼罫｝ よ『
毛 く
ト
ワ
乱㌦曽
。 弾く
冠
9
‘
｝
＾
じ チ
｝
， ＝
卜 ｝鼎
く
麗
甘
く
堰?
毛
｝ づ
｝ 謳串し奪。議｝窺
＾，㌣
u 曽、竺 卜 聯
． 尊∴≧㌦ ，帆∴
≧「 ，fう 壱
弟臥二藍｝亡ワ 剛
胃
∴㌢難し1一き㌔幸
｛ 弟ヒく賢 L
29．1（ん1〃2〃37乃。〃21η
㌔｝ 5
Chordophones
26
63
Zither
261 Also known as takhe, takkhe, or charakhe, krapeu is a three-stringed floor
zither. The original shape ofthis instrument looks like a crocodile, which the Khmer
call in'crpeu. Underneath the resonator box, there are three or five legs to support the
instrument above the floor so the sound can be prejected. The twelve frets are made of
ivory, bone, bamboo, orwood with aheightvaries from 1 to 1.5 inches. There are three
strings. The high one called khsae aek is made ofgut or nylon; the medium one called
khsae kor is also made ofgut or nylon; and the low one called khsae bantor is made of
metal or bronze. The melody is played only on the two upper strings using a plectrum
made of ivory, bone, animal horn, or wood tied to the index or middle finger of the
player. The third (lowest) string is used as a drone. The tuning ofthe three strings is:
G
D
G
High string
Middle string
Low string
mag･ew
eiiifrptifmeetsISSew
eetww...,ge..i.
30. K>'apeu
64
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
262 The anthuot, a four-stringed bamboo zither, can be found among the Poar
nationality in the Pursat province. The player strikes the jnstrument with mallets
(Musique Khmere 1969:18).
This instrument is made ofbamboo ofapproximately 20 inches (one node). At
each end, 4 inches ofbamboo is left for the player to hold when playing. It comes in
three, fbur to seven strings, which are peeled off from the body of the bamboo itself
These strings are held from the body by means ofbridges at both ends ofthe strings to
leave some space in between, so the strings can vibrate freely when being struck. The
strings are then reinforced by rattan strips wrapped around their ends. Under the
instrument, a dried gourd is attached serving as a resonator. The player holds the
instrument with one hand and strikes it with a mallet in the other.
The anthuot is used in the invocation of the neak ta (guardian spirit) before
leaving in search for the choar rung (saps) and precious vvood khlemm chann (Keo
n.d.:l69-170).
F
E
I
I
I
l
l
1
't"s･--'
-EE-ZT
-So .
-g. e'
''tt'
fLK
' t.
d'
.x-
v
31. Anthuot
(Source: Musique Khmere)
Chordophones
65
263 Korng ring is a tube zither and an instrument found among the nationalities or
minority ethnic groups in the provinces ofRattanak Kiri and Mundul Kiri.
A piece of bamboo is cut leaving the nodes at both ends. Seven strips are
peeled, with even spacing, from the bamboo itselfmaking them into strings. After the
strips or strings are made, a rattan strip is used to tie around both ends ofthe instrument
to hold the strings from breaking. Then, small pieces ofvvood or bamboo are placed
under each end ofthe strings serving as bridges. Finally, small holes are made on the
instrument as sound holes. The player plays the korng ring by plucking the strings with
his thumbs and fingers.
Today, in the provinces of Rattanak Kiri and Mundul Kiri, this instrument is
still played, although metal strings are now used in lieu ofthe original bamboo strips
(Keo et al. 1994:37).
's'
･l
}.
"'
y.I
/L-,t
l tJ /
Ar
,si.Si.,;.tii,.,, i.
i
tt
''t '
-itd'''
-''1'Z
.F;)>--6I',ri,,
" lliili :... 1.f,},l:
' k'4',lg'.""tt..
-. .tXx
"'sc l21illlll?l}:i
" (" r"":li":l}ii3il?.
"llilili ./(Eficiii
`7
""'tts/i;tif';i-Litt:. .. 'X..."1
'ki'.;'Eft't'.9'J.?,.
V}ili,..:.
32. KorngRing
(Source: Musique Khmere)
CHAPTER 6
IDIOPHONES
I
diophones are common musical instruments in Southeast Asia. Their precise origins
are obscure. Some scholars surmise their origins to Southeast Asia. Sachs ascribed
them to an area between Tibet and Burma (1 940:240), while Kunst credited them to
the Mediterranean area (1 968:65). The Bronze Age civilization knovvn as Dong Song,
which covered a large part of Southeast Asia (Tonkin, Laos, China, Myanmar,
Indonesia, Celebes, and Cambodia), was characterized by the use ofbronze drums dated
back to approximately the third century B.C. (Khmer Court Dance (1 992), Dumarcay
1 987:2-3; Groslier 1 962:32). In Cambodia (discovered in the provinces ofBattambang
and Kampung Chhnaing), the bronze drums are still preserved today at the National
Museum and at the royal palace in Phnom Penh and known as skor moha ritt meaning
"drum ofgreat power." In the ancient times, they were used in the water festival, royal
funeral ceremony, and the crowning ofa King or Queen (Poree-Maspero 1964:41 7).
Among the Samre nationality, a set oftuned drums are arranged scalewise is
called roneat.27 This is a set ofsmall drums whose bodies are made ofwood covered
with hide attached to the inner wooden frame and played with two sticks by the player
who sits in the middle ofcircular frame. The book Musique Khmere, the only source,
which mentions this instrument found in Cambodia, claims that the instrument is of
Indian origin, can be found also in the Pailin province, playing Balinese scale
(1969:20).28
31 Xylophone Moneaij
Roneat is a generic term referring to a xylophone or metallophone type,
dependent upon the materials used to make the bars, blades, or keys. Roneat are
classified as struck idiophones, more specifically "bar idiophones," Xylophone-type of
instruments are fbund in various parts ofthe world, including Africa (Kubik (1962,
1963), Jones (1 963), Johnston (1 972, 1973)) and Asia. The xylophones, whose bars are
27 The book Musique Khmere refers to this instrument (set oftuned drums) as roneat, a much
doubted term. Unfortunately, the book does not provide readers with any reference.
28
The book does not provide source ofreference. It appears much dubious in its accuracy.
67
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
68
suspended with cords over boat-shaped and trough resonators, are indigenous only to
mainland Southeast Asia. They are the "Burmesepattala with twenty to twenty-tvvo
bars, the Thai ranat with twenty--one, and the virtually identical Cambodian roneat ''
(Miller and Chonpairot 1981:158).
In regard to the origin ofthe xylophone, Yupho suggests that the Thai created
their xylophone from a pair ofgrap sepha (1960:12). He also says: "They [the Thai]
took several `grdcp' and put them on a stand with the tones in order from low to high.
This was the origin ofthe xylophone type of instrument" (ibid.:3). Morton has written
that early xylophones were carved on temples in central Java (Borobudur) in the late
eighth or early ninth century (1 976:54). "The first reference to a xylophone in Thailand
known to me," says Morton, "is the illustration in the manuscript dated circa 1 730." He
continues: "Whatever its early history, apparently the instrument was well established by
the later part ofthe Ayuthaya period" (ibid.).
The name roneat (in Khmer) comes from the word roneap (bamboo strips)
(Davy Chhea, personal communication, 1 987). The roneat has bamboo or wooden bars
which are strung together with two cords running through holes in each bar, suspended
on two hooks at the end-pieces ofthe resonator. Care must be taken so that all the bars
are well spaced so they can vibrate freely.
The xylophone bars are tuned to desired pitches using a kind of tuning blob
calledpramor (a mixture oflead, bees-wax and mrum rosin). KLhmer musicians practice
the `Crough" and "fine" tunings. The fbrmer aims merely at finding approximate pitches
around the right notes, while the latter attempts to fix the required pitches. Khmer
musicians prefer to fine-tune their xylophones by using blobs, which keep the sound
from ringing too long. This is even more true in the case ofthe korng vung (circular
frame gongs), as bronze, which is used to make the gongs, rings longer than bamboo or
wood. However, individuals differ; Noeung Poeung, a Khmer musician in Washington
(USA) fine-tunes only his xylophones (personal communication, 1987).
Two kinds of mallets or beaters are used to strike the bars according to the
situation in which the instrument is played, i.e., indoor or outdoor. For indoor
perfbmiances, a pair ofsoft padded mallets is used, whereas at outdoor performances,
hard mallets are used.
311
Bamboolwooden xylophone
3111 Roneat means "xylophone;" aek means "one, first," or "leader," Therefbre
roneat aek means "first xylophone" or "leading xylophone." It is also known as roneat
rut, which literally means "running xylophone."29 The roneat aek or the roneat rut is
29 st>･listicany, the roneat aek or roneat rut ptays more notes than other xylophones in the
ensemble, and thus appearing as ifit is running and so it is called.
ldiophones
69
considered to be the leading instrument because its role is to start a piece and to cue the
others. Many Khmer musicians think that the roneat aek plays the melodic line. In fact,
it plays variations ofthe melody, which is usually carried by a vocalist or asralai player.
Stylistically speaking, the roneataek is p]ayed in octaves, less commonly in fourths or
fifths. The twenty-one bars ofthe roneat aek provide a three-octave range, but because
it is played in octaves (between the left and right hands), it only covers a two-octave
range.
The resonator ofthe roneat aek is approximately 46 inches long. It stands about
22 inches high, atop a 5.5 inch square base. The top edges ofthe resonator beneath the
bars are padded to accommodate the bars when they are taken offthe hooks when the
instrument is not played. Some models are anistically and richly carved and inlaid with
mother-ofipearl, ivory, or bone.
The roneat aek has twenty-one thick bamboo or hard wood bars, which are cut
into pieces ofthe same vvidth, but ofdifferent lengths and thickness. The lower the
pitch, the greater the Iength, and the higher the pitch, the thicker the bar. The roneat
aek bars are approximately 14.75 inches (lowest pitch) to 1 O.5 inches (highest pitch) in
length. The width ofeach bar is approximately 1.75 inches, vvhereas the thickness is
about O.5 inch.
The player strikes the bars with two mallets vvhose heads are thick discs. The
mallet handles are about l 6 inches long. The soft discs are approximately 1 .75 inches in
diameter and 1.25 inches thick. The hard discs are 1.5 inches in diameter and1 inch
thick.
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
70
iflill?]]ll ,･･
mept$ifwt･
ew #tw wwsg#} ww.:
exsr･ee
,,
";..:
zane"
S' #, L, 1･ ;
ee"/I"'{ll･E･l,i･
?IEI;･l･i?,l'/
33. RoneatAek
3112 "The roneat thung is better called roneat thomm (large or big xylophone),
because its resonator and bars are larger and longer, and its sounds, therefore, are lower
than the roneat aek" (Davy Chhea, personal cornmunication, 1987). This rectangular
trough-resonator measures about 50 inches long supported by fbur short legs. While the
end-pieces ofthe roneat aek and the roneat daek are flat and straight, the roneat thung
end-pieces are curved slightly outward. The roneat thung has sixteen bamboo or
wooden bars, measuring about 1 8.75 inches (low pitch) to 1 5.25 inches (high pitch) in
71
ldiophones
length. The width of the bars (low and high) is approximately 2.5 inches and the
thickness ofboth is about O.75 inch. As the materials, which are used to make the bars,
are the same as the roneat aek, the same tuning blobs are also utilized. Like the roneat
aek, the roneat thung bars are suspended with two cords running through holes in each
bar and placed on two hooks at each ofthe two curved end-pieces that are connected to
the resonator.
Only soft mallets are used to play the roneat thung, either indoor or outdoor.
While the mal}et handles ofthe roneat thung are about the same length as those ofthe
roneat aek, their discs are larger and thicker. Each measures approximately 1 .75 inches
in diameter and about 1 .5 inches in thickness. The range ofthe roneat thung overlaps
that ofthe roneat aek, one octave lower. Due to its stylistic playing, the sixteen bars
cover a range ofmusic ofover two octaves, a range that is wider than that ofthe roneat
aek. The role assigned to the roneat thung is to counter the melody. The roneat thung
plays a line almost identical to that of the korng thomm, except in a lak (vivacious,
funny, comic) fdshion.
34. Roneat 77iung
72
312
Mitsical ,lhstruments ofCambodia
Metallophone
3121 The roneat doek is a high-pitched metallophone vvhose origin is also obscure.
Morton feels that, being adopted around the middle of the nineteenth century and
perhaps modeled after Javanese instruments, the mainland Southeast Asian
metallophones are late comers to the ensemble, at least in Thailand (1974:l90). He
suggests that it is possible, that metallophones were suggested by the saron and gender
instruments of Java and Bali (l976:62). Whatever its origin, the roneat daek has
twenty-one metal or bronze type plates or bars. Because ofthe weight, the metal bars
cannot be suspended on cords, but are instead laid in stepwise order across the two
padded edges ofa rectangular trough-resonator. The resonator itselfis about 40 inches
long supported by four short legs. The metal bars are cast in different lengths (the
manner by which all Khmer roneat bars are made), but the same width. They are tuned
by scraping or fi}ing away part ofthe metal, and thus blobs are not used at all.
The player uses a pair ofmallets whose discs are made ofbuffalohide or wood.
The mallet handles measure approximately the same as those ofthe other roneat. The
playing style and manner ofthe roneat daek are identical to that ofthe roneat aek.
i!'tV.l!'.h.:,"il,}ll･lll･,':,l:
tt ttt
}･ n. /iVee. l-2IE Lt l･[I ]i lX,; ::･ l,,/ ;･ 1･ll, .i[ ･i, El li･:)' :i l'[il'/ [ ] i. :l
s.k.'¥-kk'gxge,;'",Lt･:{t/'f,vl,:{,･ili:ix-"is,i"i･1.il-:#il･]1,) l[･,･ ･･
su･:･IE-rel'g"1,:,.:･:2'iE:･]･::'･:g'i･:,t':::･::,,::1,l･1 ･･ ･'･
i"k･ kS
･es-
pa se
mag･
ss
･ptee.t,ee･,[,t'iH's./'.'l/
,i'elX..ma･leet,i?1.,el#/},,i'i'i`li?ii･ili'ii'i
･t i)iE:l:ll ;/l
.l -.:b[-, st 't 'c-- 't tt ' tt
35. RoneatDaek
Idiophones
73
3l22 A low-pitched metallophone, the roneat thaong is the largest in size and lowest
in pitch among all Khmer xylophones and metallophones. Its sixteen bars are made ofa
mixture of bronze and copper (bronze fbr bright sound and copper fbr long life
expectancy).
It was used only in the ensemble of the royal palace in Cambodia (Pich
1 970:33, A Musical Anthology ofthe Orient: Cambodia). Today, it is not seen used
in any Khmer ensemble.
32 Gong (IKorng)
The etymo]ogy ofthe Khmer word "korng " (gong) has been used as a generic
term referring to the "gong family," be it flat or bossed, single or set, suspended with
strings on hooks or placed over a rattan frame. The history ofits origin is obvious, more
so than any other Khmer instruments as attested by the old epigraphy and iconography
ofthe Founan-Chenla and Angkor periods. Many ofthem vvere carved on the wal}s of
ancient Khmer temples. Among the various minority ethnic groups, particularly those
who inhabit the highlands of Cambodia, several types of korng are still used as
predominant instruments. Brunet observes:
Thesets ofgongs in acircular frame are attested since the 12th
century on the bas-reliefs ofthe temples ofAngkor (Thommanon),
and appear vvith much probability to have originated in Cambodia
(withoutdoubt deriving from the suspended gongs still played
today by the mountain-dwe]lers ofthe high plateau). (1974:21 7)
The three sets of bossed gongs-peat, korng vung tauch, and korng vung
ihomm-are arranged on rattan frames. The individual bossed gongs ofdifferent sizes
are made from copper mixed with bronze. They are suspended with gut strings
(normally) through holes in each gong and placed over an almost fuII circle rattan frame
about 1 2 inches high from the floor. The gongs are arranged so the lowest pitch is to the
left and the highest to the right, in relation to the player who sits in the middle ofthe set
Each gong is tuned to a required pitch usingpramor.30 To tune, the gong is turned
upside down into which thepramor is heated and let drip, and then cooled and let dry
before tying it back to the frame. The korng player uses two mallets to strike at the gong
on the boss. There are two types ofmallets-the soft and the hard. The soft mallets are
for indoor, vv'hile the hard ones are for outdoor perfbrmances. Each ofthe korng mallets
30The
pramor used to tune gong is a little different from the one used to tune the roneat bars. The
ingredients for the gong blobs are samna phuok (mud-lead), kantuok (left-over substance from the rice
milling process). and kramtton khmum (bees-svax). The satnna phuok is scraped or filed and mixed with
kantuok and kramuon khmutn. then cooked (continuously stirred) together and cooled and Iet dry.
74 Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
has a handle ofapproximately 6 inches long and a disc, which is made ofwood padded
with cloth (soft) or elephanthide (hard), cut into a round disc.
;;'S,a
･.Fi'
$ilissies.･-
i
"''tfi''
lj
'
''
tt
ee
ipu.r
{ki's
tt '
'
¥gee'maosny`.ue.g.gs,.utecptx.eeme.¥sc.$..tpttla･ttw,Ik-eajti,/fr･$
#ggg¥tgemps
36. Korng Carving at Angkor Vatt
ldiophones
321
75
Flat gong
3211 Khmuoh is a flat gong played with closed fist, open palm, or stick. It is seen
mainly used in wedding ceremonies specifically to signal the anival of the bride and
groom to a given ritual, and in the basakk ensemble.
Le
is actually a khmuoh. It is called lo
ensemble.
37. Khmuoh
when being used
in the basakk
76
Aditsical Instruments ofCambodia
3212 Kbrng chhmol, literally m'eans "male gong," is a large flat gong. It is commonly
found among the minority ethnic groups in the provinces ofRattanak Kiri and Mundul
Kiri, where several ofthem are used in a gong ensemble accompanying dances, such as
Robaim Kapp Krabey Phoeuk Sra (Sacrifice ofBuffalo Dance), Robaim Phok Phall
(Good Crops Dance), and Robaim Chheu Loah Slekk (Trees vvith Sprouting Leaves).
Korng chhmol, varied in size, are made from lunghenn (brass or bronze). On
the side ofthe gong, two small holes are made. The string runs through the holes for the
player to hold it while playing. Depending upon the situation, the flat gongs are played
with a closed fist or stick.
38. Korng Chhmol
1diophones
322
77
Bossed gong
3221 Korng mong is a single bossed gong played with a padded stick. Its size is
larger than that ofthe circular frame gongs. It is used in several ensembles and fbr
various purposes, such as in the korng skor and chharyaim ensembles, or in the temple
to signal a mealtime or a gathering ofthe temple goers to come for a ritual. It should be
noted that this gong is used in the korng skor ensemble to infbrm friends and relatives in
the village that an ill person is about to die. It is prohibited to be used in the wedding
ensemble, as it could be a taboo.
X"-E･ll,i i:li`i:,1 ig,"E,;irj..eg);,r.//, t"'Y:-1,, e //i':'･ Al,l4; H:
,gecg,kis･/{ll'S.g,lk/3'/4･s
'
;'" t,r'i ,l..l'l:,.l.`1'. :"IEIi't " /l x- ,,itil" 1' ,"' ; .z
-,
fi '-v ct wel.
t HwtAri"
-l" -th th "
:Ala.kE
4)l
v"SX
" vrHS
t'' ""'
a"E
'
'
.
Ht n"
v"-4
L X"
t+-v
v-t
{
Sv
l. ,.
tt
.E
s -t;
" .Ea
":`
t"t --vt
. x":. EV
l
'
k +1
r :;
;+
-t3
c.l
'
tc
,
'
u
s
.
ttt
,
'
t
,
39 KorngMong
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
78
3222 Korng nhi literally means "female gong." These are large bossed gongs
commonly found among the ethnic minority groups inhabiting the proyinces ofRattanak
Kiri and Mundul Kiri. They use these gongs in an ensemble, for instance, to sacrifice
the buflfalo for local spirits.
Korng nhi are made oflunghenn in different sizes. In the gong ensemble, the
korng nhi are mixed vvith their counterpart, korng chhmol. In such an ensemble, korng
nhi is the largest one in size. The players use padded sticks to play the gongs.
40. KbrngMi
79
ldiophones
323
Halfmoon gong
323 1 Peat, a set ofhalflmoon gongs, was the prototype ofthe present circular frame
gongs: korng vung tauch and korng vung thomm. Many writings have made references
to this instrument, but only a few have referred to it by name (Keo (n.d.), Sam (1988),
and Guesdon (1 93O). During the interview I conducted fbr my doctoral dissertation, Mr.
Noeung Poeung, a Khmer musician from Siem Reap (now living in Washington,
U.S.A.), mentioned and referred to the halflmoon gongs as peat. "In Siem Reap," he
said, "the peat was used in the korng skor funeral ensemble during the procession"
(personal communication, 1987). Thepeat was carved on the walls ofthe Angkor Vatt
temple, being a prominent instrument.
41. Peat Carving at Angkor Vatt
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
80
Circular frame gong
324
3241 Korng vung tauch or simply korng tauch is a small circle of gongs
(high-pitched circular frame gongs), the frame of which measures approximately 44
inches across from Ieft to right. There have been disagreements as to how many bossed
gongs the korng vung tauch has. Ameng musicians interviewed, some say sixteen,
some claim eighteen, some others mention twenty-one. While no Khmer source
explains why sixteen, eighteen, or twenty-one, Morton writes:
There are usually l8 gongs, ofwhich the two to the far }eft
are "dummies," being included only because the gong-kettles
on this instrument are rather small and more than 16 are
required to fili the frame work large enough to give the player
adequate space in which to move. (1976:50)
Pich claims that the Khmer korng vung tauch has eighteen gongs, whereas Mr.
Ouch Duong, a music teacher, says that this instrument has twenty-one gongs (Pich
1 970:33). The book Musique Khmere mentions that the korng tauch has only sixteen
gongs (1969:83).3i While several sources testify that the korng tauch has sixteen,
32
eighteen, or twenty-one gongs, Brunet believes that it has seventeen (l974:216).
The korng tauch is normally used only in thepinnpeat vung thomm (pinn peat
oflarge instrumentation), in which two korng are needed. Similarly to the roneat aek,
the korng tauch plays variations of the melody in continuous notes divided between
both hands.
3242 Korng vung thomm or korng thomm means "a large circle of gongs"
(low-pitched circular frame gongs), which is modeled on the same principle as the korng
tauch, but larger in sizorboth the gongs and the. frameewhich measures approximately
48 inches from side to side. Since both the korng tauch and korng thomm oyerlap in
range, those pitches, which are identical, are likely to be the same in size.
The korng thomm plays a line almost identical to that of the roneat thung,
except it dwells more steadily on the pulse.
31The
korng vung tauch in the col]ection of the National Museum ofEthnology in Osaka, Japan.
whose photograph is given in this book, has sixteen gongs.
32 Thai khong u,ong lek (Thai version of the Khmer korng vung tauch) has eighteen gongs
Duriyanga 1973:23).
81
1ゆ助。ηθ∫
’ダiili撚ゴ；遜層
躍七と
勒
撫
綴
〃
壽．．
認謝
粕玩；
押字レ
嚇、嚇
’づ、
臨．諄
勢’、
σ・い
膨・’
鍔宅
「り軍堺、’
42．κθ川9殉〃97加。乃
｝り’
ｨ冒酵㌧嵩’
避’
o
離灘
ξ難鮮錘鱗選
43．1（orη9レ勉η9πro〃7〃z
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
82
33
Cymbal
331 Chhing are cymbals. Worldwide, there is a great variety of cymbals: hand
cymbais, finger cymbals, flat cymbals, forked cymbals, plate-shaped cymbals,
bowl-shaped cymbals, and cup-shaped cymbals, etc. In Israel, for instance, cymbals
were fbund in temple orchestras as farback as 1,lOO B.C. (Marcuse l975:1O). Metal
cymbals were found in Egypt in the eighth century B.C. (ibid.). In ancient and modern
Asia, two types of cymbals have been distinguished: the broad-rimmed with a small
central boss, and the narrow-rimmed with a iarge central boss. Both the broad and the
narrow-rimmed versions appear on the Hindu-Javanese temple sculptures ofBorobudur
(about A.D. 800) (ibid.). They are also mentioned in the annals ofthe T'ang dynasty of
China (A.D. 61 8-907) as having a prominent part in the theater (ibid.:1 5).
In Cambodia, we find the chhing (small bowl-shaped finger cymbals) ofthick
and heavy bronze, vvith a broad rim. They are made ofan alloy (mixture ofiron, copper,
and gold) mixed with bronze. They measure about 2 inches in diameter and arejoined
together with a cord, which passes through a small hole at the apex ofeach one ofthem.
Each cymbal of the pair is held in one hand and the two are struck together. The
chhing are the timekeeper ofthe ensemble. While cymbals, in general, are used fbr
various occasions (ritual, martial, theater, and at war), the Khmer use them purely in
theater, dance, and music contexts. They produce open and closed sgundschhing and
chheppmarked respectively by the signs (o) and (+) in transcriptions. To produce the
open sound-chhing-the cymbal in the right hand hits the other in the left with an
outward sliding motion, while the closed soundrfhhepris produced by hitting both
cymbals and holding them together; thus dampening the sound. The chhing and chhenp
or open and cloSed sounds ofthe chhing mark the unaccented (o) and accented (+) beats
in the actual music making.
ldiophones
83
ww/fi vajge
pt
eemelj
.ew. ug,g
9.
ew
ts･ ･
esw
･e,,-es
es
}l"l
";･;
fis. ,#pt-, be
lfx 'X･.e#,kk.
･gffx
ptW.
ee･iX-･ee･lj3es
ss
:tu
ue
ymk'
ttas.wwx
tw,l?Ia
pmmuygstw.sgel#g.#I...in..
ee!rs5-
44. Chhing Carving at Angkor Vatt
¥tmp.knvm
$ 'heeth"lts
¥
ee'k/Ygegee,,･ee･sXee"/ma'es"ew
itfitwylgee',gigi$
su:tllt'n･';tlXti'kttU9:'f.ge,X.'c;.'eSLk'I't/Iva}:.fg',l',,i?{ci21･].-･/,,v･a,vg-onltcv-,neEe,
45. Chhing
##Iil;
ww
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
84
332 Chhap is a pair ofcymbals larger than the chhing, measuring approximately 5.5
inches in diameter. They are narrow-rimmed cymbals. In the center ofthe instrument, a
hole is made, through which a string is tied for the player to hold while playing. The
pair is mostly used along with other instruments in the chharyaim, basakk, and the
Peacock ofPailin ensembles.
,ee...gsi･e,/gegeegXEgefiee,'tk'ees"lee'geeeme"esiajwaXX,ge/ag'k/me1ma'SmeRewteess'ww'fiee･wt,,,,,ww
'
,si,,/gmaSme'ge'
y3gem
E,Ii-,･".ii.･gi-$･l'lii,IGIIIIre¥,t/li･,i¥lj
oij Cit Pb'v+
";tfr;:
t
th ttt±tX+
) E t -"-t
T A-#tx
"thNC
A
fft
Y+v ":
+ t
t+vt
t 'M'
w{
+ as Pv
fo
-
"Vrr N
;k- ";) riI E: 'E -tT{l si ' :
celb
- nt
X. aH
-t t
t
.
l
'
l
""t R vf th 3v -t+ tt Nt4 t
.EH
s -sceAt
s.!b f 1. -i r/Hr + Vw
,]"c ti .xE,'A.v. ,:' T'2 :, ili fu ' '
#vpgu
]- +tt
..t
+
Xxt" tt; -t) li" tl s
N [ " th# sR.t "
iii:;I･il,1,i-C,/l･ll,'il･lll-;.xl]･Iv ;･ l･
x3ilt
+
-t
E," Tt
T,i 1: ftU:;",.:.'.:::le:. {Z,:S,",.,.,lz",.' "
w --.
I
.-tN
X tlV
v-tv
pttlt ttoett }tc t + -:1}. g} ,E,P";y n';"i E' l'. .(1{ S :` " .:
-t 3t
s"
--
o
t
ti tA3
t) : vt
llS'l"11"i.'/l'll/:'s･lil/;,l'lliiilr/'L-ivf,z'1.gmf,,,･tg,i//l･v'
iiilllll･':,ii'iillli,l.i.･11･it･1-il･;･
-H
ti
ts t>
tttt
ox
. r,g
. f.:.--`,.,j."l:-tt'Fk:eEi
h
;
,
' ;: .: '"- s3 11.-":..-.. :-l"
-t
y
,
]
+. t
t
'
th Lx
'
tv
:
N:''
'
"c
t
v ) + . x ) c[k :tr)2
NS A A W-v
b-;
IEt
tr
-t tt:AtsA"
P A +.--vt
p. t.a
.. V r. u""t
+
t- E's..
-cAta:
-t-)
"M I]-U
c
y
t tt+"
pvC
Ar :+ Si "T Nct:
', .f:" ' il: .tt "'Ct:;'sntrithtr'
r-
'
vttA
+i
it st-.Nrc #ALt"
ta Ee
w l` t. .l ;"---"xlxti':
tt :NENt:
t +Vt o --AEIW
abA-v + ve -Ol･li,iili･ifi'i
So
tt
V t tf
' ".kliisi'il"
I,#
+
x :t7
O- nv
. , +t .lili:Ec zi":
l{ g`
-
)x +l ' f- "Stv : rWAAI
'
AS +v
slE-yt
-ls- kSf txkct.'l"
ft"pt}
:}n li{.V,IN"-r.g,.
i.i' 'I:E.` +A t
llif,ts':.il..:t,'
Sm-dil
."
ui
l tU "s.t
" +s> ".stst
h#s" . .t,f .L, iC l Sc+b
WA
"
ettc
)t
] "-"xtV - :t;-t }" rAyA#.##ttrLt trv : pt' il
.- .ES "-Mef{?)
ve-+
t
tt
o t-" x ") tc "3 #iV"v.
l#:
tlt tt
YU'X"wo#A.X
t"f ." ++.T-
kllli.illi,Illi'il/e',lil,liil,i'thi,l･llll-llil,/･,riYIi･,,,i･:
c
S
z
"t
btt
'
46. Chhap
34
Bell
341 Kandoeung is a bell made ofvarious materials. Some are made of spoan
(copper) or iunghenn; while others are made ofa mixture ofspoan and lunghenn. The
ones, which are made oflunghenn, have a heayier sound than those, which are made of
spoan. Kandoeung is often fbund placed on worshipping altars along with other votive
offering items, or sometimes tied to the corner roofs oftemples as decorations and for
nice sounds when bemg swung by the winds. When the bell is swung, the ringer hits
the inside ofthe bell and thus the sound is produced.
85
∬4’9助。ηθ3
47．1（αη40θzぜη9
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
86
35 Clapper
K}'app are pairs ofclappers made ofbamboo or hard wood ofdifferent sizes and
shapes, used by men and women.
351 Krapp kou or pair ofclappers is made of bamboo or wood of appToximately
O.70 inch thick, 1-1.5 inches wide, and 16 inches long. They come in pair, thus give the
name kropp kou, which means "pair ofclappers." The krapp kou are played by striking
the two flat sides together. The functions ofthese instruments are to create certain
rhythms in the dance or to keep time by singers.
48. Kramp Kou
ldiophones
87
352 K)"app chroluonh or stick clappers are more commonly called krapp chhmol,
meaning "male ciappers." They are used by male dancers mainly in the Robaim Krapp
(Bamboo Clappers Dance), The kTapp chroluonh is a set ofthree pieces: two flat (one
long and another short) and a round one. At one end ofthe long flat piece, a stack of
coins is nailed on to it to create rattling sounds vvhen the instruments are shaken by the
dancer or player. These two fiat pieces are held in one hand, while the round one is heid
in the other. The dancer or player uses the round piece to hit against the flat pieces to
create sounds.
l･l.'
tt
) t)}:ittttttttt ;: ttttt :ttt ) ()ttt:t
. :'.]:
....tt't:
ttt
.t i.i
t.s:'];.?
..t
'
. CE . -'X
:':'''
ttt : ttt) ttvt t ;ttt ;t :))tt t lt::
,i･Iili. ･[ :.il'i,:'l i･l･, ',,,l l･i,ll l･[ i{i'i
. :, ./,
tt/t
t//
tt) tt tt
ttt
ttt
t
tttttt
ttt:/t tt tltt
49. K}"crpp Chroluonh
88
353
ルん5’cα1加5枷〃7εη’5qズCωηう0611α
κ〆卿」ρ乃1θ〃orんア卿、ρ乃㍑oηg is a kind ofclapPer in the shape ofafan
resembling flowers or garland． This is perhaps why it is called㎞4ρρ（clapper）p〃επ
（fan）， meaning‘‘clapper in the shape of a faバor㎞gρρ（clapper）ρ勧。ηg（garland），
meaning clapper in the shape of a gar且and．”It looks like a fan， when opened， and is
used by vocalists and dance mistresses to keep time fbr dance，students or during
perfb㎜ances．
Several thin pieces of light wood or copper are placed between two且arger and
thicker pieces of hard wood and bend out slightly at both ends． They are 851nches
long， A who且e is made in the lower end of all the pieces and a s重ring is put through，
飴stening all the pieces together， in the same manner as a fan． In playing， one hand
holds the instrument and strikes it with the open palm ofthe other hand．
50．κr曜ρP〃θ”
Idiophones
89
354 Iilr(u?ppopeay chapp are more commonly called nowadays krapp nhi, meaning
"femate clappers." This is due, perhaps, to the fact that when the Robaim Krapp was
created by artists of the Royal University of Fine Arts in the l960s, these pairs of
clappers were used by the female dancers.
The krapppopeay chopp are made ofbamboo, cut to a length, which can be
comfortably held by the hands (approximately 4.5 inches). Each dancer or player holds
two pieces ofkrapp in each hand, facing the back side ofthe bamboo toward each other.
The instruments are struck together by moving the palm and fingers inward and
outward.
5 1 . K)'app Popeay Ch`rpp
90
36
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
Woodblock
361 Pann is a woodblock used mainly in the basakk ensemble to reinforce the beats,
particularly, in vocal renditions. Pann is made ofa piece ofwood cut into a rectangular
shape with a thickness ofapproximately l inch. Along the length ofthe instrument (the
under part), part of the wood is taken out serving as a sound hole. The player uses a
round stick to play it.
52. Pann
Idiqphones
37
91
SIit bamboo
371 Krapeah means "stomach." It is not used in an ensemble, but as a solo or duet
as seen in the Robaim Chraut Srauv (Rice Harvest Dance). In an agrarian society, like
Cambodia, Khmer peasants use the krapeah to scare the birds away keeping them from
eating the rice paddies.
The krapeah is made ofa piece ofbamboo (two nodes) ofthe wrist size. The
piece ofbamboo is cut leaving the lower end ofapproximately 4 inches foT the player to
hold when playing. The next 8 inches are cut to take out part ofthe bamboo. The top 8
inches are split so that they will hit each other when being struck by the player's other
palm. The keapeah varies greatly in size, depending upon the makers. The playerholds
the instrument in one hand and hits it against the palm ofthe other hand.
'r
lsw, ss
I.I l,9,if1,1.,:. ii E･1
$
geti'i
"il･:･g,;".,:,:..
eelj
eeeq
･;/es･
3dexEfi:
:fs i/ili･e'
me
ew
53. kapeah
"' :f,scl･i)eut'k"'r,iitw･･.di･
Musical lhstruments ofCambodia
92
38
Ratt}e stick
381 Kanhchhae are rhythmic instruments used only in the Robaim Trott (Trott
Dance) and Robaim Kantaerae (Kantaerae Dance). Players hold the handle of the
instruments and hit them against the ground or simply shake them to create sounds,
which are produced by the jingling of the many little bells tied on the top of the
lnstruments.
The kanhchhae handles vaiy from 7 to 7.5 feet long. The top part, where the
little bells are tied, comes in different shapes, a bell-like shape (used in the Kantaerae
Dance) and lotus blossom shape (used in the Trott Dance).
54. Ikkinhchhae
Idiophones
93
Kbnhchraim, also called kanhchrorm, isjust another kind ofrattle stick used
only in the Robaim Beh Kravanh (Cardamom Picking Dance). It looks similar to the
kanhchhae. The difiference is that the hanhchraim is made ofa piece ofbamboo about 7
inches long. The bamboo is split into several small strips on the upper part, in between
the split strips a dried coconutshell is placed. Then, a string of little bells is wrapped
around this part four rounds. Like the kanhchhae, the kanhchraim is hit to the ground
or shaken to produce sounds.
+.t.,4.t4'::.#.E7:#'E7=E:
::;i.ors ',EHI;#,l:l.# ':l' :: ':/ l'.l'.
::2k:.l:,.･.S.Elx#.･#vl"l.,
:fl:i.,;'::,:P]'.:;l:1:･,l':,
]':k
tt ct ttt ttttttttt t tttt tt tt. .. ..
Et K:'#V:: :.'# ;:":':' v. '
55. Kanhch ralm
tttttt tt t. . .v
tt ttt tttt t"tt
ik{efi
>Eili
CHAPTER 7
MEMBRANOPHONES
embranophonic instruments are those whose sounds are produced by being
struck by the players. They are generally referred to as kroeurng damm or
struck instruments. While some people believe that drums have magical,
spiritual, and ritual significance, the Khmer use them merely to accompany singing and
dancing.
SKOR
Skor is a generic term denoting practically all membranophones, including those
listed here without the word ``skor" in front ofthem. However, they could be used with
one ifchosen.
41
Goblet drum
411 Skor arakk is also known as skor dey (clayed drum) or skor ciai (hand drum). A
kind of goblet drum, its body is made of baked clay or wood covered with snakeskin,
lizardskin, or calfskjn. The skor arakk comes in diffi:rent sizes. It is traditionally used
in the arakk ensemble from which the instrument takes its name. It can also be fbund in
the kar (wedding), mohori (entertainment), and ayai (repartee singing) ensembles.
95
?Ldetsical Instruments ofCambodia
96
56. SkorArakk
412 7"7iaun, a goblet drum, is similar to the skor arakk, except it has a shallower
head and a slimmer body. The body is made ofclay or wood. Its head or membrane,
made of calfskin, goatskin, or snakeskin, is laced to the body by means of leather
thongs, rattan strips, or nylon.
It is used as part ofa two-piece drum set in the mohori ensemble. In
perfbrmance, the player places it on his right lap and strikes it softly with his bare
fingers and hand. The thaun carries alternate patterns to go along vvJith those patterns
played on the rumanea.
Membranophones
97
me
eeme¥
swmo
gsl:=
swS.,,,.lli
. ,ew. :,.g- g･ li･/4"
:･i:tilljz.sx.,g
x
.//:gthSmai･
.}f$g
t!t/ t
vwn #lgee.t,#F.watMge.:.ca.
57. Tlhaun
42
Long drum
421 ,Skor chhaiyaim is a long vase drum, which is played in a standing position
using both hands. The instrument is used mainly in the chhatyaim ensemble enhancing
religious and traditional ceremonies, such as bonn phka (flower ceremony), bonn
kathenn (fundraising ceremony), and so on. This ensemble has been maintained and
perfbrmed by the Khmer, particularly villagers, for many centuries. Drummers wear
clown masks when perfbrming, creating a comic atmosphere to enhance the celebration,
in which the ensemble is called for.
The fbur drums (the ensemble set) have strips ofcloth, by which pla>rers put
over their shoulders when playing. The fbur drums are grouped into two sets oftwo;
two producing a high tone and the other two, a low tone. In the middle of the
drumhead, a tuning paste is placed.
98
ル毎5たα〃η5か〃栩θη細（∼ズCα加わ。読α
選
舗
ゴ・
b‘罫
瓢欝摯雛撚鍵騒騒蟹
灘
膨
避
懸
難
58．3たorC乃乃αリノα1〃7
轟
黙
43 Framed drum
431 Rumanea is one ofthe two-piece drums ina set used in the mohori ensemble. It
is a single-･skin shallow framed drum with membrane nailed to the body. In
perfbrmance, the player places it on his left lap (thaun on the right) (right handed
player) and strikes its head softly with his bare fingers and hand.
59. Rumanea
1OO
Musica l lhstruments ofCambodia
432 Skoryike is a large framed drum. The head is made ofoxhide. Used in theyike
ensemble, there are eight drums; seven are the same size, while the larger eighth is
played by the leader (teacher) ofthe group. It is prohibited to fool around with them or
to stack them one on top ofthe other.33
deew--v-"aVAwhp--ua
t
H
t"
ed t
-"wu v-v- -.Mt-vv ".h --t rr-h - -
IA
-Ska
CV -h
t-- --"t'
-t pm" '-" ""-H--tt---"-u
t- - pm -r
- stsdv
n-"M
S"l" mu"
fe "l
+VtW v-wt fu wwnt--ny4--Mhp"nnd-ptlf-wwHww pm-twwwuaMpm--T
tk
.
"t
iy + : "defke)cV!"m- vr:umlt-- + "
Pt t. t
e*pmmu"A X- ""--t "--t ww- ttVt A
sn-rttRtN
")SYA+-
A m-t y +v t---"x tb:l "-""tNasV-c umSt
+
nv-wu
nv- f"
,
""' wrt: !f ...=va S nv-..- -
-x-wh.audw-utxe l--rhW
"
"--
=C X:t" n x
--wwve.. + 4S pm -1 .t
EHt4-H)I
- E,t.
'
mp
M"-t nd-nd- mamub/ ve
-k "--s
t
-tL- b
M Spm-.v-:er-"
H
im
Npmh. -"
--
w,prma .xfi
tN
tmut svt tnVCh:
A -wh in.-" "
-
- nv-
pt
za
-hr""ptept-v
v"t- ww
t--immaimtw-
gt""
ca'
ut -"
ge,,/9tskajkmpes･/L'.
e
utz
ca
va
-nvannvnvwh
V- butSmu...
."es
wt
ittlij
de ve+WE")A "rwt n
rk t-tL
ss&igSmewtwil
abHA-4
.e."imsrw}-ew.mu
xt"lb
--
3
pt
Y fiw
di horMajte;isse:
tw u -E
th
rk
*
VM:wt-e.dwsvl-Pn--
tt{
-h.r-bl
dySs
gege,ig;iflrvas
"umahts'.s"V
..X..ge.'me ･e ww..tr}-tt.T
v-"-
---'/-wrtthWv
nvpapmJ-"insTttreeffgps
W.wwkva
vtiaLU"Sl",
l"("-fi tsing .WT-Lew. :"n""
n. "pmpm
ve
=pm
tw.sss:.
mabe'su.va:'""e-ca.b･wwt-tk5ilffuav-･ma..zapa.:,i:sutwkwwL"wts.tpm=sn::.,..
..
-vth-t-zav
.tXma+
"-vh-tO"
-tmvN vvkot+fbx-TmsttAN
[" sl)- t
ktevttytT
-ttgetXtNft=tmpv
Tt "- -nvt--rn
Av-v"uvL:
t"
tttst
ST sts "to)wotrt-"vm
tdw -vA N- ulsza
ve + "Ht
t-tu""+ -"1""tnv"tr-wth
1
z-- t"th"+
t
;ipt;tlat
h+
4 - -wwH. 4-. i: :i"' S. ;)l tc tc { wvein. .. .a tt"t
-S
fft
tw = H- :P 3A :trAvr'. -. -"-"enywv e--
,,$,-,tu,,w,1"･H-"'=;:.:ng'i}fa･g"tA.rstu
- HWtv
.: ･ -'mu'
nt t.M L-
60.
33
There are two to thnteen drums(Yike)
"r
"-th
x
v-
c
e}Ct
wA deS
l
--n.
"1
Skor Mke
w"
- .c !"t+la L ts
H
t ptt-p """oWrc
tt-
-w"io
"T
xm+---SSb:kvAt"yAw.t-.pm
-t rn"
wh VtH twwv Hmu mat ym-
Membranophones
44
101
Barrel drum
441 The sampho, a small double-headed barre} drum, is considered by Khmer
musicians among the most important Khmer musical instrument, having a sacred
significance. In fact, it is a spiritual instrument. It was carved in stone on various walls
ofthe Angkor temples, and has maintained both its sacred and ritualistic functions as
well as purely entertainment roles. The sound ofsampho is produced by the vibration of
a stretched membrane when being struck. Its body is made ofseveral kinds ofwood
(khnaor, kakah, raing, or beng) with a bulge in the center and a gradually tapering
shape at both ends. Throughout its entire length, the solid piece ofwood is ho}lowed
out and covered with calfskin and tightened with gut or sometimes rattan strips. On top
of the center bulge, the gut or rattan strips are woven into a handle for easy carrying.
The sampho has a length of approximately l9.5 inches and a height (inctuding its
attached stand) ofabout 20 inches. The center bulge measures about 14 inches, while
one side is 11 inches and the other lo.34
The player hits both heads of the sampho using his hands. Because it is
intended to produce a lower and higher tone on each head, this drum is constructed so
that one head is larger than another. The larger head provides a lower tone, whereas the
smaller gives a higher pitch. The heads, the centers ofwhich are painted black, are
tuned with tuning paste called bay sampho (rice for sampho), vvhich is a mixture of
cooked rice mashed into a thick paste with ashes from burntbranches ofpalm tree or
coconutmidribs. This is done to give the drum its desired pitch and sound. The white
and soft part of new bread will also serve the same purpose as cooked rice. In the
United States, we have experimented with children play dough and cream ofwheat, but
we have found that Fun Tak is the best material for this purpose, for it hasjust the right
consistency fbr the sampho. The thicker and heavier the paste, the slower will be the
vibration ofthe parchment, and likewise deeper the tone will be.
The sampho is mostly used in thepinnpeat ensemble as a lead instrument, and
is especially known fbr its accompaniment to the solo playing ofthe sralai as heard in
the free-style boxing piece and Salauma. The sampho has a variety ofrhythmic patterns
designed for specific pieces or types ofaccompaniment. For instance, when used in an
ensemble without dance, the sampho uses a set pattern of muay choan (one-level
rhythmic pattern) of eight-beat cycle, orpi choan (two-level rhythmic pattem) of a
sixteen-beat cycle depending upon the piece. When accompanying a court dance,
34
According to Khmer belie￡ the maker chooses only Thursday (Guru Day) to put the
membrane on the sampho. During the making process, a ceremony is conducted and offbrings are
made to Preah Pisnukar (Architect and God ofConstruction) for blessing and for the sampho to
possess a good sound (Pich 1970:30),
Mtisical lhstruments ofCambodia
102
masked play, or shadow play perfbrmance, the sampho uses a special pattern known as
laim (dance), which is designed precisely for the piece it accompanies.
The sampho controls the tempo and regulates the pre-established rhythmic
cycles. Therefore, it is considered to be the leading instrument in the pinn peat
ensemble, as well as the instrument ofthe krou (teacher). Most ofKhmer musicians
regard the sampho as a simple instrument; easy to play, and thus, neglect it This
attitude and the oversimplification ofrhythmic interpretation have moved them to play
just one simple rhythmic pattern for almost every piece.
61 . Sampho Carving at Angkor Vatt
103
M2〃かαη叩乃。刀θ3
62．＆遡ρんo
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
104
442 The skor thomm, meaning "big drum," are 1arge double-headed barrel drums,
the largest of all Khmer drums. In early times, as seen on the walls of the Angkor
temples, they were used in the military band, and were called skor toap (military drums)
used in the battlefield, encouraging soldiers or signaling them to withdraw from the
field. In the current practice, they are used in various occasions, from crowd gatherings
to dance performances.
The drums were to signal the troop, i.e., when to march, rest, retreat, assault,
and even to encourage them (Pich 1970:29). The skor thomm had their prominent
function in the traditional Khmer society. They were found in pagodas, district
headquarters, and schools. In the pagodas, they were played to signal time to pray or
time to eat. In the district headquarters, they were used to call people in the community,
fbr instance, to come for a meeting. In school, they told the time to go to class, to
recess, and to go home.
The skor thomm are made of light but strong vvood, such as chreh, koki, or
tnaot. First, the log is cut about 20 inches long. It is then shaped with a slight bulge in
the center of approximately 18 inches in diameter and tapered slightly at both ends
(approximately 16 inches in diameter). Second, the solid block is hollowed out its entire
length to a thickness of about O.5 inch. After this, two rows of small holes (one row
along each side ofthe head at approximately 2 inches from the edge) are drilled. When
the membrane is positioned, little bamboo or wooden pegs are hammered into these
holes to tighten the hide.35 Oxhide (sometimes buffalohide) is used fbr the skor thomm
membrane, and it must be treated first. A fresh hide is boiled in water with salt, betel
nut, and citron to remove the hair, to make the hide soft and strong, and to prevent it
from stretching. Then, the drum maker must cover the two heads ofthe wooden body
with the treated hide while it is still wet and let it sit for two weeks to one month or even
longer befbre it can be played.
The finished drum must be able to produce two different sounds; a high tone
ting and low tone toung without reference to a specific pitch. Khmer musicians refer to
this as chhloeay knea (to answer each other). The hide ofone side, which produces the
lower sound toung, is thicker and is tightened more loose]y than the other, whose hide is
thinner and fastened more tightly for the ting sound. Finally, aring ofabout 1.5 inches
in diameter is screwed into the wood at the center ofthe bulge to hook to the wooden
stand when being played. Normally, the skor thomm are played in pair with two
wooden sticks ofabout 14 inches long, without padding.
When playing, the skor thomm are placed on stands so that one head faces down while
35The
more modern skor thomm do not make use of little bamboo or Nvooden pegs any more.
Therefbre, holes are not drilled. The membrane is nailed directly on to the body.
Membranophones
105
the other is up in a tilted position. Although they have two heads, only the one on top
(after positioning) is played, while the other (bottom head) vibrates freely.
esss,
ee
kgtlj
63. Skor Thomm Carving at Angkor Vatt
twWj,.wwew
ル伽5’oα1ノη5’π4〃2εη’5（∼〆’Cαηめαカα
106
難欝勲』
盤
《年
≧輔蝦ビ㌧
；騰蘇㌧・
嶢ズ恥鴨
転匙冠
臥距
i照臨
く器
x庶
ト ウト
訪
A
卜
宇
購期
。 ＃ウ宅㌦
貯
鷺
養 ‘
蟹
貫㌦
搬譜
．羅玉
蕪
鱈
」凸…悔
ワ曽群
←
丘 x ｝モ
o
弾甜 譓ﾚ
｛げ万
雛
筆
讐
頻工
ド・㌔調
く へ
尋鴇 甲州葺副
／‡
撫欝欝
螺野驚艶
｛。
些
詑
‘写研聯
シサ
．端
くず
毛野｛
凸
庶 Pモ臨
叢
｝
く
帽曝♂
灘i
観
卜
@ モ環」鴨
胃藩
丘蹴 モ
‘笠
64．3ん077乃。〃2η2
Membranophones
l07
Belonging to the family ofKhmer large drums, skor chay, also known as skor
chay pheri (Pich 1970:1), skor toap, and skoryeam, is a large double-headed barrel
drum whose body is made ofhard wood.36 The two heads, made ofbuffalohide, are of
unequal sizes, one being a little larger than the other. The heads are laced with leather
thongs or rattan strips. The drum is played with a pair ofvvooden sticks.
Skor chay is originally used in the battle context to encourage the troops and to
give signals. In the Khmer current practice, skor chqy is used by Buddhist monks to
gather the pagoda attendants fora ceremony. Skor chay is also used in the funeral
ensemble oftoam ming (korng skor or moung krum) along with other instruments, such
as sralai, peat, korng nhi or korng chhmoL and krapp during the funeral rite vvhen the
corpse is kept in the house or at the pagoda.
65. SkorChay
36Skor
chey is consjdered to be one ofskor thomm. However, it should be noted that this drum is
larger than the so-called skor thomm used in thepinnpeat ensemble.
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
108
45
Cylindrical drum
451 Single drum
The fo11owing two types ofmembranophone are suspended drums, several of
which were carved on the walls ofthe Angkor Vatt temples.
4511 Skor saingna are double-headed drums used in the skor chhneah ensemble
during a funeral procession. The body is 25 inches made ofa chunk ofjackfruit tree
and the head of9 inches in diameter covered vvith calfskin, This drum is played by tvvo
flat sticks, producing only two sounds: ting and teung. In the funeral ensemble, the
number ofskor saingna used varies from two to sixteen depending upon the rank and
wealth ofthe deceased family (Keo et al. 1994:l 54).
ee
tww".tw'if/:'ew.#../{･tt/･l'lli･i'i･}"?.:gf[,tt,;k.,･s,
tu"'
66. Skor Ybl Carving at Angkor Vatt
Membranophones
109
67. Skor Saingna
4512 A double-headed long cylindrical drum, skor klang Khaek is regarded as a
suspended drum or skoryol. It is a cylindrical double-headed drum played with bare
palms. It is suspended over the player's neck by a rope or gut string. It exists also a
single-headed drum called skor yel played with a wooden stick. The single- and
double-headed suspended drums are used together in the funeral ensemble (Musique
Khmere 1969:91). The numberofdrums used in the ensemble varies according to the
rank of the deceased. In the king's funeral, sixteen drums are used (eight of gold and
eight ofsilver), and three sralai. For the commoners, three drums and one shawm are
used.
Skor klang Khaek is incorrectly called, because skor means "drum," and klang
also means "drum," whereas Khaek refers to "Indian." Therefore, the calling skor klang
Khaek means "drum drum Indian" or "Indian drum drum." It should be correctly called
skor Khaek, which means "Indian drum" or "drum ofIndian origin."
7Lclttsical lnstruments ofCambodia
110
68. SkorKhaek
452
Tvvin drum
4521 S;korphluoh literally means "twin-drum." This is a set oftwo double-headed
cylindrical drums tied together side by side. One drum is slightly smaller than the other.
The body ofthe smaller drum is 27 inches long made ofa chunk ofjackfruit tree and
the heads are 7 inches (small side) and 8 inches (1arge side) in diameter covered with
calfskin and tightened by strips ofguts. The body ofthe larger drum is 27.5 inches
long, whereas the two heads are 8 inches (small side) and 8.5 inches (large side) in
diameter.
The skor phlueh are llsed only in the music ensemble that accompanies the
Khmer fblk dance called Robaim Kngaok Pailin (Peacock ofPailin Dance). The player
carries the set by means ofa string placing over his neck. He uses both ofhis hands to
play on the fbur heads of the two drums to a prescribed rhythmic pattern.
111
惚加わγαη（㌍乃。〃θ3
’藻iiiξii叢叢1聾蟹躍辮華lil
・一…こ・‘1｝・宅・｝・学＝・γ凱＝ご甥1こ二焙露｝．。Mξ雫こ…1，電
一ン漁欄レ榊＝㌃寧i∵
礁蕊、 「軌餌
”輌
㍗楚・
・・馳瓢総
齢＃鮮叢難葉、
㍉驚｝i搾聴鵜馴
｝｛｛甲㌔軸響凸㌃韓Y雑論
冊冒七 G吊冊＾七＾「くモ，o，秘
ゴ電
・ノ
構；弓『し轍図堰
鍵iili慧
｛隷
職難庄附野F
69．5たorP乃1㍑o乃
CHAPTER 8
ORGANOLOGY
his chapter will examine the Khmer musical instruments (typologically and
culturally) beyond the Hornbostel-Sachs classification (the most adopted and
referred source in organology) ofmusical instruments as mere physical objects
(1 96 1 [1 91 4] :3-29). It will view the cultural units developed by the Khmer involved in
the meaningfu1 musical activities, in which the instruments and music are part ofa
complete cultural whole. I hope to present another view ofKhmer classification system
as adhered in the Khmer musicat practice for centuries. For the sake ofcomparison, I
also briefly present other systems.
BEYOND HORNBOSTEL AND SACHS
GRLEEK
Early on, the Greeks (Hellenic) adopted the two･-fold classification and divided
instruments into "animate" and "inanimate" categories to include only strings and
winds. Ignoring percussion, the Greeks yet preferred strings to winds because they saw
the kithara as a national symbol, and considered that strings had a superior moral effect
on human beings when compared with winds, and fbund stretched strings to be an
indispensable aid in conducting scientific experiments and theorizing about sound
(Kartomi 1990:120). Another ancient string instrument, mentioned the Greek
mythology, the lyre possessed magic povvers. Orpheus, son ofApoilo and who was
believed to introduce poetry and music to human beings, played the lyre to charm the
spirits of the underworld to allow him to reach his dead wife Eurydice (Goddesses,
Heroes, and Shamans 1994:92). Among other concepts of classification, Pollux
scheme included two categories, distinguishing percussion (including strings) and
winds, whereas Porphyry model included strings, winds, and percussion (ibid.:12l).
CHINESE
China's history ofinstrument taxonomy showed the tenacity ofthe eight-fbldpa
yin scheme, which classified on the basis ofthe materials from which instruments were
made: metal, stone, silk, bamboo, clay, gourd, leather, and wood. The Chinese also
adopted the four-fbld classification based on the idea ofcosmology having to do with
the"sources of sound,"which were seen as being directly related to the seasons,
l13
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
114
directions of the wind, social classes, political power, and human welfare (Kartomi
1990:50). The pa yin system (Ming dynasty) further distinguished hierarchies of
instruments based on the materials from which they were made, giving the highest rank
to metal and stone, not only because oftheir material value and craftsmanship, but also
because of their great lmportance from ancient times in religious and military
ceremonies (ibid.:5 1 ). The Chinese give the history oftheir chordophones to only about
900 years, the shortest compared with other instruments (Yew 1994:96). As noted by
Gavaert, the most noble instruments in Oriental music vvere chordophones and
aerophones. Autophones [idiophones] and membranophones did not play a serious part
in the production ofthe aforementioned music (1885:3). Khmer musicians make the
exception to the above practice (I vvill discuss it later).
INDONESIAN
In Jav4 ensembles were divided by taxonomy into those played indoor and
outdoor (Kartomi l 990:5 1). The Javanese also classify their instruments according to
the tuning systems--zpelog and slendro. On the gamelan, Kartomi says:
There would be little point in dividing gamelan instruments
into strings, winds, and percussion, or in applying the four
Hombostel and Sachs divisions, for the Javanese Instrumentarium
is exceedingly rich in types of percussion instruments, having
only tiny categories ofwinds and strings. (ibid.:106)
AFRICAN AND ARABIAN
African musicians distinguish instmments between their solo and accompanying
roles, and relative sizes and pitches (Kartomi 1990:252). The Arabians go even further
to classify their instruments according to whether the instruments produce tones and
melodies, natural and pleasing to their ears. Having that in mind, they rank string
instruments on the top (particularly the ud), then winds, and last percussion (Kartomi
1990:133).
INDIAN
The Hindu scheme (early second millennium B.C.) and Tamil scheme had five
categories including a category of"human" instruments (comprising the voice and handclapping). The Hindu also considered in their classification, a different fbur-class
division: solo instruments, instruments that accompanied vocal music, instruments that
accompanied dance, and instruments that accompanied dance and vocal music (Kartomi
Organology
115
1990:73). Bharata (2nd B.C. to 2nd A.D.), in his Albtya Sastra gave four groups: tata
(chordophones), ghana (idiophones), avanaddha (membranophones), and sushira
(aerophones) (Vaidyanathan 1 994: 1 61 ).
While Hornbostel, Sachs, and others ignored "voice" and consequently did not
include it in a classification, some cultures gave it an important place. The Greek idea
ofthe supeTiority ofthe human vocal instrument persisted because ofthe syncretic idea
that it was "God's instrument" (Kartomi 1990:159). The American Indians consider
voice to be preeminent It is a medium ofmusical expression fbr vocalists, the same as
violin to a violinist, trumpet to a trumpeter, drum to a drummer. Questions then can be
raised. Is "voice" an instrument? Are vocalists musicians? Ifnot, what is it? What are
they?
As thought ofby Kvifte, the classification systerns since Mahillon are clearly an
etic description. By that he means the systems represent an attempt to order instmments
from all cuEtures within a common set of concepts and orderings, and no attempt is
made to describe the ordering ofinstruments within individual cultures (l 989:89). The
Hornbostel-Sachs system ignores everything else and takes only the physical aspects of
instruments into consideration. From Mahillon's time (late nineteenth century) to the
present, new systems ofclassification have continued to be proposed, but the problem of
creating a universally satisfactory system remains unresolved.
A number oforganologists have attempted to go beyond Hornbostel and Sachs
to include other aspects in the classification systems. Those include Lysloffand Matson
(1985), Hood (1982), Heyde (1975), Drager (1947), and Galpin (1937). Confiicting
ideas about the basis for classification has persisted over centuries. For instance,
Schaeffiier opposes using playing action as a criterion ofdivision ofclassification. An
instrument should be able to be classified, even if the playing action is unknown.
Instead, he takes tone color as the basis fbr his classification (i.e., idiophones: wood,
bone, stone, shell, etc.; aerophones: without reed, with reed (single or double)). More
recently, other categories-electrophone, corpophone, and linguaphone-have been added
to the system ofthe basic fbur (Olsen 1986:5, Jenkins 1970:16-17).
In his system, Sachs did not take the playing technique ofstringed instruments,
like the violin, into consideration. A violin remains a violin no matter how it is playedi
arco (bowing),pizzieato (plucking), or col legno (striking) (1961 :7-8). In the case of
some Khmer instruments, such as the khimm (chordophonic board zither or hammered
dulcimer), it is the same. Whether it is plucked or struck, it does not make it an
idiophone.
KHMER
Prior to this study, Khmer organology has been a single-step scheme. At the
most general level, Khmer musicians use the traditional tripartite division:
Mitsical Instruments ofCambodia
ll6
l.
Kroeurng ciamm
(percussion instruments/mode ofplaying)
2.
K}'oeurng khsae
(string instruments!physical aspect)
3.
Kbeoeurngphlomm
(wind instrumentslmode ofplaying)
(Keo (n.d.) and Keo et al. (1 994))
Pich (l970) is the only Khmer writer, who cl assi fies musical instruments of
Cambodia in four categories and calls them:
(Chordophones)
(Aerophones)
L keoeurng khsae
2. K?oeurngphlomm
3.
4.
Kroeurng peah sbaek
fooeurng kuoh tungkic h chea samleng
(Membranophones)
(Idiophones)
To understand the Khmer system ofclassification ofmusical instruments, one
must look at the verb that denotes the action ofmaking the sound. In Khmer, it is leng
or "to play." With all instruments ofall classes, the verb leng can be used. Although
each group is associated with a verb, i.e., damm or veay (to hit or to strike) for
idiophones and membranophones, kaut (to bow) or denh (to pluck) fbr chordophones,
and phlomm (to blovv) for aerophones. The kroeurng domm or percussion group
includes both vvhat Hornbostel and Sachs called idiophone and membranophone. They
do not differentiate the two, for both of them are struck by the player, and Khmer
musicians use the verb damm or veay, which means "to hit" or `fto strike."
Hornbostel and Sachs classified thejew's harp as an idiophone (1 96 l ). Jenkins
and others classify thejew's harp as a linguaphone on the ground that it has atongue
(l970). Khmer musicians classify this instrument as an aerophone. Khmer musicians
are perhaps more practical than many organologists in the West in that, logically, a
tongue is inside the mouth. Khmer musicians refer to all reeds (free-reed, single-reed,
double-reed, and quadruple-reed) as `"tongues" or andot, because all ofthem, with no
exception, are placed in the mouth when being played. Moreoyer, they use the verb
phlomm which means "to blow" to denote playing action on these instruments.
Consequently, it is only logical to call them aerophones. To call them anything other
than aerophones, the Khmer need to use a new and different verb fbr them.
A given instrument in Cambodia, fbr instance the tror so (two-stringed fiddle),
could be known as:
1.
]iC'oeurng khsae
(stringed instrument)
2.
K)'oeurng kaut
(bowed instrument)
3.
koeurng mohori
(instrument used in th e mohori ensemble)
Organology
117
Whereas the roneat aek (high-pitched xylophone) could be classified as:
1. keoeurngdamm
(struck instrumentiperfbrmance technique)
2. K}"oeurngpinnpeat
3. Kinoeurngmohori
(pinnpeat instrumentiensemble type)
(mohori instrumentiensemble type)
4. koeurng noam
(leading instrumentirole)
5. Kfroeurng dontray buran
(traditional musical instrumentigenre)
In recent times in Cambodia, in coming into contact with the West, a group of
students ofethnomusico]ogy at the Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh wrote
and published a book on musical instruments of Cambodieq which include four
categories of musical instruments: wind, string, percussion (idiophones and
membranophones), and other instrument [another instrument] (Keo et al. (1 994)). Pich
also classifies Khmer instruments into four main groups, but somewhat different:
chordophones (plucked or bowed), aerophones (blown), membranophones (with a
generic term skor preceding the names, hit or struck), and idiophones (struck together)
(1970:l6).
The Khmer system is connected deep dovvn with the culture and heritage, from
within instead of from without. Khmer music theory and practice, including ideas of
organology have been passed on from master to pupil during music lessons and
perforrnances. Musicians, however, do not usually take notice ofthis. It still holds true
today that, as you are reading this book, most Khmer musicians (except a few) still have
not thought about it.
The classification systems, that use physical aspects as criteria totally ignore the
musical experience. I view the Khmer system based upon the existing musical practice,
and do not force the instruments to fit in the system to suit my study. Instruments
themselves contain a system. It is our task to discover it, and not to construct systems to
sujt our specific research interests. Heyde makes this perfectly clear when he talks of
the "natural system" that they are not created, but have objective existence, which needs
only to be discovered (1 975: 1 4). In this vvay, we show a respect and are sensitive to the
practitioners' system.
The Hornbostel･-Sachs system was a theory-centered concept, vvhereas the
Khmer is a perfbrmance-centered one. The Khmer system was created to serve neither
organology nor museology, but practical use within the music making.
In many cultures, like the Khmer, the dominant concept of instmments is
primarily religious, secular, and practical music making rather than mere organological
and museological. Playing technique associates with music and therefbre affects the
musical style, which in turn gives ways to different classifications. Khmer musicians
classify their instruments according to:
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
l18
.
Physical and playing characteristics
(string, striking, beating)
e
Role
(leading/aek)
.
Musical style
(runninglroneat rut)
.
Ensemble
(contextlarakk, kar, pinnpeat,
.
Controlling action
(mouth with aerophonesijew's harp)
e
Size
(tauch, thomm)
e
Status
(court, folk)
.
Belief
(religious, sacred, secular)
mohori)
The next question about the Khmer system is whether or not we classify
instruments, or do we merely list or describe them? More new systems will continue to
be propounded in the future, as the universally accepted system ofctassification of
musical instruments has yet to be created.
Several Westem sources have discussed "organology" at length, particularly
pertaining to its definition. Examining those definitions, what I present here is relevant
to the kind of organology defined by Hood as the science of musical instruments
including not only description, but techniques of performance, musical function,
decoration, and a variety of socio--cultural considerations (1 982: 1 24).
More recent approaches and works on organology have added new dimensions
to the classification system ofmusical instruments. They can also be perceiyed to be, on
the one hand, the continuation of the generally adopted classification system of
Mahillon (1 893 [1 880]), Hornbostel-Sachs (1 961 [19i 4]), and others who fo]lowed, and
on the other, the cultural side ofthe spectrum emphasizing the musical sound, which is
produced by the instrument as a human activity, and drawing comparison between the
old and new instruments in a meaningfu1 way. Without this, organological perception
and practice in Khmer music would not be thought of and talked about today.
l19
0’‘9ω？0109y
寸Z
く
に
段
Σ
旧
ト
ω
ト
の
z
o。エ
・
L
ト
く
。
正
あ
の
（
」
o
Σ
く
ω
No
o
z
《
8
Σ
く
9励
伽5た。／1η∫伽ηθ’71∫（ゾCo励。幽
120
出Z
o
@差 o「「Z 歪 望 畏
卜」
給
z
oのユ＝
ユ
Ω9
臼
櫓
o工
茶ﾏ
韓
9
畢呈
田
Z
o
ま耐0 0
四
ト
の
〉
の
zo
《
o＝
の
で
器蓮雲【と｛9 6の
o
一
α
o
＝
o
己
℃
雪
o
ω
卜
Z四＝
i＝
あ
の
《
」
つ
α
レ
の
z一
o
」
《
。
く
の
＝
oz
《
①
．9
o唇
四
巳
z
■一
o＝
習
r『 ①
@Ω．
■一・α＝
四
2
9
oo
o匡
コ
く
あ⊃
馬90
●
途
く
の
．⊆一
cう【L
▼一
@℃
@＄
年①
卍
鐸韮
しと
℃‘
の「一 」＝
▼曽
@u
@呂 o
12】
01goη010幻・
の山
Z
oエユ
oマz
」
卜 開
}■ o
@く
@匡
@山
電
r一起
卜 Φ 、「一の
@」
Σ山Σ
o山
B
Z
o
oワエ
o
▽曹 為
oζ
宙?こh
巳
o
δ
s
開
＝
￠耀國 回 ■
に
∋o
町
と
「
一
E全盤
ω田
Z
o
工
ﾂら
0＝
田
ト
の
》
o工
o
の
z
o
F
《
り
」
コ
．の
の
く
J
o
Σ
く
の
o
Z
《
の
ト
ω
℃
9麗
古の
一
Ω
コ
L
℃
雪
0
Z四Σ
匿
ω四zo
⊃匡ト
のZ一
」
《
。
あコ
置ヨ
P工
@Lo
匡
四
《
寸 ●
言ε
モ理γ【し
bα ■
o
臥
o
コ
肛
コ
o
o
Σ
話90
，
お
《
，⊆
ぐつΩ．
一℃
@＄
年①
9」
9塞
しと
蓄‘
鱒甲二
F o
呂。
▼一
@亡r
u
7、
F 郷
の
A伽。α〃η51η〃ηεη15σCα〃7ろ・ゴ’θ
】22
の国z
o
@＝：
@L
し
g器r 」
の］」
Z
oo＝
」
9
⑲
⑩＝
e
切
≧
99
9
∈≧q
ω
国
Z
o
＝＝
mき o
四
ト
の
〉
切
2
0
F
く
。
匡
q
一
匡
コ
」
℃
雪
o
切
←
2山＝コ
切
ぼ
トω峯
9り
o
「口
o
工
o
あ
く
」
＝
ω
P鎚 1 ①の
＿1
《
o
一
四
z
o
b．＝＝
@“
o
巳
9マ orα＝ ■
o
5
o
o
に
田
く
コ
O，
く
の
o
z
《
Σ
《
の
Σ
扁90
逼
，9
oL
一B ①
零器L
L
?
3寒
ξ
一垂台
oミーと
禦塁ミ
」と
つ
①虻
」＝ Φ
．＿2『 ，一
i些き
v＝」＝
一
D9x
工
示
@焉「「’」＝
■一
@〇
@琶 o
】23
0’9α’π710＆y
の］
z
@o コ＝
@し
一
gr 劇9
? ①
@」
の四
z
oのコ＝
9
【コ
のコ＝
? 切 幽
に
o
一
o
一
弐
①
つ
∈津㎝
oo
田
oz
工
mき
o
匡o
山
←
の
〉
の
z
O
ト
《
o
し
の
の
く
＿」
o
Σ
く
の
oz
く
‘
の
℃
m蕃
坐の
」
δ扁尽
o
m ㎝
Ω．
N O 竃＝
ﾂ
コ＝
m 一 〇
”
o
”o
偲
＝
o
門 にx
甲申
のα：
の
卜
@o
つ
oo
≧
N o四
N L
r弓 」」
z
¶■ @o 一
…≡⊃匡ト
2 畑 に
」
切脚Zo
i2、NO￡め L’【L
の
≡」
《
り
一
ω
コ
Σ
工
@o，
@o
@＝
閾【
rぼ ｿ二
o
暫一
@南 二
四
く
コ
oo
F マコ ー
＝
個
o
蜒ｰ， ℃
コoo
o
oぼ
o
①
①
①
L
」
◎ロ
e
N
7N2
「一
孚江
2o
監
“
9
oち
Σ
く
の
ｧ
①
幽
O
．E
の
魯
eり n．
7 η
匿
o
2
■一
」
℃
」
田さN【￥8
巴
7
門 ①
》、
F認￡ ㎝
己、E
切9薗
oヱ
㌍塞
Lと
”
b一 〇
rり ①
曹一α＝ o
oo
bL
2
o．50
ε
o
コ＝
刀o
．龍炉） u2 肥
7一 一
ζ
」 の
冒
@o
@‘
@門
C
‘
@‘
@o
｝
り
@o
皿
@ くL
o〔と
r
124
λ4z’5たρ〃η5伽ηcη15σCo’ηわ。伽
の
］J
2
o
工
低
oマz
@《
￠
一
ト の
浮?o
@」
oΣ
国
Σ
の
eo
山z
On工
巳
㊤工
･暫 oo
0
≧
己
、
Φ
旧
一
oo 》
モこ
．辱
ﾙ±o
甲
｝
@①辺
ロロ腔
塁
の
の
閥
ω
@z
@o
@工
@匹例。 o 匡 o
Σ
田
←
の
〉
の
z
o
F
《
o
臨
の
＝［
Q
コ。
ω
o
z
《
Σ
《
切
乙 籍
o o
z山
曜■
巴匡
切四
」．ωZ
z
@o
冨可 ￠r一【【
e：＝
一」く
9
⊃
艶
D＝ト噛の【L、＿
「■ @1 ⑩ 」【 、
Σ⊃匡
ω
《
℃￡
の o
切
ト
。う
《
一
〇
駕
@巳
重9
《
8
o＝囚
．9忠工の
125
0’‘goη010幻・
ω
@田
L
Σ
@oo‘N＝ N
ロ
ト
の
〉
の
の
@山
@Z
z
L
AllNll
o
F
く
。
正
あ
の
く
」
o
＝
の
o
@国
ﾒ 」
@2
@0
@＝
く
の
o
z
く
1
Σ
《
の
の
@山
@Z
@o
V工
@江
@o
@匡
@田
@く
巨
･墨 L
m弱
@1
126
〃∼’5／co11η∫カ・∼’〃781715σCo刀め04∫・
の
口
z
」
①⑩＝
工
ユ
Nピ
N
o
oてZ
く
に
口自
Σ
国
Σ
し
。養
N2ミ コと o
の山
Z
o
の工
Σ
匹
o
四
ト
一
製9
⊆≡
の
コ Φ
〉
」〉
の
z
o
F
ω
o
℃り
g 3
卜
Z坦Σ⊃
の叫z
《
o
【
あ
ω
く
J
o
＝←
o＝
の
N“
o
≡
く
o
曝C。 Z、 1Φ σレQ． ‘ ①
@」
o｛：一JO
o
配。＝o
」く〇一
＝
の
コ軌
① o
▽，」【Φ
￡L
の
⊃
認￡
L
． 畠
匿
z
《
の
山
1
z
o
く
の
＝
「一
yL
o匡
山
く
P
o
‘
N O
l 〇
@にo
Σ
B①
7｝“ o ＝
二葦§N3〔L
2
く
127
0’・9α’？o／09γ
の山
zo
工α
b⑩」＝N一 ． 一
N
o
寸Z
@く
@に
o
Σ田Σ
L
。雛
の山Z
芝
O
山
←
の
的工
@住
o
δ
〉・
一
の
Z
o
F
く
。
【
あ
の
《
一」
o
Σ
の
ト
①寸中’
Z叫
mコ
@」
Σ
⊃
匡
ト
ω
Z
一
」
く
の
Σ
Σ
く
ω
z
o
＝＝
略
o
匡
◎
＝＝o
＜
く
切
団
O一
切
⊃
o
z
創9ミ
δk
皿L
躍￡
L
Po
二、Dooき【ミ
のw
NO
z
o
団Σ電 ηの
r工
に
o
匡
田
く
ω￡
”
L
o
着と
コ
匡
‘
嚇。
NO
＝o
セ
Σ
o
‘
o
建E
X器 ”ミ
ω≧
o加
ユ
1一 」
m日口
@工
128
A伽1cα1ノη伽研ε傭0ズCo1ηわ0面
雷
乙
δ
o‘
N暫
閏
ま
禮
歪
望
選
し
の量窪
創上∼ミ
呂x
の
国
o
L
o
コ
①
CNO
ぐつ【；
Z
o
則’こ
あ
￠
巴
＝
ト
τつ工
○
己
暮
霞
NL
建
ト
①
rTo
CMコ
の
四
暑§
」
卑φε
z
o
【つΦト
創謬§
」ト
工
匹
山
←
の
〉一
の
z
o
ト
《
o
L
の
。
＜
．」
り
く
ω
o
z
く
ω
レ
“o
o
匡
o
＝
o
z
国
⊃
ト
の
z
＿1
《
o
ω
⊃
2L
nηo
鮒忍よ
つ
o㌔
L
．製■コ
頃のに
罵き量
の
山
Nコ」
Z
o
能
甲【ユ＝
ユ
0
匡
u」
く
o
‘
Nり
NO
⊆
o
η
0
6⊆こ
マoo
の
爲昏§
Σ
ヒ ロ
℃
コ
LL
η
雪一四
ロ
Σ
＜
切
きト
」
〇〇
〇」【＝
“9
c閲岡
工
三
叩
30
ト
亮
襲
o−o
孚ま痒
自B8
E」
、ヨ2
0ト＿
Σ
℃
＝
oユ
u」ζ
Ω．o
．望。
囚ま醇
¶一σ」
鴇王8
5§
忌ト
o
麟Φ
」＝直
■一りζ
鎮巳
N昼ミ
エ
129
α9ω70／09ソ
09
@山
@Z
6Φ二N．＝ N
E
W§麟董1
ε
田
ト
の
@口
@Z
L
B餐哩ミ召と
の
〉
の
Z
o
コ
ト
《
o
【
師
の
く
①寸咽
の
@四
@Z
@o
@z
?R
@」
」
o
Σ
《
』∼L
の
ﾈ￡ L
o
z
く
1
＝
《
ω
ω
@山
@Z
@o
@工「一【L
@o
@に
@山
@く
p二
L
ﾏロ
@エ
130
A傭ω〃’λ㌢1’・z’〃7θ’715可Cωηわ。ゴ’o
錘9
呂龍
N①E
ρ
コ o
トと
δ
二
．忠＝
N
も
@て⊃ o｛N ① 為㊤ σ】￡N長芒
おり ‘四 ヴ “
の山zo
@あく
己
工
巳
コ
￡
oマZ
く
匡
凶
Σ
b
‘
嵩
山Σ
」
。養
山
ト
の
〉
ω
z
o
F
＜
o
【
あ
の
く
」
Nム∼ミ
呂と
の
山
⊆≡
Φ
マ 劇
四 コ
z
一
Σ
く
ω
あ
⊃
o
⊆∼
Σ
⊃
匡
ト
ω
」
ト
匹
Z田
o
差
o儒工
←
の
山
@」
Z
《
o
o
コ：
臥No
oα
＝
o工
z
《
o
o
①
一
し
鎚￡
《
の
」
の
山
z
■一
o
工
yL
oぼ
国く
あx
ｼ
o
Z
の
δ呂§N’ζ19
鷺。
‘
団8
に
oΣ
臼
uN 田
@工
131
Orgo〃0108γ
x
o
@；
鴻ﾖ
o①
@ヨ 閃 匡
0
@0
@n
mE
oo
山
zo
庶ｧ
血
ぎ
の
工
巳
o寸Z く
Σ
ｳ口
山
←
匡
の
山
Σ
〉
く
〇
一
Σ
ト
L
団
霧器
Z
①q
Σ
㎝田
⊃
Z
L
齢
卜
㊤辱＝
の
α
の
く
o
o
≧
oo
【
の
の℃
田
の
Z
o
F
ご
0
@2
z
一
群
o
o
一
o一
」《O
＝
｡。の口Ω
。
Σ
く
の
騨
ω
コ
Σ
o
の
z
Z
く
Σ
く
ロリ
国
一
国
o
『》ρ
工
o）E
o
囚。
〉
o
@o
に。
＝［o
ob
l【§ζりOo oと
の
山
ZO
o
7工
【」
oo
セ」：Φ
ﾌ＆さ ∼ヒ
く
X
132
A41’5ノα∼！／η∫1’●z”η81？15 q／−Co〃7わoo「1θ
苫
@聲。◎の。 o ヨ 歪
0
@8
Φ∈
竃に9n c口 黛
l重
@墨 の
の
@国
@Z
@o
@工
u
←
@氏
く
ﾂ亀〔つ〔し
ω
〉
の
z
o
に
く
。
己
あ
の
く
」
」 Q．
@①
ﾊ 6x
ω
@巴
@z
@on＝ に 9 ⊆
o
＝
ｾ品
《
の
o
Z
く
コ
Σ
く
の
の
@z
@o
@工
@］」」
可
ｶ程 δ
@匪ぐ閲。
@o
@匡
@o
@工
@Q
ゆ。コ｝
ﾎ5§ ⊂〕と
の
@田
@Z
@o
o o 匡 山 く
①
@⊆ ㌔・
@o
ｺ．⊆町
Φ
ﾌ3呂 ∼〔【 ×
133
0’goη0109y
の
@山
@Z
@o
@工
@L
軌
@u に
Φ
@仁
@o
@‘
Σ
口
←
の
〉
の
2
0
F
《
o
Urと
@の
o
@」＝ 雨
窒tQ 一「M・一㍉▼・Ω．⑩
oo
@口
@Z
刀?工【と
o
@oo工
@＝舶
@o馴コ
@巳
@；〔ヒ
@o
@己 一
@；
｢Ωヒ o
oo
@×
◎
@9§Nも霞甲．＝擁
【
あ
の
く
。
の
@山
く
の
0
2
@Z
@o
@工
ｪ o 匡 o 工 O
く
1
＜
go
の
@」」
@Z
コζ ① Φ
昼ｿく
Gζ蕊の」： に oo 至〔と
134
〃∼’∫ノoo1傭加〃ηeη1∫（ガCo〃め。ゴ’α
E
@ミ℃ o
2β創2軌醸
2
oく力一J に L
oo軌
ox
① に
ε弐
｣9 お。 ヨと ．旦
ﾈ
も
Q
「一 〇u ヴ寸・口 に
｣§
90
zE o k
の
田
Zo工
2
o
ユ
o
?に
oNO
I o
@等
o寸z
田
ト
の
＞
@く
@に
@口5
Σ
oり
z
o
F
《
o
L
ロ
ω
の
く
。
《
ω
o
Z
《
ω
卜
監
山
Σ
四
工
Z
U芝
コ
匡トgo
9り
@on＝：
≡
臥o
」
《
己
o
o，、
四
z
一
仁く
o⇔
曹W言
ﾕ5§ oと
賜§
口
【：
o
創（り
一
の
創1コ
，
Σ
rつ 聯
の
鱒
の山
畠
ロ）ζ⊃
ﾉ ご
o o
zo
ﾇoミ
1
Σ
く
9り
葛お
工
N＝ o
E§
N8
。’
のと
o匡o工
o
0、
QE
oミ
嘯純ﾂ640“’馨
の坦
Zo
甲．＝
匹
o
α二
山
く
o
印JO
×
に
mO
〒， o
ρゆ個
旦L
切O
；麗
潤＝ コ
r〕㎝E Eミ
のと
135
0置go’？010蟄・
着 ’；
盾盾ﾌ
o
Φ
@ヨ ㎝ に
8 Ω
mE
撃ﾂ 国
@笛
@主
@の
の］
zo
も
工
に
］
ト
の
〉
ω
Z
o
F
く
。
＝
あ
oo
く
」
噂
≧
o
o
Σ
LO q
z
脚Σ⊃
●〇
α
ト
ω
z
口
く
ω
の
⊃
Σ
く
ω
匡
Zく
山
の
ト
o
1
⑩o
｛つη
山Σ
」
く
o
z
く
o
｝
o
9
l
癖
z
o
o◎＝：
低
o
一
o
一
＝
寸 06【n
で
Φ
∈qN∈o
ω
山
z
o
需匡さ とQ
． 一
工
一
属
【L
3量
創。
o
匡
o工
》
o
工
ト
℃
ω
∈⇔｝E亡
O
7曽 、 1｛＝
モﾂ口＝￡σ）
着Q
◎⇔
l＝∈の O o Ok
ω
@国
@Z
@o
V工
ユ
oぼ田
く
o
⊆ r】
0 6
甲，」＝ Φ
潤風e
ヌ〔と
w
三
←
九4諭co1ノ’7∫伽ηθ鷹｛ゾCo〃め。伽
】36
着
@房霧ω … 醒
0
@8
mE
ラ¥ 朗
@口
@≡
@oo
s
@ 聖 9 一 9」 臥
?I o〔L
＆
匹
k
ぢ 2
?o ヨ
田
←
の
〉
の
oFZ
《
o＝
あ
ω
〈
一
〇
Σ
《
の
」
@o 竃
ｪ§ δと
@」￡c
田 z on＝： 店 9 9
@Φ 、o
@Ω．コ
m拾9
ｼ。δ 謹 u q コ 職 の思
＝
uず oの oo
o
zく
く
の
石
W程 δ
o◎コ
ﾕ5蓉 oと
Φ噂》
@⊂
@o
「6o
пQ 」＝
?Ω．＝＝
@o
o
@ヌ【と
@X
Y
137
αgo”010旦V
E
⊇
o
ばジ扁
寸．2
も
．⊆
ヌ
。
∈
≡
寸ロ
マ石
ヒ
匝
ω
田
z
o
＝＝
ト
の
〉
の
o．
で2
《
の
ト
く
。
匡
Σ
⊃
コ
ω
の
ト
の
＿」
o
Σ
く
の
z
∈
z
−
」
く
。
あ
⊃
旧
Σ．
∈
≡
ヒ。り
NO
寸σ⊃
国
⊆
．Z
o
」
o
r）＝
⊆≧
9
∈
≡
Fo
寸毎
五
〇
の
山
く
の
マ。
L
o
z
く
1
卍
。
の「σ
巴
z
o
F
く
E
Z
o
＝［
No
o
o
工
Q
の
山
z
o
▼＿工
。
山
く
〇
138
〃謝。α1ノ〃∫1η〃ηeη1∫oブ。σ〃め。グ10
E
己
。
の弱
マ．9
も
≦
あ
Q
E
E
で。
噂可
ヒ
oo
uト
四
z
o
の
〉
の
Z
o
i＝
《
oコ
匹
コ
ω
ω
く
。
く
の
。
E
3
の
Σ
＝
0
nマコ
マω
E
o
の
ト
z四
田
℃Z
《
』
Σ
巴
E
Σ
E
⊃
2
ト
脚。
噂。
。り
z
一
く
。
ω
⊃
＝
〇
o田
一
Z
o
．≧・
▼騨
vこ
N」こ
「「o
L
o
七
の
「9工
匹
E
⊆∼
ヨ
2
。
てコヒ
．Z
く
N①為
題菩
■
く
の
’奄
E
2
の
睾
「一幽
皇
0
畠
oo
曽〇
三
Nき
窪
雪
〇
〇
占さ
コ距
皇
ヒ
“．9「て
。
轄
でoL・
距
の
山
Z
o
F＝＝
口．
o
＜
Org・η0／0紹
139
E
己
。
ぱ｝郎
寸．9
L
．E
玉
。
∈
卍
マ。
寸「5
ヒ
ロ9
の
四
Z
o
芝
＝
田
←
の
o
噂z
く
〉・
の
z
o
F
《
o
ロ
L
ロ
の
の
《
o
Σ
《
の
o
z
の
ト
z
z
一
」
《
o
ω
⊃
く
の
魏
E
響
し
E
≡
の
NO
寸σ｝
田
⊆
o
J
Z
o
儒工
。
己
E
2
Σ
0
甲一
寸①
コ
o
の
選
皇
・き
畠
皇
o
の
乙
・ま
畠
乏
雛至
の
」
奪薯1
ω量
＝
く
＝
L
国
⊃
ω
コ
o
Σ
国
歪
ト
聖
α呂タ
E
o
140
論∫1（・01ノη∫伽ηθη1∫oプCσノη加ガ10
E≡o
ﾌ一
司
}・呂
E
程ま。
@誌
C§竃＝ o電
礫聖§
o L，
E，
電 o（つ起
」
の
ﾅ。
で石
@ヒ ●巳
@①
Eコ o
Lζ
rOq
等論
旧
←
の
〉
の
Z
o
F
く
。
臨
の
の
く
の四
2
o
工
匹
のト
Z
田Σ
つ
α
←
o
噂Z
《α
Eの
の
E
2
o
專忘
E
ε］一
山Σ
四
2
の
z
噛
一
。
く
go
o
z
《
《
9
の
⊃Σ
の山
Z
o胸コニ
@ユ
o
己
E
コ
」
n0
｡ o
唇
」
一
重
Σ
《
oo
の
国
Z
o
工匹
E
≡
o
創o
u寸石
匡
o
o
oコ＝Q
の山
Zo
r工
匹o
＝
山
く
一
Ω
o
141
Orgoη0109｝・
E
2
一3
鍔。
甑
寸．≡
E
≧
マ重
の
≡
o
石
響．9
N聖
呂と
マお
あ
玉
o
E
2
マ。
マ「あ
ヒ
ロ
Σ
国
ト
oo
＞
ω
z
o
F
く
。
匡
あ
go
＜
」
o
Σ
く
ω
o
z
く
の
囮
z
o
工
の
ト
z
四
Σ
⊃
o
噂Z
く
口
Σ
山
Σ
Z
cつ℃
マΦ
E
匹
L
＜
o
の
＝コ
＝
E
2
の
山
z
o
09＝
NO
寸。
〔
o
」
o
己
E
2
1
Σ
く
の
E
2
0
ト
の
．＿o
の
u
Z
o
＝
No
o
匡
O
Q
工
の
山
Z
o
F工
o
］
く
Φ
も
．≡
寸5
五
〇
〇
∈
2
γo
馳
9
m
の
．一ミ
o
7亀
のの
マL
o
起
の
CHAPTER 9
MUSIC ENSEMBLES
OF
CAMBODIA
Tl:Sm,gS,g,g,11;al.P/Lg.Sm,eg.:aSsg.li･11;,Ig,:[･khffRis?O-g.`tgfr.e?,{"ar.egtssui:.es'M.･2niai}C,y;･:iSeJMygeiy:.iag･2,
functioning within the contexts ofworship ofthe spirit, vvedding, funeral, and dance and
theater performances, in which music is called for and cannot be dispensed vvith.
UUNG PHLENG ARAKK
Vlring phleng arakk or the worship of the spirit ensemble consists of the
fbllowing instruments: khsae muay, tror Khmer, chcrpay dang veng, payprabauh, skor
arakk, chhing, and chamrieng. Outside ofan ensemble situation, two instruments:pay
pork and snaeng are used as solo instruments for the opening ceremony and invitation of
the krou thomm (great teacher). The vungphleng arakk traditionally functions within
the contexts ofbanhchoan arakk or getting a medium into trance, blessing a ceremonial
quarter, and salute to the guardian spirits. The arakk ceremony is conducted in three
phases: opening (invitation), ritual (trance and interrogation), and closing (thanks).
To begin the ceremony, the piece called Surin must be played to inyite the great
teacher (Samdech Preah Krou or Samdech Poan) to come and preside the ceremony. At
this time, thepaypork is played solo accompanied by offerings to the Samdech Preah
Krou who speaks through a medium. The arrangements are made to soothe the spirits,
be it Dambang Daek (lron Stick), Srey Khmao (Black Lady), Neang Tey Sangreng
(Lady Tey Sangreng), Kantong Khiev (Blue Banana LeafContainer), etc. In the case in
which the great teacher does not respond and therefbre does not come to the ceremony, a
follow-up piece called Bangkauk Snaeng is played on the snaeng. It should be noted
that both ofthe pieces, Surin and Bangkauk Snaeng, are in rubato.
After the interrogation, knowing the causes ofillnesses, the ensemble plays the
piece called Kae, along with offerings, to thank and close the ceremony.
143
Mbesical Instruments of'Cambodia
144
Action tunes:37
Surin
(opening, invitation)
Bangkauk Snaeng
(fo11ow-up, invitation)
Nimun
(invitation)
Kae
(closing, thanks)
With its base in the village, the arakk music is used as a means to facilitate and
overcome hard times, among peasant and animist practitioners. In its normal situation,
it is played to get a medium into trance to tell causes of illnesses when a person is ill or
to tell the fate ofthe village.
VUNG PHLENG JorR
The usual age for marriage in Cambodia is about twenty to twenty--five for men,
and sixteen to twenty-two for women. In former times, it was the groom's family who
decided the choice ofthe bride. Much carefu1 negotiation, first by intermediaries, and
ceremonial paying of courtesy characterized the early part of the proceedings, which
extended over a long period oftime. More emancipation is now the general rule, and
the decision to marry is usually made by the young persons themselves.
Courtship is usually begun by a young man making remarks on a young girl
about her beauty, using metaphors ofthe surrounding natureethe sky, the moon, trees,
birds, and animals-as in the traditional Khmer society, it is unseemingly appropriate to
speak of "love" directly.
As the relationship develops, the prospective maniage will be the subject of
gossip among friends, relatives, and neighbors. This will ultimately lead to a formal
negotiation and engagement.
The two future in-laws will investigate each other's family before making any
serious commitment. During this period, an astrologer might be consulted to read birth
dates, birth signs, luck, and fortune of the prospective couple.
The actual vvedding ceremony may last as long as three days and three nights
depending upon the financial resources ofthe parents concerned. Throughout the entire
event, various rituals (hair-cutting, tooth-polishing, thread-tying, sword-dancing,
37
For music transcriptions ofthe arakk pieces, see Musique Khmere < 1 969:98-1 03).
?Ldetsic Ensembles ofCambodia
145
mat-rolling, scarflholding, etc.) are conducted, and a weddingmusic ensemble is played
almost continuously.
In the olden days, the traditionat Khmer wedding ensemble known as vung
phleng kar or vungphleng Khmer was restricted to be played by only old serious male
musicians. Young musicians were not allowed to play this music, because the Khmer
perceived wedding ceremonies and music to have a blessing significance. Those who
practiced the tradition closely even went so far as to hire only old musicians who were
not blind or handicapped (Pich 1970:6). Today, this practice is less strict. Thus, young
musicians are accepted to take part in the ensemble.
The original instrumentation ofthe vungphleng kar is as fbllows: slekk (]eaf),
pey prabauh (double-reed pipe)38 khsae muay (plucked monochord or musical bow),
tror Khmer (three-stringed spike fiddle), chapqy dang veng (long-necked lute), ehhing
(small finger cymbals), skor arakk (goblet drum), and chamrieng (vocals).
The more contemporary insrmmentation includes the fo11owing: khlQy (duct
flute), krapeu (three-stringed floor zither), tror so tauch (medium-high-pitched
two-stringed fiddle), tror ou (low-pitched two-stringed fiddle), khimm (hammered
dulcimer), chhing (small finger cymbals), skor arakk (goblet drum), and chamrieng
(vocals).
The vungphleng kar, the most popular ofall Khmer music ensembles, can be
found in virtuatly every village, town, and city across Cambodia and even in the Khmer
communities in the United States and beyond. It has its functions in the wedding
ceremony, which is cal}ed for when there is a vvedding.
Action tunes:
Haom Rong
e Played in the evening befbre the ceremony as an official opening and to invite
the guardian spirits to bless the bride and groom, the wedding quarter and to
ask permission to use the place.
Angkor Reach or Nokor Reach
e Related to the ancient Khmer city, it is played for the couple to recatl and
remember this historical past.
Sarika Keo
e Hair-cutting(1 or 2 o'clock, 2nd day)
38
Thc pe.v prabauh seryes as the tuning fork to which other instruments are tuned,
Musical Jnstruments ofCambodia
146
Preah Thaong
. Thread-tyingandscarfholdingceremonies
Kang Saoy
e Ancestral vvorship, fbr blessing, prosperity, and longevity
VUNG PHLENG P17VN PEA T
VLtng phleng pinn peat or court ensemble consists of wind and percussion
instruments: sralai tauch (high-pitched quadruple-reed shavvm), sralai thomm (lowpitched quadruple-reed shawm), roneat aek (high--pitched xylophone), roneat thung
(lowpitched xylophone), roneat daek (high-pitched metallophone), korng tauch (highpitched circular frame gongs), korng thomm (low-pitched circular frame gongs), chhing
(small finger cymbals), sampho (small double-headed barrel drum), skor thomm (large
double-headed barrel drums), and chamrieng (vocals). It has its main function in the
accompaniment ofcourt dance, masked play, shadow play, and religious ceremonies.
Thepinnpeat is one ofthe oldest Khmer music ensembles. Instruments and
instrumentation in its present fbrm, although larger and more elaborate than its
prototype, were carved on the walls ofthe Angkor Vatt temple thus giving its age to
over a thousand years old. This ensemble, ofshawms (oboes), xylophones, gongs, and
drums, is the strongest in sonority among all Khmer music ensembles. This attribute is
needed to support the dynamics and nuances ofthe Reamker (Ramayana) story, for
instance, vvhich evolyes around its principal theme ofconfiict and antagonism between
good and evil represented by the arrny ofPreah Ream (Rama) and that ofReap (Ravana)
respectively.
Thepinnpeat repertoire is known as phleng skor (drum music) orphleng laim
(dance music). This type ofrepertoire is often referred by ethnomusicologists as `"action
tune," i.e., each tune with its specific prescribed drum patterns is used to support an
action on stage executed by a dancer, an actorlactress, or a puppeteer. What happens
when there is no action, like in the religious ceremonies? ln the religious context, the
repertoire is treated no different than when it is used in the dance or theater
performances.
VUNG PHLENG MOHORI
Mohori refers to both the ensemble and its repertoire. Its origin and history are
unclear. Morton claims the existence ofThai mahori at least as early as the Ayuthaya
period (1 976:1o2).39
39 Prince Damrong noted that the Thai mahori was of Khmer origin. The Thai adopted and
Music Ensembles ofCambodia
l47
The word mohori, more generaJly, is the name of a bird. With reference to
music, it is a large ensemb}e composed ofall kinds ofinstruments. But today, this term
is applied more often to a small ensemble of string instruments. The present mohori
ensemble is comprised ofwind, string, and percussion instruments. The ideal fbrrnation
is consisted of reneat aek (high-pitched xylophone), roneat thung (low-pitched
xylophone), khlay (duct or fipple flute), tror chhe (high-pitched two-stringed fiddle),
tror so tauch (medium-high-pitched two-stringed fiddle), tror so thomm
(medium-low-pitched two-stringed fiddle), tror ou (low-pitched two-stringed fiddle),
krapeu (three-stringed floor zither), khimm (hammered dulcimer), chhing (small finger
cymbals), thaun-rumanea (two-piece drum-set), and chamrieng (vocals). The
instrumentation varies from ensemble to ensemble, depending upon the patronage and
ownership. The mohori ensemble ofthe Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh,
fbr instance, has many players, because it is patronized by the state and therefbre, can
afford to employ many musicians. In that case, instruments are doubled, tripled, and
even quadrupled.
While other Khmer music ensembles, such as the arakk, kar, andpinnpeat,
have partly religious functions, the mohori is used purely in a secular context. It is
played at banquets or to accompany a mohori play and folk dances of recent origin,
namely the Robaim Krapp (Bamboo Clappers Dance), Robaim AngTe (Pestle Dance),
and Robaim Chraut Srauv (Rice Harvest Dance). It may also be heard in the evening
after dinner merely for entertainment and selflenjoyment. It has also been referred to as
"concert music."
The mohori music has a lighter character than that of the pinn peat. Its
repertoire includes lullaby, love songs, sentimental pieces, and descriptive or narrative
pieces. It shou}d be noted that Khmer music is traditionally bound to be played in a
certain key.40 While the pinn peat repertoire is traditionally rendered in what is
approximately the Western key ofG or the roneat bar number 6,4i the mohori is played
in the key ofC or the roneat bar number 3. Not being aware ofthis and not knowing all
the divergent tunings ofdiflferent instruments ofthe mohori ensemble--i.e., tror chhe is
tuned D-A, tror so tauch is tuned G-D, tror so thomm D-A, and tror ou C-G-some
musicians start a piece in another key rather than C, which then makes it awkvv'ard to
play some instruments, such as the two-stringed fiddles.
40This
is a conceptual key. In other words, it is always the same and is relative only to the tuning of
an ensemble, regard]ess "'hat the frequency ofthat key might be.
41 Khmer musicians count their pitches from top to bottom. The highest pitch of the roneat
(corresponding to the shortest bar) js referred to as bar number 1. The next adjacent lower pitches and
larger bars are akin to as bars number 2, 3, 4, respectively.
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
148
The usual manner of perfbrming the mohori is that the vocalist and the
ensemble alternate their rendition. The vocalist sings one or two verses,42 then, the
ensemble plays one or two cycles ofmusic.
In the mohori ensemble ofthe royal palace in Phnom Penh, Pich listed sixteen
instruments: roneataek, reneat thung, korng tauch, korng thomm, tror Khmer, trorou,
tror chhe, khlay, skor arakk, chc4)ay dang veng, keapeu aek, krapeu thung,43 thaun,
kramp, chhing, and rumanea (1970:4).
Since the introduction ofWestern culture to Cambodia, there emerges another
hybrid ensemble and music known as the mohori samai (modern mohori) or mohori
khlay (fake or modified mohori). This ensemble, having its base in the city or large
town, consists ofa mixture oftraditional Khmer and Western instruments, namely, the
khlqy, chhing, thaun-rumanea, violin, baojo, guitar, keyboard, and accordion. The
repertoire is traditional. This is purely entertainment music.
VUNG PHLENG KORNG SKOR
Vung phleng korng skor or gong-drum ensemble is known under different
names by people in different regions, like in the Pursat province, it is called vungphleng
toam ming and vung phleng maung krum (Pich 1970:7). This is a funeral ensembEe,
which has specific and strict functions perfbrmed when a person dies and during time
when a corpse is dug out ofthe grave for a ceremony. According to Pich, this ensemble
was not used outside ofthe aforementioned contexts (ibid.).
The instrumentation includes two korng thomm (large bossed gongs, one male
sounds moung and another female sounds ming), skor thomm (large doub}e-headed
barrel drum sounds toam toam), korng vung (circular frame gongs), andpepr (pipe). The
percussive patterns go as fo11ows: moung ming moung ming toam toam toam toam
moung. For the Khmer, they convey a sad and melancholic feeling. Upon hearingthe
sounds, villagers know that there is a death or a corpse is being dug out of the grave.
42 The vocalist is accompanied only by the thaun-rumanea and the chhing which play
twice more slowly than as they do in the instrumental rendition.
43
In today's ensemble, onty the krapeu aek is used.
Mitsic Ensembles ofCainbodia
149
VU7VG PHLENG PEY KEO
At the royal palace in Cambodia, this ensemble was perfbrmed during the ritual
called saen doun ta (ancestral worship) in the phchum benn ceremony (Soul Day).
Today, it is seldom perfbrmed. In fact, I have not seen or heard one.
The ensemble includes roneat aek (high-pitched xylophone), korng vung thomm
(Iow-pitched circular frame gongs), chapay dang veng (long･-necked lute), khlqy (duct
flute) orpayprabauh (double-reed pipej, tror Khmer (three-stringed spike fiddle), and
two skor arakk (goblet drums). The ensemble also includes a lead vocalist who takes
charge ofopening the manual and other three vocalists vvho take a fbllowing role. The
repertoire ofthepay keo is similar to that ofthe arakk. Some ofthe pieces played are
Ak Yomm, Bampe, Kraom Neay, and Surin (Pich 1970:8).
VUNG PIflLENG SKOR CHHNEAH
Also known as vungphleng klang chhnakk, the vungphleng skor chhneah,
meaning "victory drum ensemble" is used in funeral,44 while the corpse is kept at home
or in the temple, during the procession when the corpse is carried to the cremation site,
or during the cremation (Pich 1970:1, 2, 6). In the olden days, the ensemble was used
on backs ofthe elephants as a military band to encourage the army in battle. The name
of the ensemble, klang means "drum," vvhereas chhnakk is a derivation of chhneah
meaning "victory." Thus, klang chhnakk or klang chhneah means "victory drum." In
the ensemble context, although other instruments are added, it means "ensemble of
victory drums."
The instrumentation ofthis ensemble includes sralai Chvea, skor klang Khaek
thnakk', and two skor saingna.
VUNG PULENG PRADALL
Boxing events in Cambodia are always accompanied by a music ensemble
called vung phleng pradall or vung phleng klang Khaek, consisting of sralai klang
Khaek, skor klang Khaek or sampho, and chhing.
There is only one boxing piece. It is in every sense unique and can be
immediately recognized by every Khmer who assists boxing events. There are two
parts: invocation and the fight. The former is the invocation ofthe spirit or krou
44
lt is often cal]ed incorrectly as vungphleng klang Khaek (Pich 1970i6),
Musicai Irzstruments ofCambodia
150
(teacher) to concentrate the boxers' mind and to give them confidence in the fight.
Music for the first part is slow in a rubato style; the sralai plays the melody
accompanied by the sampho, which provides only a few strokes at important structural
points in the melody. The second is fbster than the first set in a steady tempo. As the
rounds progress, the music accelerates and stops only at the end ofthe rounds or when a
boxer is knocked out. In a good fight, the audiences alsojoin in by clapping their hands
in rhythm with the sampho and chhing.
VUNG PHLE7VG YKE
The yike theater (dancing, acting, miming, narration, songs, and music) vvas
very popular at the end ofthe nineteenth century (Meyer 1963:l2). It was performed in
every province across the country. Nowadays, it loses its old prestige and royal
patronage confined to only the village and the Royal University ofFine Arts.
This meter is the same as the scripts used by the Cham in chanting and praying
(Yike).
Another Cham aspect, which remains till today, is, fbr example, the robai
headband worn by dancers. Other aspects have been much Khmerized already.
Theyike performed they'ataka Catk stories. Later on, popular themes have been
added to the repertoire, including Makk Theung, Tum Teav, and Me Toap Pheakdey.
According to Khmer sources, the yike owes its origin to the Cham people of
Champa, who lost their tenitory to Vietnam in the seventeenth century, Several
thousands of them have resettled in Cambodia, fbrming their own close knit
communities' the so-called Chamtown.
Scenes, and stories are cut and led by three roles: a narrator, clowns, and
dancers, through singing.
The original musical instruments oftheyike ensemble used to be only drums,
but later found that with the help ofother melodic instruments, the vocalists would sing
better in tune. Hence, the tror ou chamhieng (halflcoconutshell lovv-pitched
two-stringed fiddle) was included, and then later, the sraiai (shawm). In the original
set-up, the leading vocalist, usually the group leader andlor teacher, opened the song.
There are 85 songs altogether in the yike repertoire divided into tvvo groups:
chamrieng tol (solo) and chamrieng bantor (refrain). The fbrmer is slow in nature,
treated in such a way to please the listeners, whereas the latter is more rhythmic and
faster in tempo. Each ofthe songs serves a situation. They are action tunes, denoting
comedy (clowns), opening ceremony (Haom Rong), sadness and grieg etc.
In the traditional context, theyike perforrnance was done all night long. The
University performance lasts fbr two hours, presenting only the key and most important
elements (khlemm) ofthe plots.
151
Music Ensembles ofCambodia
VUNG P,ELLENG BAS14KK
Lkhaon basakk is a very popular fbrm oftheater in Cambodia. It owes its origin
to the Chinese theater or opera called hi, which was introduced in 1 930 to the Basakk
region from which it takes its name (Jacq-Hergoualc'h 1982:1O). The Chinese infiuence
is obvious in the music, songs, musical instruments-K)ymbals and woodblockscostumes, make-up, and acrobatics. In Vietnam, the basakk was known as youke
(Sokhanarith Moeur, personal communication, l991).45
Actors and actresses improvise their roles under the direction ofa director vvho
knows the story well.
UUNG PHLENG A }ZJ
Repartee singing performed by a couple ofopposite sex. It is one ofthe most
popular fbrms ofentertainment in Cambodia, particularly among the country fblks.
Vocalists perform hours of improvisation on short themes accompanied by an
ensemble ofprincipally tror so tauch, kTapeu, khimm, and skor arakk. At times, those
themes are discussed between the vocalists before the performance. At other times, they
instantly improvise on the spot.
UU?VG PHLENG CHRIENG C,HL4PEY
An epic singing (vocalist accompanied by the chopey dang veng), the vocalist
accompanies himselfon the long-necked lute.46 The vocalist (alvvays a man) knows the
epic story by heart, then instantly improvises as he goes along. Each perfbrmance can
last all-night long.
VUNG PHLENG KEN
Vling phleng ken consists of the fbllowing instruments: ken (mouth organ),
roneat aek (high-pitched xylophone), roneat thung (low-pitched xylophone), krapeu
(three-string fioor zither), tror chhe (high･-pitched two-string fiddle), tror so (medium-
high pitched two-string fiddle), tror ou (low-pitched two-string fiddle), ehhing (small
finger cymbals), krqpp (bamboo clappers), thaun-rumanea (goblet-srnall frame drums),
45
Do not get confused with yike.
They have different spellings and denote different fbrms,
46 This is less than an ensemble, as it is a mere one-man perfbrrnance.
152
iLdetsical lhstruments ofCambodia
and sampho (small double-headed barrel drum). However, it is interesting to note that
the ensemble takes its name after the instrurnent called ken, although the ken is not
necessarily the main instrument, nor does it lead the ensemble. This ensemble is used to
accompany the theatrical fbrm called lkhaon ken, borrowing pieces from the mohori
repertolre.
In the olden days, the actors and actresses in the lkhaon ken played the ken by
themselves while performing or acting. In the recent revival piece only musicians
played the ken. According to Tum Kravel Pich, the lkhaon ken has its origin in the
palace during the reign ofKing Norodom Sihanouk (l94l-1955) (Keo n.d.:86). Pich
adds that this theater was not very popular among the populace, eyen then, restricting
itselfonly to the royal court events. It disappeared around the 1960s (ibid,).
In Cambodia, the lkhaon ken hasjust recently been revjved. Our surviving
dance and music masters, who had perfbrmed or seen the lkhaon ken during their
younger days, tell us accounts, which have become the basis for the recreation and
revival ofthis form, vvhich in turn, was premiered at the Chaktomouk Theater in Phnom
Penh on March 24, 2000.
CONCLUSION
ince the olden times, Khmer music has been associated with and inspired by the
SgX'iSag,e,gi.fe.z",g,`t,',Rp,tx'.?',ee,¥ig2".m,szt6,M,,:･/￡,eg,k",:s,?J.e.ye."Ee.r,e･f,glo.:?X','Ltu,a,lj
festival.
Khmer music is an important aspect ofKhmer life and culture. It epitomizes
the history ofCambodia, its society, people, art, customs, and beliefs. This importance
can be observed in the significance of music to the perfbrming arts----dance and
theater-and to the trad itional and religious ceremonies-weddings and worship ofthe
spirit,
Khmer music has a dual function: ritualistic and entertaining. In the former, it
has the power to bring a medium into trance and to please the spirits. In the latter, it
enhances the atmosphere and enlivens the listener's mind, It is said that music
accompanies every Khmer as far back as his cradle. It reflects the soul and character of
the Khmer people.
"Change" is a natural process and phenomenon. It is not oniy inevitable, but
aiso necessary in order to keep the tradition vibrant and relevant to the people,
particularly, the current generation. However, changes, which are in accordance vvith
traditiona] princip}es, should be welcomed. But it is a deplorabte fact that there are also
changes, which are due to negligence, ignorance, and misunderstanding. We see, today,
the addition and mixing ofWestem and Khmer instruments in the wedding ensembles,
while the old ensemble fbrmation is virtually not practiced.
However, as long as theoretical principles ofthe old master are adhered to, this
art form will be able to retain its traditional form against deterioration.
The history of genocide of the people of Cambodia and the destruction of
Khmer cu]ture by the Khmer Rouge are an unforgivable crime, which continues to haunt
us till this day. Economic downfa11, fo11owing the Khmer Rouge reign ofterrors, affects
interest in the musical arts ofCambodia, as the priority shifts to trying and struggling to
survlve.
The nationality cultures very much remain in their localities vvithout difiUsion.
In the recent past, there have been increasing and graduat, although slow and minima],
efforts of research and study on Khmer music, particularly, that ofthe nationalities or
minority ethnic groups in Cambodia. I would like to applaud the consciousness and
efforts by Khmer scholars, particularly, Tum Kravel Pich, who has researched, written,
and published a wealth ofmaterials and infbrmation on the Khmer traditional cu}ture.
In the near future, we hope that there will be effbrts to create a Museum of
Musical Instruments to preserve and disseminate the Khmer musical tradition
efifi:ctively.
153
Musicai Jnstrttments qf"Cambodia
154
I also thank the various foundations, namely, the Toyota Foundation, the Japan
Foundation, the UNESCOICAMBODIA, the Rockefe11er Foundation, the Asian
Cultural Council, the New England Foundation fbr the Arts, the National Endovvment
for the Arts, the Albert Kunstadter Family Foundation, the United Board for Christian
Higher Education in Asia, and the National Museum of Ethnology, all of which have
supported prejects in Cambodia.
While we try to explain the various Khmer musical systems and try to increase
our musical knowledge by researching, studying, analyzing, and writing about our
music, let us not fbrget about the traditional way ofpracticing Khmer music, the sincere
respect, and the soul ofthis musical culture that have been practiced and passed on for
generations, while we should make this music vibrant and relevant to the current mood
and feeling ofthe younger Khmer generation, It would be nice ifwe can both preserve
the old and beautify the new hand in glove. Theory alone devoid ofthe actual music
indeed means nothing.
Music has been, to the Khmer, more than mere entertainment; it functions as an
integral part ofthe Khmer life.
REFERENCES CITED
A. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balfour, Henry. 'LReport on a CoUection ofMusical instruments.fi"om the Siamese
Malay States and Perak, " Fasciculi Malayenses (1903), 1-20.
Blanchard, Wendell, ed. Thailand; Its People, Its Society, Its Culture.
Nevv Haven: Human Relations Area Files, 1958.
Brailoiu, Constantin. "Uh Probleme de lbnalite, " Melanges d'Histoire et
d'Esthetique Musiea}es. Paris: Bibliotheque d'Etudes Musicales, 1955.
Brunet, Jacques. "The Origins ofCambodian Musie, " Traditional Drama and
Music of Southeast Asia, ed. Mohd. Taib Osman. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1 974, 208-2 1 5.
--- . Sur les Origines de la Musique Cambodgienne. Kuala
Lumpur: Malaysian Society for Asian Studies, 1969.
Chonpairot, Jarernchai. "The Dtt7iision ofthe Vina in SoutheastAsia, "
Proceedings ofthe Saint Thyagaraja Music Festival. ed. T. Temple
Tuttle. Cleveland: Greater Cleveland Ethnographic Museum, 1981,
98-108.
Coedes, George. Angkor: An Introduction, Hong Kong: Oxfbrd University
Press, 1963.
Cravath, Paui, "Earth in Flovver: An Historical and Descriptive Study ofthe
Classical Dance Drama ofCambodia. " Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Hawaii, l985.
The Culture and Fine Arts Magazine (August 31, 2000), (l).
The Culture and Fine Arts Magazine (September 30, 2000), (2).
The Culture and Fine Arts Magazine (October 3 l , 2000), (3).
155
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
156
Danielou, Alain. La Musique du Cambodge et du Laos. Pondichery:
Publications de 1'Institut Francais d'Indologie, l957.
de Gironcourt, George. '7?echerches de Geographie Musieale en lhdoehine, "Bulletin
de la Societe des Etudes Indochinoises (1942), 1 7(4).
Delvert, Jean. Le Cambodge. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983.
Drager, Hans Heinz. Prinzip einer Systematik der Musikinstrumente.
Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter 1947.
,
Dumarcay, Jacques. The House in South-East Asia. Singapore: Oxfbrd
University Press, l987.
Duriyanga, Phra Chen. Thai Music, 5th ed. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department,
1973.
Duriyang, Phra Chen, and Visnutep Silapabanleng. "71he 7;liai Musical Scale
and CRanad' 71echniques, " Evolving Traditions. ed. Joseph Peters.
Singapore: The National Arts Council, 1994, 42-52.
Ellis, Alexander. "Ampendix to A{fr. Alexander.1 Ellis 's. Paper on `7-7ie Musical
Scales ofvarious Nintions ' Read 25th Mareh, 1885, " Society ofArts
Journal (1885), 33:1102-1111.
Frederick, Louis. La Vie Quotidienne dans la Peninsule Indochinoise a
L'Epoque d'Angkor (800-1300). Paris: Hachette, 1981.
Fuks, Victor. "rviniapi Musical lhstruments,' Classijlcation, bymbol and Meaning, ''
Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology (1990), 8:143-174.
Galpin, Francis. A Textbook of European Musical Instruments: Their
Origin, History, and Character. London: Williams andNowgate,
1937,
Garfias, Robert. "PreliminaT y 7Zhoughts on Burmese Modes, '' Asian Music (l 975),
7(1):38-49.
Gavaert, F.-A. Nouveau Traite d'Instrumentation. Paris: Lemoine et Fils,
1885.
Reerences Cited 157
Giteau, Madeleine. Khmer Sculpture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1965.
Giuriati, Giovanni. "7'le'aditional Khmer Music in PVbshingten, DC. " Ph.D.
Dissertation, University ofMaryland at Baltimore County, 1988.
Goddesses, Heroes, and Shamans. New York: Kingfisher, l994.
Groslier, Bernard-Philippe. The Art ofIndochina. New York: Crown
Publishers, 1962.
Guesdon, Josepth. Dictionnaire Cambodgien-Francais. Paris: Librairie
Plon, }930.
Heyde, Herbert. Grundlagen des Naturlichen Systems der
Musikinstrumente. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag furMusik, l975.
Ho, Lu-ting. `'On Chinese Scales and Nbtional Modes, " Asian Music (1983),
14(1):132-154.
Hood, Mantle. The Ethnomusicologist. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University
Press, 1982.
------------ . The Ethnomusicologist. New York: McGraw-Hill, l971.
Hornbostel, Erich M. von, and Curt Sachs. 'Z CIassijication ofMusical
instruments," Galpin Society Journal (1961), 14:3-29.
Hun, Sarin. "7}'aditional Musical lnstruments ofCambodia. " Unpublished paper.
Jacq-Hergoualc'h, Michel. "Le Roman Source d7hspiration de la Peinture Khmere a
la Fin du X7L¥iz et au Debut du XXe Siecle, " Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise
d'Extreme-Orient (1982), 126:3-10.
Jairazbhoy, Nazir. ``77ie Beginnings ofOrganology andEthnomusicology in the PVest,'
Z Mahillon, A. Ellis, and S.M 7bgore, " Selected Reports in
Ethnomusicology (1 990), 8:67-80.
. "An Explication ofthe Sachs-Hbrbostel instrumental
Classij7cation LSYstem, " Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology (1990),
8:81-104.
Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
158
Jenkins, Jean, ed. Ethnic Musical Instruments: Identification-
Collservation. London: International Council ofMuseums, l970.
Johnston, Thomas Frederick. ``71he Music ofthe Shangana-71songa. " Ph.D.
Dissertation, University ofthe Witwatersrand (South Africa), 1972.
-- - . ``71songa Aesthetics and Song Text Subject-Matter."
Paper presented at the Sixteenth Annual Meeting ofthe African Studies
Association, Syracuse, October 31 -November 3, 1973.
Jones, A. M. 'tlixperiment with a .fylophone Kay, " African Music (1963),
3(2):6-10.
Kartomi, Margaret. On Concepts and Classifications ofMusical
Instruments. Chicago: The University ofChicago Press, 1990.
Kaufinann,Walter. MusicalNotationsoftheOrient. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1967.
Keo, Dorivan, et al. Traditional Musical Instruments of Cambodia.
Phnom Penh: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), 1994.
Keo, Narom. "Heritage ofKhmer Music. " Unpub}ished paper.
-----------
. "Khsae Mitqy ewonochorcU. '' Unpublished paper.
Kubik, Gerhard. '{Discoveiy qfA 7>'ough .Pt),lophone in Nbrthern Mozambigue, "
African Music (1963), 3(2):1 1-14.
-------------------
. "T7ie Endara M71ophone ofBukonjo, " African Music (1962),
3(1):43-48.
Kunst, Jaap. Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. The Hague:
Martinus Nljhof￡ 1968.
Kvifte, Tellef Instruments and the Electronic Age. Oslo, Norway: Solum
Forlag, 1989.
RefZ7rences Cited 159
Laloy, Louis. ``Notes sur la Musique Cambodgienne, '' Bericht(1906), 25-27:61-
65.
Leang, Hap An. Khmer Writer: Preah Bat Ang Duong. Phnom Penh: Ung
Hun Editions 1965.
'
Lee, Kang-sook. ''An Essay on Korean Modes, '' Asian Music (1978), 9(2):41-47.
Ly. Theam Teng. Seksa SangkhaeppiArayathoa Khmer (A BriefStudy on
KhmerCivilization). Phnom Penh: SengNguon Huoth Editions,
1969.
Lysloff; Rene, and Jim Matson. 'Z New Amproach to the Classtfication of
Sound-Producing Jnstruments, " Ethnomusicology (1 986), 29(2):21 3-236.
Mahillon, Victor-Charles. Catalogue Descriptifet Analytique de Musee
Instrumental du Conservatoire Royal de Musique de Bruxells, 2nd
ed. Paris: Gand, 1893.
Mao, Lena. "Seksa 7)'or Khmerr Lippakar, 7>'oeusday I'rakum, noeung Koruvichea
77imay (Stucly the 7)Prree-Stringed LS2pike Ficidle: Instrument, I7ieory, and New
Teaching Knovt'leclgaj. '' B.A. Thesis, Royal University ofFine Arts, 1996.
Mao, Phoeung. Svaeng Yul chumvinh Silapakk Dantray Khmer (Attempting
to Understand the Khmer Musica] Art). Phnom Penh: Mao
Phoeung, 1998.
Marcuse, Sybyl. A Survey ofMusical Instruments. New York: Harper and
Row, 1975.
Miller, Terry, and Charernchai Chonpairot. "77ie Ranat and Bong-Lang; T7ie
euestion ofOrigin ofthe 7'7iai .)ir3?lophones, " Journal ofthe Siam Society
(1981), 69:145-1 63.
Miiler, Terry, and Sam-Ang Sam. "Classical 71hai and Cambodian Musics: A
Study ofDistinctions, " Ethnomusicology (1995), 39(2):95-34.
Morton, David. The Traditional Music ofThaitand, Berkeley: University
ofCalifornia Press, l976.
160 Mhasical lnstruments ofCambodia
----------------
. "Vbcal 7bnes in 7>'aditional 77iai Musie, " Selected Reports in
Ethnomusicology (1974), 2(1):89-99.
Musique Khmere. Phnom Penh: Imprimerie Sangkum ReastrNiyum, l969.
Olsen, Dale A. 'tNbte on Corpophone, " Ethnomusicology (1986), 20(4):5.
Pak Nam, No Na. ``Contemporaneous Art Styles ofthe Past, " Muong Boran
(1988), 14(1):81-82.
Pang, Khat. "Histoire du Bouddhisme au Cambo(ige, " Culture Khmere (1981),
(l):83-106.
Pich, Sal, ed. Lumnoam Sangkhaep nay Phleng Khmer (ABrief Survey of
Khmer Music). Phnom Penh: Buddhist Institute, 1970.
Poree-Maspero, Eveline. Etude sur les Rites Agraires des Cambodgiens, 3
vols. Paris: Mouton & Compagnie, 1964, }I.
Powers, Harold. ``Mode, " The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and
Musicians, 6th ed., 20 vols. ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan,
l980, XII, 376-450.
Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1940.
Sam, Sam-Ang. '`Cambodia, " The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and
Musicians, 2nd ed., 29 vols. ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan,
2001, IV, 86l-864.
- d-. "77ie Pin .Peat Ensemble: lts Histoiy, Miisic, and Context. " Ph.D.
Dissertation, Wesleyan University, 1988.
Sam, Sam--Ang, and Patricia Sheehan Campbell. Silent Temples, Songful
Hearts: Traditional Music ofCambodia. Danbury: World Music
Press, 1991.
Schaefther, Andre. 'ID'Uhe Nbuvelle Classijication ?Lclethodique des lnstruments de
Musique, " Revue Musicale (Septembre-Octobre l 932), 2 1 5-23 1 .
Rojbrences Cited 161
Scholes, Percy. "Scale, " The New Oxford Companion to Music, 2 vols. ed.
Denis Arnold. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, II, 1619-1622.
Smithies, Michael. Old Bangkok. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Sok, Sambath. "7>'or Khmer or 7>`or Khsae Bay (Three-Stringed ,SPike Fiddloj. "
Unpublished paper.
Stierlin, Henri. The Cultural History ofAngkor, trans. Erika Abrams.
Geneva: Edito-Service, 1983.
Sumarsam. ``lnner Melody in lavanese Gamelan. " M.A. Thesis, Wesleyan
University, 1967.
Taylor, Eric. Mllsical Instruments ofSouth-East Asia. Singapore: Oxford
University Press, 1989.
Tran, Quang Hai. ",hampuchea, " The New Grove Dictionary ofMusic and
Musicians, 6th ed., 20 vols. ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan,
1980, IX, 789-792.
Tran, Van Khe. La Musique Vietnamienne Traditionnelle. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France l962.
'
Vaidyanathan, Lalitha. "7")Pie Musical instrorments ofindia, " Evolving
Traditions, ed. Joseph Peters. Singapore: The National Arts Council,
1994, l61-1 72.
Webster's New World Dictionary ofthe American Language, 2nd ed. ed.
David B. Guralnik. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.
Yew, Sim Boon. "iT7ie lnstruments ofthe Chinese Orehestra, " Evolving
Traditions, ed, Joseph Peters. Singapore: TheNational Arts Council,
1994, 88--l02.
'`
Yike. '' Unpublished paper (research work conducted at the Royal University
ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh).
Yun, Khean. ``Sak Lbang S7av Chreav Rork Kbuon Chbapp Il]ilah Khlah knong
Phleng Kar Buran Khmer (14 Researeh Attempt to Find Some Rules in the
162 Musical lnstruments qlCCambodia
7}'aditional Khmer PVbdding Mitsic). " B.A. Thesis, Royal University of
Fine Arts, 1995.
Yupho, Dhanit. Thai Musical Instruments. Bangkok: Siva Phorn, l960.
B. DISCOGRAPHY
'
A Musical Anthology of the Orient: Cambodia. Musicaphon BM 30 L 2002.
Traditional Music of Cambodia. Center for the Study of Khmer Culture
TMC-SS-NROO1.
C. VIDEOGRAPHY
The Goddess Dancer ofCambodia. Camera 3 (CBS), 1973.
Khmer Court Dance. Khmer Studies Institute and Media Generation, 1992.
Moeur, Sokhanarith. Theater of Cambodia: Yike. Jacob's Pillow Summer
Residency, June 16, 1991.

Praxissemester - Universität Potsdam

Analysis of Hypergeometric Distribution Software Reliability Model

b) rtIr,?)i.kr? 4 - The Student Room

Cambodia Book Fair 2014

T0 Whom It May Concern, This form is to request you t0 certify for the

J 副醐 則 罰朝 到 I J 到 訓剣 罰 劉

Document 3965190

Answers

Public Announcement

Welcoming Speech Mr. HUN Many President of Union of Youth