The
Effects of Different Time
on the Wind
Intervals
Estimation
Abstract
The
magnitude
of the
wind
speed
and the number
of the data deduced
pictures obtained in different time interval are compared.
It is revealed
speeds are little affected by the interval of pictures and the number
is increased
with
from
that wind
of wind
data
time interval getting shorter.
accuracy.
1. Introduction.
Initially it was
scale feature
The
anticipated that smaller
of the
atmospheric
factors to come
speeds are considered, and then a reliabilty
motion
of the wind
can be detected, as the interval of picture
"wind"
is getting
the wind
shorter.
However
our
study
fails to substantiate our expectation.
Wind
from
a
In
Film
displacement
used
The
word
in this report is defined as
vectors
obtained
by
the Loop
method.
of cloud targets within
interval
using
a loop
film
consists of four frame imageries.
June
27th
1978
a
limited
satellite was
made.
Each
taken
4
minutes
every
latitude, and
to 6
scan
imagery
in
by
tion is shown
1. A purpose
speeds
are variable with
due to poor registration.
A
more
suitable
land
mark
within
condition
for
wind
be
placed
frame
in
order
made
by using land
those in Asia
and
and
separately
to perform
daily routine
treat full disk imageries,
time,
at least; each
should
one
precise registration. In
of
this report is to investigate whether
(1) wind
Error
should be three land marks
middle
detail of the observa-
in Table
2.
estimation by tracking clouds is that there
was
the center of the scan is over
35°N latitude. The
we
registration is
marks
selected from
Oceania.
In the area
(30°N-40°N lat.) of this observation, land
(2) the number
of cloud targets to derive
marks
satellite wind increase or decrease
depending
picture
speed is discussed.
vectors have operationally obtained
90-minute
which
forth error in wind
upon
taking.
Namely,
seeking for a more
to get wind
none
different time interval of
intent
in
However,
is
land
suitable time interval
data from
Hiroshi YAMASHITA,
our
are few,
the
some
and
east
especially
of
they
are
145°E longitude.
points can be adopted
marks, for example,
Shantong
as
Penin-
sula, Pohai Bay, Korea, the coastline near
satellite with good
Shanghai
Kiyoshi ARAI
1
―
etc.. They
are
very
close for
MMM-tv^Table 1
Observation
&mm<￡
m-^
1979^3n
The Time Schedule of Obsevation by Limited Scans
Time
June
from
27th 1978
0400Z to 0510Z
Central Latitude
Number of Scan Line
35°N
250 lines
Number
11 volumes
of Segment
Initial line
Final line
469
719
0407Z
2
469
719
0411Z
3
469
719
0415Z
4
469
719
0419Z
6
469
719
0432Z
7
469
719
0437Z
8
469
719
0443Z
9
469
719
0448Z
11
469
719
0457Z
12
469
719
0502Z
13
469
719
0507Z
Segment
No.
1
Starting Time
of Observation
5
10
precise
registration.
marks,
different from
mentioned
frame
above,
So,
are
of negatives,
another
land
necessary.
on
and latitudes had been
aid of attitude information
the loop
in the way
Each
with
the
of satellite,is
the longitudes
latitudes at this time.
using
we
which longitudes
inserted
registered by matching
land
marks
Error
films which
and
achieved
vectors of earth
shape
be
fixed at the same
And
and
because
they
are
positions on each frame.
accurately,
for each
picture we used
does not differ apparently.
intersection
regarded
Therefore,
of longitude-latitude
as one of land
computing
the
latitudes inserted in every
longitudes
imagery
can
marks.
a displacement
marks.
It is considered
error by
mine
the procedure
Namely,
that of
that a distri-
give
the magnitude
field of
of error, tracking the
points
surrounded
is
made
within
Fig. 2, for
are noted in
the
by the latitudes of 30°N
170°E. The
Fig. 1, Fig. 2
9. ―
obtained
us a
and 40°N, and by the longitudes
and
be
registration. In order to deter-
intersection
area
an
of a intersection
bution of the displacement-vectors
in such
if the prediction of attitude of satel-
lite is made
of observation
point will be equal to computing
displacement-
same
position on the earth surface as the time
land
features, for example, a
zero
at the
up
of coastline of continent, a tip of
cape, would
located
are made
that registration had
precisely,
roughly
by
described in section 1 will be
If it is assumed
be
caused
assessed in this section.
been
would
and
results
of 110°E
are
shown
in
Fig. 3. As
shown
in
example,
considerable
errors
the east of 160°E longitude
Meteorological SatelliteCenter Technical Note No. 1, March 1979
+
+
31°N
100°E
AT = 25m'n
0
2,5
unit
Fig. 1
The
distribution of error in magnitude
that the information
the displacement
shows
the
imageries
+
due to poor registration. It is assumed
of satellite-attitudeis good.
of longitude/latitude
position of bench
are taken
mark
at time from
The
intersection
by
0407Z
5,0
in m/s
which
direction of arrows
points.
error
has
The
been
plus
indicates
mark
evaluated.
"+ "
Used
to 0432Z.
A5°N
85°E
130°E
120°E
150°E
140°E
16O°E
17O°E
rr
AO°N
■
i
y
＼
s
I
I
s'
>^^^
+
30°N
31°
3°E
.
AT = A1min
x
/
0
2,5
unit
Fig. 2
5,0
in
m/s
The same as Fig. 1, excepting that the used imageries are taken at time from
O407Z t-n04487.
-H85°E
45°N
120°E
＼_
＼!
130°E
-^
vj
160°E
15O°E
^
^,+-
^
^―i
.
1
I
+ ―
100
.+
°E
^
31°N
x
r^
/
*
X￨
y
30°N
*
aT = 55min
0
unit
Fig. 3
40°N
The
same
at time from
as Fig. 1, excepting
0407Z
―
5.0
in m/s
that the used imagries
to 0502Z.
3
2.5
are taken
Table
Time
12 min.
Interval
Mean
8.3
due to the lack of bench
are in
From
value and its standard
west
Table
decreases
in
time interval is lengthened,
which
can
be
obtained
accurately
when
one
uses pictures which
interest to the standard
that
the
large in magnitude
Although
these two
bench
above
resolution
by, one can
needed
in
ing
targets gives us the fact
to
inserted on loop film do
will be
Displacement
bench
mark
taken
in longer
of
data,
it
wind
be
time
made
includes
and
should
defining
a
land
be
taken
bench
mark
decreases
of the detection
phenomenon.
of
To
structure,
of time
the
discussed
meteor-
analyze
fine mesh
and
coarse
and
a
fine
data
space.
would
space-resolution.
the resolution
the time
are
Mak-
be
led
Relation
satellite winds
in a later
section.
expectaa
certain
for the frame
3. A comparison of wind speeds com-
interval. It means
puted in differentinterval of time.
is noticeable
time
is
as possible,
time-resolution
of the initial and final position of
tion.(NB2).
of
decreasing
between
beyond
interval
should
which
for
in terms
on a screen, so that desig-
is hard
operation
area
requirement
atmospheric
mark
de-
displacement.
The
factors are meant
marks
time
better
as many
enough
deviation is
experience
estimation
that,
(2) interval
our
ological
scarcely move
a
the
marks
at the short interval.
An
wind
as
to obtain
it is difficultto interpret what
selecting cloud
nation
in
deviation, it is
standard
speculate as follows.
that bench
order
rather
are taken at longer interval. Turning
in
magnitude
(1) the wind
implies
speeds
evident
In
as
that wind
in
error
is recommended
that a
magnitude
1.7x10
lengthened.
of the 160°E longitude.
2, it will be deduced
value
relative
creases
deviation
0.82
-1.7x10
x 10
that
Now,
with 12 pieces of data which
the
mean
markCNB1).
55 min.
1.7
2.2
(m/s)
are computed
41 min.
25 min.
S.D. (m/s)
the mean
2
A vector at time t=ta will be written as
N.B. 1:
A wind
vector is determined
from
the
Vt
displacement
of a cloud
face.
The
order
to do this, bench
medium
to transform
over the earth sur-
cloud is to be
earth located.
marks
from
Similarly, a vector
In
board
When
4f-)^*-'≫)+^+^
mark
makes
figure of the character "8".
When
the
ending
curve
between
where
the
Vto is the
time
time
the starting picture and the
picture is so short, the locus forms
which
(3-2)
a 24-hour loop film is projected
on a screen, a locus of bench
period
t= tk (tk>t0)
Ft4=FTRUE+(
coordinate to earth coordinate.
N.B. 2:
at time
will be
are used as a
tracking
(3.1)
0=FTRUE+￡B+￡C
is a part of the character
apparent
Ftrue
4
―
vector at
t= t0.
Vtk is the same
a
"8".
observed
is the
one at time
t= tk-
true vector, not contami-
Meteorological SatelliteCenter Technical Note No. 1, March 1979
fnr nnr limifprl sran
nated.
sB, s'B are error in the indistinguishing
the initial and
-^―dx
final points of bench
mark-displacement
due
to its short
In
by
-rj( ^^―)dt
was ignored because all these
V at /
displacement of cloud are computed using
distance.
sc and
e'c are error caused
location of the initial and
cloud-displacement.
general, while ec would
the poor
final points
sB are
of
be shown
the
We
assume
uniformly
con-
a
ventional usage.
Let's compare
the two
that samples
around
domain,
assume
and
that
not
the accelaration
evaluate
hand
the
two
￡b, ￡j3,￡ c and
have
been
A
term,
terms
side, (e^―s'B), (sc
we
can
were
of the right
been
that
introduced
a
distributed within
a few
5°long. X 5°lat. as shown
"i" is
written
is
ox
oy
Then,
in Table
that
the
these
differences
the three cases are labelled by the
will consider
+ sB+sc
vector
at a point {xi} yir tt)
in
Vo is the vector
at a point (x0, y0> tQ)
targets were
cirrus had
vectors
Alin the
"*" in Table 3 and Table 4.
We
where
an
than 2.2 m/s in magnitude
significant.
has arisen. First, we
a domain.
domain.
3 and Table 4, it is considered
some
to
samples
samples
domain
difference more
will average
a
there are
mark
we
of
though
among
Now,
under
number
a domain
as
Vi is the
at its
vector in the domain
within
at a point
ot
center of
vector
eliminate
s'c, vectors
vector
the geometric
￡c)- To
averaged.
wind
are distributed
Fo is the
mean
Eq. (3.4) had
(3.3)
assumption
from
of
equals to Fo.
+(e*-ea)+(ec-ec)
Apart
term
center. In such a case, it is reasonable
vectors.
)d(tk-t0)
*.-",=(＼
discussion, the
firstframe is taken at 0407Z, in this case.
a Gaus-
operators follow
above
loop films of different time interval whose
bias error in
sian distribution.
Other letters and
-^.― dx = Q
been
the
difference
are aware
why
that anvil
selected as cloud target
this area. In
another
area, most
of
cirrus clouds associated with
jet stream.
within
In
Then,
a
Hubert
eB=constant=C
guidance
care in
tracking
penetrate
sc = 0
for
selecting
et. al. (1971) stated
clouds
tracers,
that; "Take
that
appear
to
vertical shear layers. In these
cases, try to track the upshear edge rather
If
there
vector
are
in
many
the
samples
domain,
of
the
wind
than the center of mass.
Eq. (3.3) is reduced
For
areas of active convection
to
F,=
ro+C
grows
(3.4)
The
where
algebraic
"―"
bar
mean.
indicates
As
the
an
domain
operator
rapidly
area) moves
dle- and low-level wind.
is small
5
―
of anvil growth.
origin of anvil (brightest area at rear
of the growth
of
because
example, in
the cloud area
The
with
the mid-
leading
edge
Table 3
Symbol
u and v indicate u- and v-component
within an area 5°long, x 5°lat.. Symbol
included in the area.
The
values labelled the mark
significant difference among
Time
Interval
(min.)
respectively, which
n indicates
the
are averaged
number
of sample
"*" are considered
to have
the three cases.
Longitude
105
55
E
110 E
u
22.7
V
14.2
n
2
u
20.1
V
14.2
n
3
u
V
n
115E
120E
125
E
130
25.6
13.5
8
21.5
4.1
4
25.6
-3.8
6
38
24.3
14.6
5
12.4*
4.5
2
25.1
-4.3
5
37.2
-9.1
4
22.0
27.2
10.9
10.3
8
25.7
-3.1
8
-6.6
5
22.6
4.2
6
16.4
1.1
1
17.7
-4.5
2
-8.2
E
1
10
9
3
40° N
I
41
35°N
25
u
55
V
n
35° N
I
41
u
13.7
V
-0.2
3
n
30°N
u
25
13
7
2
V
n
Table
4
The
0
same
7
16.3
2
6.9*
-6.2*
2
14.9
-4.1*
5
1
1.3
2
as Table
Time
3
Longitude
Interval
(min.)
130
u
55
17
11.4
2.9
2
4
33.0*
V
n
E
135 E
33
-13
3
4
0
WOE
145 E
36.7
-8.2*
2
155
150 E
22.6
-9.2
2
24.5
16.5
9
22.3
-11.8
5
22.9
17.3
8
-17.3
-7.1*
1
22.2
-9.1
5
25.4
15.1
17
18.7
-4.2*
10
19 1
11 3*
3
E
160
21
3
-4.4
5
40° N
I
41
35° N
25
u
34
V
-10.0
n
4
33.7
-5.4
1
u
32.3
-6.7*
8
28.7
-4.8
5
6.3*
11.8
3
10.3
-7.8
2
11
-13
12
6.1*
-8.6
4
9.9
-13.4
11
12.2
-7.8
9
12
-11
15
V
n
u
55
v
n
35° N
I
u
41
30°N
V
n
u
25
V
n
3
3.7
-1 1.8
2
9
-10
1
0*
0
6
―
6
3
9
4
19
-4.0
5
4
22.3
-6.5*
8
13.7
-19.0
1 5.2*
-1 .4.4
9
6
11.9
-14.5
5
10.2*
-16.6
6
12
14
9
13
21
4
9
10
14.1
-20.2
15
13.
17.
13
6*
4
0
9
12.2
-13.8
10
E
Meteorological SatelliteCenter Technical Note No. 1, March 1979
of the anvil, while advancing
high-level wind,
may
with the
be moving
4. Relation of the number
more
slowly than the wind because of evaporation. Thus
val of picture acquired.
the leading edge of growing
Some guidelineson selectinggood target
cirrus plumes should be avoided."
We
had
feel that the differencesin magni-
tude among
of cloud
targets for wind estimation tointer-
been
presented by
Hubert
et al.
(1971). Taking these guidelinesinto con-
three cases will probably be
caused by evaporation or by a fact that
sideration,we
height of anvil cirrusvaried with time.
some
From Table 3 and Table 4, we are not
aware, however, how these three cases
The number of targethaving been tracked
is shown in Table 5. The
differin wind
the sample number increases as the time
Fig. 4
speed totally. Fig. 3 and
made
an effort to track
cloud targets as much
as possible.
tendency that
intervalis shortened was recognized.
are graphical representation of
Table 3 and Table 4, including such data
deduced
from
anvil cirrus which
Table
was
regarded as inaccurate data. In these
Figures, broken lines indicate an upper
Time
Interval (min.)
Number
of sample
5
12
25
41
55
213
205
147
146
and lower limites of error,±2.2m/s, describedin section 2.
From
show
the result that
little change
acquired, it is speculated
/
/
40
field deduced
from
that a
cloud
vector
displacement
represents the characteristic scale feature.
30
c
Accordingly,
E
20
cloud
selected in such
LO
ii
H-
speeds
/
m/s
in
the wind
with interval of picture
representative
a
targets
density
wind
should
be
as to obtain
field. Increasing
the
10
<3
number
of wind
vectors does not
mean
a
vector field of a small scale can be reproi
10
i
20
AT=
Fig. 4
The
comparison
i
30
i m,
A0/s
duced, because it appears
that the neigh-
25min.
of u-component
time interval 25 minutes
Broken
lines indicate
within
±2.2 m/s.
AT
V
in the
5
and 55 minutes.
the range
of error
20
= 25min.
-20
Judging
reasonable
from
it
will
10
20
m/s
be
-10
that there are little differences
in magnitude
words, wind
inspection,
-10,
among
-20
three cases, in other
speeds are independent
m/s
of the
Fig. 5 The comparison of v-component.
time interval of pictures acquired.
Others are the same as Fig. 4.
7
―
%Miffim.*vfi-
&M&&
mm-
boring satellite-wind vectors are not independent
each
1979^3^
m
4
other.
0
u
(35°N
40°N)
Therefore, the conclusion in this section
is:
Although
the number
of cloud targets
apparently increase when
the time interval
of picture is made
small scale may
shorter, wind
fieldin
30
not be obtained.
Q
LlJ
LJ
a.
if)
za
^
5. A wind fieldrepresented by statellitewinds.
Wind
vectors
respond
obtained
by
to the atmospheric
20
the RAWIN
motions
rang-
mm
Casei(55) ―
Case 2 (41 )
Case 3 (25) ―
>
ing from
ultra long
scale motion.
winds
wave
The
response
to atmospheric
The
area
nearly
to
be
to intermediate
motion
analysed
small to analyze
which
field in
ber
110
too
the
for analysing
intermediate
Therefore, instead of making
analysis strictly, we
search what
is
is
wave
would
scale of atmosphric
Fig. 6, Fig. 7, and
of
Fig. 8 are
Table
The
distribution of u
is a
mean
in
140°E longitude.
wave
of which
Fig. 6
3000 km
The
zonal distribution of w-component
num-
u treated here is a algebraic mean
to
wind
m/s
20
graphical
Table 4.
speed
(30°N
LU
Q.
to
15N
a
z
the
10
that
the
5
110
is 2000 km-
120
and smaller exist. Fig. 7 is also
in phase completely.
wave
waves, of which
length 2000 km-3000
km is recognized
The
of v at 35°N-40°N is shown
which
the wave
speed
around
140
150
160°E
Fig. 7
The
zonal distribution of w-component
along the belt 30°N-35°N. Scale and symbols are the same
as Fig. 6.
distribution
in
Fig. 8, in
having the minimum
150°E and
V
LONGITUDE
those in Fig. 6
The
in the Figure, however.
35°N)
130°E and
It is likely
pattern differs from
an area 5°long, x 5°
u
the distribution of u at 30°N-35°Nlatitude,
whose
within
of the
Q
LU
at 35°N-40°N (≪
length
16O°E
along the longitudinal belt, 35°N-40°N.
like
Fig. 6, in which
wave
150
field are
and
value is found around
140
scale.
value within an area 5°long.X
5°lat.) is shown
maximum
3
130
LONGITUDE
a
imbedded.
representation
120
a vector fieldin synoptic
scale, but it is enough
vector
is studied.
this time
1000 km X 5000 km,
10
of satellite-
the
wind
wind
found.
maximum
speed
at the
Probably
to a ultra long
r _
west
this wave
wave.
On
of longitude is
may
be related
this wave,
the
Meteorological
Satellite
CenterTechnicalNote No. 1, March 1979
these grid point values and running mean
m/s
15
V
10
(35°N
40°N)
min
Case 1 (55)
Case 2(41 )
Case 3(25) ―
＼
＼
5
of 11 grid
point
lated
for
the
35°N
latitude
obtained
Q
UJ
are
are
and
such
been
Fig.
10.
and
along
results
are shown
It is revealed
of which
approximately
calcu-
The
a procedure
the waves
the ^-field
have
y-component
respectively.
with
in Fig. 9 and
there
values
u-
600 km
wave
to
that
length
2000 km
in
in the w-field. Composited
!
wind
＼
Q
5
-5
^
/
/>
＼＼
■
*
＼
ed
/;
'*
-10
/■'
vector
in
Fig.
field using
11.
the
300 mb
its
pattern
By
u and
v is display-
comparing
weather
map,
coincide
Fig.
we
with
11
found
each
to
that
other,
/
although
/,
the
numerical
values
differ in
-15
115°E
110
120
130
140
160°E
125°F
135°E
U5°E
155°E
6
5"
4
LONGITUDE
Q
LU
2
Fig. 8 The distributiono f ^-component along
35°N-40°N.Scale and
0
symbols are the
Q
-2
same as Fig. 6.
-4
wave
of
seems
to be imbedded.
A
2000 km-3000
smaller wave
km
wave
length
-6
Fig. 9
could not be apparently-
depicted, because
the data is plotted every
the
waves
from
difference between
and its running
mean
running
mean
corresponds
point
a
data
method.
data
by
The
the wave,
scale of a wave
the abcissa
the
ordinate
to a scale of an amplitude
the
original data
on a w-field ex-
interpolated
the original data,
corresponds
of
to a
length, respectively.
value is computed.
As the original data are not distributed
uniformly,
scale waves
from
5°longitude interval. In order to extract
the small
Smaller
tracted
set composed
value has been produced
115°E
135°E
125°E
145°E
155°E
8
of grid
5"
by the aid
6
e
of objective analysis (correction method).
Differences then were
Now,
Q
LU
U
&
calculated.
a set of the grid point value of 51
pieces had been prepared
inspection, the wave
in order of 1000 km
be found
having
to rough
a wave
is found,
which
lengh
-6
may
-8
with 11 grid point values over a
certain latitude. Then
o
g-2
5
-≪
for a longitude
(from 110°E to 160°E). According
o
*■
Fig.
10
Others
differences between
9
-
Smaller
are
scale
the
same
waves
as Fie.
on
9.
a
v-field.
MMM
-fev ^ -
120°E
110°E
&WM^
W, 1 -^
19794p 3 J!
140°E
130°E
150°E
160°E
40°N
30°
WIND
Fig.
11
the
The
interpolated
latitude,
while
the
SPEED
wind
speed
abscissa
N
(mis)
field.
Unit
is in
m/s.
The
ordinate
is
is the longitude.
served
by
the RAWIN
300 mb
pressure-level. Accordingly
speculated
that
vector between
are those on the
the
them
difference
it is
of
wind
is due mainly
to the
height difference of wind level.
Next, we
Fig. 12
The
1978.
300 mb
The
interval
chart at 0000Z June
solid lines show
of which
is 120
contour,
meters.
the
The
will discuss a relation between
divergence
computed
from
polated with
of
ysis.
which
is 20 m/s.
magnitude
Wind
The
area
of more
speed is stippled.
vectors treated in this report
cirrus level, while
110°E
120°E
The
wind
vectors
divergence
u and v
which
fieldis
are inter-
of the former
to
region of the East
China
Japan
Sea
and
with
Here, convergence
ob-
downward
130°E
140°E
West
several
are
cumulus
mostly
clouds.
is predominant
where
motion is expected. Cirrus clouds
150°E
160°E
(xicrV)
Fig. 13 The divergence fieldcalculatedfrom interpolatedu- and v-component,in which
1°longitude/latitudeis used as the grid interval. Positive areas are stippled.
Unit is in x 10
the
the aid of an objective analcomparison
are
DIV.
and
the latter follows. The
cloud free
(see Fig. 12).
field (Fig. 13)
satellite picture. This
dotted lines indicate iso-tach, the interval
than 40 m/s in wind
on
27th
the
5sec"1 and interval of iso-valueis 4.
10 ―
Meteorological SatelliteCenter Technical Note No. 1, March 1979
MULTISEGMENT-01
78
JUN
27
04:
07Z
GNS-1
IR
%
*
*
■
MULT
I SEGMENT-0
2
78
JUN
2 7
04:11Z
GMS-1
IR
Fig. 14 IR imageries.
Frames of limited scan taken by the GMS
specialoperation,from which satellitewind
vectors are derived. "White" shows clouds,"black" shows earth-surface. The inserted
mark " + " indicates position of bench marks. (See our text.)
are extensive over the sea in the east of
vector fieldin the synoptic and/or
Japan.
Here, divergence
the intermediate
upward
motion
These
is found
where
can be expected.
two
are led
to the
that satellite-winds respond
(5)
Cloud targets should
It can
be said
Although
are reliable on
Summary.
The
results
obtained
in
this
report
are
with
(2)
(3)
To
the interval
get
a
good
a
should
taken.
mark
be
interval
enough
(4)
velocity
including
The
still remains,
the
Satellite-wind
for
little
varies
data,
number
of time
an
of land
should
distinguishing
vector.
be
a
area
an
respond
the
are not inde-
to the
craved,
cirrus
accuracy
of the order
of assigning levels
on
comparing
300 mb
here, that
cloud
height
wind
a
skill
with
be developed.
marks
Reference
taken
bench-
Hubert,
Wind
to
satellite-wind
accuracy
as is found
vectors
It is
reasonable
displacement.
Satellite-winds
wind
determining
of pictures.
wind
in a
satellite-wind vectors
of 2-3 m/s, the problem
as follows.
(1)
that the
vectors close to each other
scale.
pendent.
6.
be tracked
vector field.
wind
vector field in the synoptic scale or in the
intermediate
scale motions.
density as to obtain the representative
conclusion
to the
in
wind
L.F.
Pictures.
11 ―
and
L.F.
Whitney,
Jr. (1971):
Estimation from Geostationary Satellite
Mon.
Wea.
Rev., Vol. 99 665-672.
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