英語科教育法 Ｉ． ＩＩ 教職科目 学習者中心・コミュニカテイブな外国語の授業 A Learner-centered Communicative Language Teaching 1 学習者中心のコミュニカテイブな授業の意義 外国語・言語文化教育＝人間教育＝国際理解＝平和教育 自分の意見を目標言語で世界へ発信 言語化・コミュニケーションは思考力・判断力を高める 言語の学習 →目標言語習得への転換 多様なコミュニカテイブな仮説理論（アプローチ） を活用した学習者中心の授業実践 2 学習者中心の授業の基本哲学 教師の情熱 愛情・LOVE Humanistic Approach 授業は知識・ 情報・感動の 共有 Teaching is sharing. 授業は教師と 学習者の 共同事業 Teaching is a joint project. 教師の 自己啓発 Teaching is SelfDevelopment 3 A learner-centered Communicative and Interactive Language Class実現の方略 Language Home Low Affective Filter 低い情意フィルター Communicative Tasks コミュニカテイブなタスク Integrated Current Communicative Approaches 統合されたコミュニカテイブ・アプローチ 4 学習者中心のコミュニカティブな外国語の授業 A Learner-centered Communicative Language Class 自らの考えや意見を目標言語で発信し、世界 の人々との議論に参加できる外国語運用能 力を育成する方略： １ 言語学習から言語習得への発想転換 ２ 教師中心から学習中心の授業への転換 ３ 教師側の意識改革 (Language Home) ４ その結果として具体的に教室内の教師と 学習者双方の態度変容が必要 5 世界や社会の問題に対して自分の意見を目標言語で 発表することの意義 （中級・上級英語スピーチ・コ ミュニケーションクラス２００名対象）1997-2000 140 120 100 80 60 Very Much Yes Don' know No 40 20 0 6 外国語の授業における４ＥＮの力 励まし、知識、技能、感動を共有 Encourage Enjoy Enrich Enlighten 7 外国語教育における 4 EN 学習者中心のLanguage Home ４ＥＮ の必要性 Encourage （常に励まし、自信を持たせる） Enjoy （学習者が共に参加する喜び・楽しさ) Enrich（内容・活動→豊かさ・新鮮さ・感動） Enlighten（啓蒙・触発→意識革命→行動） 8 Real World Context 現実世界に近い言語環境 Classroom activities should parallel the ‘real world’ as closely as possible (Widdowson 1987) . 授業で の活動が現実世界に近いこと Situationaly Realistic 現実的・臨場感 Contextually Rich 文脈が豊か Meaningful Content 意味のある内容 Classroom activities should parallel the ‘real world’ as closely as possible (Widdowson 1987) 9 Reading授業の発想転換 訳読法からReading Skill養成への転換 Reading in English 1 Paragraph Reading から paragraph Writing Topic Sentence (main idea) Supporting Details Concluding Sentence Vocabularies and Structures 2. Intensive Reading and Extensive Reading * Top-down Process for Reading * Bottom-up Process for Reading * Interactive Process for Reading 4 Schema Theory (background knowledge) (Formal Schemata/Content Schemata) 5 Reading Assignment for Pleasure Reading 10 Communicative Task 学習者が達成感を共有できるコミュニカテイブな課題 Goals （授業目的） Input （入力） Activities （言語活動） Teacher role （教師の役割） TASKS （課題） Learner role （学習者の役割） Settings （授業環境） A framework for analyzing communicative tasks (Nunan: 1999) 11 Communicative Task A piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan： 1989) 学習者が目標言語で理解したり、操作したり、表現したり、 相互作用するようにしむける意味内容のある課題・仕事であ り、学習者は主として言語の形式より意味内容に注目する。 Rotating Communication, (VTR1) Summarization and comments Logical Debate with valid evidence (VTR2) Oral Presentation (Mini Lecture) (VTR3) Problem-solving Discussion 12 (1) Communicative Tasks の定義 Newnan (1989) defines communicative task as a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. Newnan (1992) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom Cambridge University Press) 13 Communicative Tasksの重要性 Communicative Task とは： 意味内容のある実際のコミュニケーション場 面を想定し、実際に目標言語を使いながら理 解したり、応用したり、創作したり、相互作用 をするプロセスに学習者が積極的に参加する コミュニケーションの課題、作業である。 14 Communicative Tasks Newnan continues that task is a piece of meaning-focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and /or interacting in the target language, and that tasks are analyzed or categorized according to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles. 15 (2) Communicative Competence (Canale and Swain 1980) 総合的な言語運用能力 １ 英語の文章構造を理解する能力・語彙力 (Grammatical Competence) ２ 社会生活を行う上での言語能力 (Sociolinguistic Competence) ３ 談話や文脈を理解する能力 (Discourse Competence) ４ 非言語でのコミュニケーションを含む相手とコ ミュニケーションを図る手段や方略を備える能力 (Strategic Competence) 16 1) Grammatical Competence Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence and what Hymes intends by what is "formally possible." It is the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity. 17 2) Sociolinguistic Competence Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction. ( Ex. It’s cold in this room) 18 3) Discourse Competence Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. (Inference in the context) (Reading between the lines ) 19 Discourse Analysis談話分析 Z Harris 1952 Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis means the study of Grammar beyond the sentence. The analysis of the writer’s intention in the context, paragraph and conversation. There are some discourse principles (rules) There are some prediction and inference followed by the next words: Therefore, 議論を深める In conclusion, 結論を導く However, 反論 As a matter of fact, 実際的な例 What makes the matter worse, さらなる、悪条件 20 Discourse Analysis Ex. 1. Do not come any closer, please. = Do not come to me any further. 2. Kiss me, please.= I would like you to kiss me. 3. Who is it? = Who are you? Who is speaking? 4. Someone in. = Please do not come in. (in the public toilet) 5. There goes telephone.= Will you get the telephone? Discourse Competence It is very hot in this room, isn’t it? = Could you open the widow? The story will be different depending on the stress of the accent. 21 Tom plays football very well, too. 4) Strategic Competence Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communication. (Non-verbal communication) 22 Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)は学習 者中心で相互作用があるコミュニカテイブな授業を もたらし、目標言語習得の有効性があり、移民や留 学生を多く受け入れ、多民族・多文化複合社会であ るヨーロッパ、北米、豪州ですでに実証されている。 特にヨーロッパではＥＵ統合以来、次世代が経済的、 政治的、文化的にＥＵ諸国を理解する必要がある。 母国語を含めて多言語・多文化を中等教育から学 習させ、留学や単位互換を奨励するソクラテス・エラ スムス計画もＣＬＴをさらに発展させている。 23 ＣＬＴの本質とＣＬＴの文脈でのコミュ ニケーション能力 仮説理論であるCommunicative Approach の目的 to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching to develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication Richards (1986) 24 ＣＬＴがなぜ学習者中心の立場をとるか １．コミュニケーション能力の育成のために目標言語の機能 と構造的な側面を重視する。 ２．学習者にrole play（ロールプレイ）、problem-solving（問 題解決）、improvisation（即興劇）、pair-monitoring（ペアー で文法チェック） peer-editing（学習者同士でお互いの文章 やスピーチの構成を点検したり編集する）等、多様な communicative tasks（コミュニカテイブなタスク）を与え、積 極的にペアーやグループの言語活動を奨励するためである。 ３ 人間のコミュニケーションに欠かせない一方からの働き かけ（transaction）と相互作用（interaction）を学習者に目標 言語を使いながら体得させるためである。 25 CLTと学習者中心の授業 Nunan (1997 ) states that a major impetus to the develop of learnercentered language teaching came with the advent of communicative language teaching. A communicative view of language and language learning has become the mainstream in ELT. 26 The principles of Communicative language Teaching (CLT) * Learners learn a language through using it to communicate * Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities * Fluency is an important dimension of communication. * Communication involves the integration of different language skills. * Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error. Richards and Rogers (2001) 27 Integrated Communicative Approaches 提言 最近のコミュニカティブなアプローチを統合し、 学習者が一連のCommunicative Tasksに参 加する授業は学習者中心の授業に発展する。 Recent EFL/ESL education is exploring the integration of current communicative approaches. 28 Integrated Current Communicative Approaches Communicative Language Teaching Cooperative Language Learning The Natural Approach Task-Based Language Teaching Humanistic Approach Content-Based Instruction Community Language Learning Competency-Based Language Learning 29 Ｔhe integration of current communicative approaches(1) ＊Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (目標言語を使用し communicationが目的) ＊Task-based Teaching (Communicative Tasks) （コミュニケーション中心のタスク） (Role play, improvisation, pair work, group work, peer editing, oral and written presentation, problem-solving discussion and logical debate) ＊Natural Approach and the five Hypotheses （ナチュラル・アプローチと５つの仮説） 30 Ｔhe integration of current communicative approaches (2). ＊Content-based Teaching (CBT) （意味内容を重視） (Logical and academic /interdisciplinary development) ＊Cooperative Language Learning （共同学習、協 力、不安や緊張を解消） (Brain-storming, preparation, peer editing, peerrevising and sharing) ＊Problem-solving Approach (Deweyの問題解決法) ＊Process Approach （結果より学習プロセスを重視） ＊Humanistic Approach (人間愛、個々の人間の尊重) 31 Integrated Current Communicative Approaches 1 Communicative Language Teaching 目標言語を使用し communicationが目的 2 Task-Based Teaching (Communicative Tasks：コミュニケーション中心のタスク） Communication (rotating, role play, interviewing) Drama ( improvisation) Essay Writing ( peer editing, sharing, ) Oral presentation (VTR 5) Problem-solving Discussion （ＶＴＲ 4） Logical Debate 32 Integrated Current Communicative Approaches for a Learner-centered classroom Going through these integrated current communicative approaches, naturally we can create a learner-centered classroom based on the philosophy of humanistic tradition, which argues “Learners first, learning second.” As Richards and Rogers (2001) emphasize, “Learner engagement is a priority. 33 Integrated Current Communicative Approaches for a Learner-centered classroom As Nunan (1997) shows, curriculum development should involve the interaction of needs analysis, goal setting, grading and sequencing of content, materials development, implementation and evaluation. We should also see how theses processes interact within a leaner-centered approaches to curriculum. 34 ＣＬＬと学習者中心の授業 Cooperative Language Learning ＊ John Deweyの影響 Cooperation in learning ( peer-tutoring and peer-monitoring) ＊ 認知心理学の影響 Richards and Rogers (2001) state that in second language teaching, Cooperative Language Learning (CLL) has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative interaction in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative Language Teaching. It is viewed as a learner-centered approach to teaching held to offer advantages over teacherfronted classroom methods. 35 ＣＬＬと学習者中心の授業 In language reaching its goals are: --to provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of interactive pair and group activities --to provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication strategies --to enhance learner motivation and reduce leaner stress and to create ea positive affective classroom climate. (Richards and Rogers 2001:193) 36 内容重視、プロセス重視、問題解決重視 Content-Based, Process-Based 学習者中心の発信型の英語教育においては自分 のアイデアを発信するための言語習得が最優先さ れる。学習者にとって興味関心がある内容を重視す ること(Content-Based Instruction)で学習意欲を高め、 学習者同士が協力し合い、教師側の指導の下に、 プロセスに従って自分自身の意見や解決策をまと め上げることも可能である (Process Approach)。ま た、学習者が興味あるテーマに関して集められた情 報や背景知識を整理し、問題解決 (Problem Solving) のために現状を分析し、因果関係を明確にして、解 決策を導き、論理的に議論する能力を育むことも可 能である。 37 The Natural Approach The Natural Approach ５つの仮説の有効性 The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis The Monitor Hypothesis The Natural Order Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis 38 NA 仮説1 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Acquisition(習得）Learning（学習） informal formal “picking up” “knowledge about” Subconscious Conscious implicit explicit 39 ＮＡ 仮説２ The Natural Order Hypothesis The Second Language (L2)Acquisition models the process of the First Language(L1) Acquisition L2 Models L1 The 1st Stage: Silent Period (Only listening ) The 2nd Stage: Simple Forms, 1 to 3 word, sentences (ex. “Teacher mine pencil”) The 3rd Stage: Developmental Errors (as in L1) ( ex. “Dad my foot are all wet.”) 40 ＮＡ仮説３：The Monitor Hypothesis Relates to Conscious Learning (as opposed to acquisition) Self-editor Function Ex. “My foots are, Oh no, that’s wrong my feet are..” “He go to, Oh no, He goes..” Seen Most Often in Adult “Drive careful.” Learners and Literate Students 41 Model of Language Performance Acquired Competence monitor output 1 time to think 2 focus on form/structure 3 knowledge of rule 42 ＮＡ仮説４：The Input Hypothesis Input Should be: 1) Comprehensible/Interesting/Meaningful 2) Slightly beyond the student’s current Level of Competence ( i ) +1) (i Input umbrella (i+1) Student’s Current Level hand (i) 43 Input Hypothesis の活用 より理解しやすく、意味内容のある情報（More Comprehensive Input）を学習者に与えることにより、 外国語（第二言語）の習得（More Second Language Acquisition）がより一層可能になる。 Ex. (Web Research by Internet, Pleasure Reading, Romantic Movies) 学習者がより興味関心を抱く、意味のある内容を十 分にインプットし、プロセスを追って共同学習するこ とで目標言語の習得にもつながり、学習者参加型 の授業が実現する。 44 Input Hypothesis by Krashen A Stage i (current level) +1 More Second Language Acquisition More Comprehensible Input 45 Input Hypothesis What Makes Input Comprehensible? Modeling (Situational, Realistic) Visual Aids (Visual Context) Pictures (New Vocabularies with Pictures) Objects ( something to touch, experience) Gestures (by doing, acting, moving) Changing the way to describe and express (paraphrasing, rephrasing) Ex. TPO VTR 46 ナチュラル・アプローチのインプット仮 説を活用 Input Hypothesis インプットと情意フィルターの関係 As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented. In order to lower the affective filter, student work should center on meaningful communication rather than on form; input should be interesting and so contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere. (Richards:1995) 47 ナチュラル・アプローチのインプット仮 説を活用 Input Hypothesis 内容を重視する学習者中心の授業においては、学 習者の知的関心を高め、学習者自身に共通する人 間社会やグローバルな問題を扱うことが望まれる。 クラッシェンが Natural Approachのインプット仮説 の中でも力説しているが、より理解できる情報 （More Comprehensive Input）を学習者に与えるこ とにより、より外国語の習得（More Foreign Language Acquisition）が可能になるのである。学 習者がより興味関心を抱く、意味のある内容を十分 にインプットし、プロセスを追って共に学習すること で目標言語の習得にもつながるのである。 48 仮説５： The Affective Filter Hypothesis When the filter (fear and anxiety of learning L2) is lower students feel comfortable and receptive in learning in L2 class. When the filter is up, students feel nervous and learn less in L2 class. 1)Students Attitude ( Positive, challenging?) 2) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (need to learn) 3) Classroom Atmosphere (Comfortable context) 4) Teacher Attitude (Sensitive and Humanistic) 49 情意フィルター仮説の活用 Affective Filter Hypothesis Motivation. Learners with high motivation generally do better. 高いモチベーション Self-confidence. Learners with self- confidence and a good self-image tend to be more successful. 学習者の自信 Anxiety. Low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conductive to second language acquisition. 不安・緊張解消 50 （7）情意フィルターを低く押さへLanguage Homeを目指す Affective Filter Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis from The Natural Approach The Affective Filter Hypothesis is built on research in second language acquisition, which has identified three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to second language acquisition. Motivation. Learners with high motivation generally do better. Self-confidence. Learners with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to be more successful. Anxiety. Low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conductive to second language acquisition. 51 情意フィルターを低く押さへLanguage Homeを目指す Affective Filter Hypothesis 学習者中心の授業スタイルにおいては、従来 の外国語学習に伴なう高い情意フィルター （緊張感、恐怖感）を学習者同士の相互協力、 分担、相互点検、教師側の指導と援助という プロセスを通して低く押さえることができる。 その結果として、語学を学ぶ場も教師が学習 者の文法知識を点検する訳読中心の教室か ら言語習得を目指す言語活動のホーム (Language Home)へと変容するのである。 52 Summary of The Natural Approach: Classroom Implications in NA 1) Encouragement ( 4 EN of EFL/ESL Class) 2) Creating Low Risk Environment 3) Concrete Experiences for Language Acquisition 4) Use of Cues (visual aids, pictures, objects) 5) Meaningful Input for Communicative Tasks 6) Active Involvement (Cooperative and Community Language Learning) 53 Summary: The Natural Approach 1) Comprehension Precedes Production （理解は発話に先行） 2) High-interest Activities Stimulate Language Development （興味・関心のある活動） 3) Message Must Be comprehensible 54 Summary of Natural Approach: Stages of the Natural Approach 1) Comprehension 2) Early Speech Production 3) Speech Emergence 55 Eclectic Approach 折衷式教授法 一つの教授法に固執したり支配されるのでは なく, いくつかの仮説理論を折衷・統合する。 授業目的、教師の外国語運用能力、学習者 の習熟レベル、学習者のニーズ、年齢、心理 状態に応じて、多くの教授法の利点を取捨選 択したり、統合して適切な目標言語習得の学 習環境を創造していくこと。 56 教師の役割 Teacher Roles: 英語の授業は教師中心のmonologue（独白） ではなく、双方向の授業実現のためにも教師 は常に supervisor（指導者）、cultural informant（文化情報提供者）、 facilitator of the communicative classroom（コミュニカティ ブな授業の促進者）、 observer（観察者）、 participant（参加者）、 learner（学習者） action researcher (自己の授業改善のために 常に授業実践に基づく教授法の研究者)の役 割を巧みに演じなければならない。 57 Ｔｅａｃｈｅｒ Ｒｏｌｅｓ 教師の役割 Facilitator Cultural Informant進行役 文化提供者 Diagnostician 診断者 Observer 観察者 Supervisor 監督 Co-Communicator 共通の伝達者 Learner Action Researcher 学習者 授業改善の研究者 Participant 参加者 58 教師の役割 Teacher Roles: Facilitator: to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. Independent participant within the learningteaching group organizer of resources and as a resource himself/herself Guide within the classroom procedures and activities Researcher and learner for Action Research. (See Richards and Rogers 2001) 59 教師に求められているもの 学生アンケート甲南大学 （中級・上級英語ライテイング・ス ピーチ・コミュニケーション １９９７－１９９９） ２００名対象 60 Humanistc Approach Teaching Skills 50 40 20 Academic Knowledge Ｆａｉｒｎｅｓｓ 10 Sense of Humor 30 0 人間愛 教授法 60 学習者の役割 Learner Roles A negotiator between the self, the leaning process, and the object of leaning. Joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. Contributor and Participants in the communicative and interactive classroom (See Richards and Rogers 2001). 61 Academic Approach 教室内と外で学習者が主体的に参加 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ gathering information （情報収集） Internet, Resource Center sharing information and facts （情報と事実を共有） processing the necessary information （必要な情報の選択と処理） organizing and constructing their own ideas （自分自身の考えや意見の構築） presenting their own ideas in written and oral forms （リサーチペーパーや口頭発表） 62 An Academic Approach in EFL The prerequisite of EFL education includes a basic academic approach which involves students in the following process, especially in the study of writing a research paper, drafting a public speech, and preparing a democratic discussion and logical debate with valid evidence: 63 John Dewey: Problem-Solving Approach ジョン・デユーイ問題解決のための反省的思考 1 Defining the problem （問題の定義） 2 Analyzing the problem (causes and effects) （問題の因果関係を分析） 3 Suggesting possible workable solutions （可能な解決策の提案・ブレインストーミング） 4 Selecting the best solution （最善の解決策を選択） 5 Implementing ways of carrying out the best solution （最善策の実践） 64 It can be safely said that integrating global issues into an EFL class, focusing on the problem-solving process as a core concern of the education process, will develop students’ global awareness and skills for self-representation. The process of thinking, sharing and discussing global issues related to global human rights, and consequently the process of organizing, drafting and revising one’s own ideas for oral presentation is the process of an academic and problem-solving approach. 65 The merits of using both an academic approach and problem-solving approach The merits of using both an academic approach and problem-solving approach in an interactive EFL classroom by integrating global human issues into public speech and discussion, are that the students can cultivate a spontaneous urge to express themselves orally with greater global literacy. Consequently they no longer see the world as a fragmented and unconnected entity―an attitude which leads to indifference, ignorance, intolerance, and isolation in the midst of global interaction and interdependence. 66 学習者中心のカリキュラム開発 Curriculum Development Curriculum development should involve the interaction of needs analysis, goal setting, grading and sequencing of content, materials development, implementation and evaluation. （カリキュラム開 発は学習者のneed分析、目標設定、評価、 授業内容、教材開発、授業実践、授業評価 などとの関係を重視） We should also see how theses processes interact within a leaner-centered approaches to curriculum. Nunan (1997) 67 Conclusion 日本の英語教育で身に付けた外国語運用能力は 国際社会で通用し、その後の人生でも生涯教育とし て自学できるものでなければならない。ＥＵをはじめ、 世界が多言語・多文化社会に向かう国際化の中で、 我々言語教育に携わる者は、まず学習者中心の外 国語の授業を実践することで自らの意識革命を図り たい。学習者にとっても目標言語の受信だけではな く、自らの発信につながるような授業を実現したい。 自国の言語文化を多言語で語り、日本、アジア、世 界が議論できる次世代を世界に送ることこそ外国語 教育の使命である。 68 SUGGESTED BOOK FOR FURTHER READING Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Nunan, David. (1989). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Richards, J & Rogers, T. (2001). Cambridge University Press. Nunan, David. (1988). The Learner-Centered Curriculum Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 69 SUGGESTED BOOK FOR FURTHER READING Brooks, Elaine & Len, Fox.. (2000). Making Peace: A Reading/Writing/Thinking Text on Global Community. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. (Global and Peace Education) Brown, Lester R., ed. (1998) The World Watch Reader on Global Environmental Issues. New York: Norton. (Environmentally friendly Sustainable Society for Intergenerational Equity) Levine, D, & Mara, A.(1993). Beyond Language : Cross-Cultural Communication. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. (Cross-cultural Communication and Multi-cultural Literacy) Nunan, David. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J & Rogers, T. (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. 70
© Copyright 2024 ExpyDoc
