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Sequential multi sliced X-ray CT by using vertical projection for high speed CT.
Ayumu Hashimoto Yukino Imura Hisahi Morii Yoichiro Neo Hidenori Mimura and Toru Aoki
Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku,
Hamamatsu 432-8011 Japan
Introduction
Motivation
To do high speed sequential multi sliced X-ray CT, we propose X-ray CT by using vertical projection without revolving system of X-ray sources and detectors. In addition we use Filter Back Projection(FBP) as reconstruction
method ,because of that it can obtain energy spectra and be used for material discrimination.
Purpose of Research
To remove revolving system, only projection data from 8 views are used for reconstructing, but obtained image is poor compared with reconstructing image of usual X-ray CT. In order to reconstruct a high quality image from 8
projection data, we suggested that not only horizontal projection and also vertical projection are used to add more information to reconstruct. In this research we improve reconstruction method and images.
Problem of reconstruction by projection data from 8 views.
Improving reconstructing image by using vertical project. !Estimation of effect of simultaneous projections on detectors. "Estimation of atomic number from few views by using material discrimination formula .
Change of reconstructing image by
the number of views
Image of USB memory
Reconstruction image
Front
Bottom
Side
Top
!
These pictures show image deterioration and it depends on views. It is considered
two kinds of deterioration.
Kind of deterioration
The shape deterioration.
18 views
36 views
45 views
90 views
180 views
!Image deterioration from noise of reconstructing method by few views .
Proposal of using vertical projection for reconstructing a high quality image
To improve a reconstructing image and get atomic number from it,
moreover removing noise without deterioration of CT value is needed.
From the result of “Change of reconstructing image from the number of
views”, to estimate amount of change from a reconstructing image by 8
views to by 360 view is possible and it can get a high quality image
from a reconstructing image from 8 projections. Therefore, we use
features and !to get that and improve that.
y
X-ra
…
…
X-ray
X-ray CT by using vertical projection Distribution of attenuation coefficient of X-ray irradiation direction
Vertical projection data is equal to horizontal
projection data of all layers which are added
!Reconstructing images from 8 horizontal projection
data of all layers which are added, are equal to vertical
projection data which is made by 8 projection data in
simulation.
Schematic figure of projection
%Projection data
%f (x,y) : Attenuation coefficient of the target plane
%p (r,θ) :Projection data
%I0 & Initial X-ray intensity.
%I &Penetrated X-ray intensity
H 2 x − Hx
Y − H 2x
V 2 x − Vx
V 4x −V 2x
p(r ,θ ) = μ1 x1 + μ2 x2 + μ3 x3 + I
p (r , θ ) = log 0
I
H : Reconstructing image from horizontal
projections
V : Reconstructing image from vertical projections
X : The number of views
Y : Improved image
Experiment result
Front
Top
Side
This is the best images
by this experiment
Z4 =
μ ( E2 )G ( E1 , Z ) − μ ( E1 )G ( E2 , Z )
μ ( E1 ) F ( E2 , Z ) − μ ( E2 ) F ( E1 , Z )
f
Z : atomic number of a material
F(E,Z) : Factor of photo electric term of the
linear attenuation coefficient
G(E,Z) : Factor of scattering term of the same
μ(E1) :attenuation coefficient at E1
μ(E2) : attenuation coefficient at E2
8 views
16 views
32 views
64 views
Average
12.74407
13.70771
13.70771
14.61688$
Minimum
3.932873
1.995132
1.995132
6.04191
Maximum
30.34417
30.43773
30.43773
30.41948
According to this result 2simultaneous projections data is nearly equal to 1
projection data, because deference between these values are one
thousandth compare with 2 simultaneous projections data and 1 projection
data. Moreover red line shows that Noise from detector by time fluctuation
for 5 seconds and it is not stable . It is more serious for detector.
Conclusion
#
#
#
L.A. Kosyachenko1, T. Aoki2,3, C.P. Lambropoulos4, V.A. Gnatyuk2,5,
V.M. Sklyarchuk1, O.L. Maslyanchuk1, E.V. Grushko1,2, O.F. Sklyarchuk1, A. Koike3
Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University, Kotsyubynsky Str. 2, Chernivtsi 58012, Ukraine
Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University, 3-5-1 Johoku, Hamamatsu 432-8011, Japan
ANSeeN Inc., 216, Incubation Center, 3-5-1 Johoku, Hamamatsu 432-8561, Japan
4 Technological Educational Institute of Chalkida, Psahna, Evia 34400, Greece
5 V.E. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv 03028, Ukraine
1
2
3
Abstract Schottky diode X/γ-ray detectors based on semi-insulating Cl-doped CdTe crystals produced by Acrorad Co. Ltd. have been developed and investigated. Both the Schottky and ohmic contacts were
formed by deposition of Ni electrodes on the opposite faces of (111) oriented CdTe crystals pre-treated by Ar ion bombardment with different parameters. A record-low value of the reverse leakage current in the
fabricated Ni/CdTe/Ni Schottky diodes at high voltages (∼5 nA at 300 K for the area of 10 mm2 at bias voltage V = 1500 V) was achieved that was caused by the charge transport mechanisms which were
interpreted on the basis of known theoretical models. The developed detectors have shown the record high energy resolution in the measurements of the spectra of 137Cs and 57Co isotopes, (FWHM of 0.42% and
0.49% , respectively). From a comparison of the spectra taken with the detector irradiated from the Schottky contact side and from the opposite side with an ohmic contact, the concentration of uncompensated
impurities (defects) in the CdTe crystals has been determined. The obtained value has been found to be close to the optimal one.
Characteristics of CdTe crystals and Ni/CdTe/Ni diodes with a Schottky contact
10–7
1011
V<0
10
2qni μn μp
V<0
V>0
10–9
ρi =
107
2.8
3.0
10–10
10–10
I ∼ V2
10–10
ρ
108
Generation current
10–10
I (A)
V<0
I (A)
ρi
I ∼ V 1/2
V<0
10–9
10–9
ρmax
109
–8
I (A)
ρ, ρi, ρmax (Ω⋅cm)
1010
10–8
10–9
10–8
1
I (A)
ρ max =
3.2
1000/T
10
10–11
1
qni μ n μ p
(b)
(a)
10–11
10–12
0
3.4
5
10
0
15
250
500
750
10
1000 1250 1500
10–12
10-2
–11
0
10
20
30
V (V)
V (V)
V (V)
Fig. 1 The temperature dependences of the resistivity of CdTe
crystal ρ, the resistivity of the material with intrinsic
conductivity ρi and the maximum resistivity ρmax.
I∼V
–11
40
50
Fig. 3. Comparison of the experimental reverse I-V
characteristic of the Ni/CdTe/Ni diode structure (circles) with
the calculated results (solid line) according to the Sah-NoyceShockley theory (T = 300 K)
Fig. 2. Room temperature I-V characteristic of the Ni/CdTe/Ni diode structure at low bias
voltages (a) and reverse I-V characteristic of the detector in a wide range of voltages (b).
10-1
1
102
10
V
103
104
Fig. 4. Reverse I-V characteristic of the Ni/CdTe/Ni diode
structure in double logarithmic coordinates. The
approximation of the root (I ∼ V 1/2), linear (I ∼ V) and
quadratic (I ∼ V 2) dependences of the current on bias voltage
are shown by straight lines.
Energy resolution and detection efficiency of Ni/CdTe/Ni diode detectors
A. Detector spectrometric characteristics
400
3000
FWHM
595 eV
0.49 %
2000
(a)
300
200
1.5
0.6
57
Co
V = 1200 V
4000
(b)
3000
2000
(a)
137
Cs
V = 1200 V
0.5
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.2
1000
100
100
(b)
(a)
0
0
450
500
550
600
hv (keV)
650
0
100
700
1000
110
120
130
140
650
hv (keV)
655
660
665
670
FWHM
2.8 keV
0.42 %
0.5
0.1
0
0
0
120
121
hv (keV)
Fig. 5. Spectra of 137Cs and 57Co isotopes taken with the Ni/CdTe/Ni detector at voltage of 1200 V .
137
Cs
T = 300 K
(b)
FWHM (%)
FWHM
2.8 keV
0.42 %
5000
137
Cs
V = 1200 V
Counts
Counts
Counts
300
200
57
Co
V = 1200 V
4000
Counts
137
Cs
V = 1200 V
400
500
FWHM (%)
5000
500
122
123
0
124
10
20
30
40
0
50
500
Fig. 6. Comparison of the emission peaks of 137Cs and 57Co isotopes (circles) with the normal Gaussian distribution
(solid lines). The dashed lines show the peak shapes under the condition that resolution of the detector is due only to
statistical fluctuations of the number of ionizations by absorbed photons.
1000
1500
V (V)
t (°C)
hv (keV)
Fig. 7. The effect of temperature (a) and bias voltage applied to the detector
(b) on the FWHM in the emission spectrum of a 137Cs isotope.
Energy resolution
Energyand
resolution
detection
andefficiency
efficiencyofofNi/CdTe/Ni
CdTe detectors
diode detectors
B. Effect of the SCR depth
on detection efficiency
A. Detector spectrometric characteristics
1.5
1.0
150
137
(a)
Cs
137
57
Cs
1.0
0.6
0.4
Co
V = 800 V
V = 1200 V
η(N)
241
0
1
2
3
4
Time (hours)
5
6
Co
137
Cs
137
0.01
Am
Cs
V = 1200 V
V = 800 V
0.2
V = 200 V
0
57
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
0
(b)
0.8
V = 400 V
V = 200 V
0.1
Iohm /Isch
FWHM (%)
50
0.5
Peak height (counts)
FWHM (%)
100
(a)
137
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
(b)
Cs
η(N)
1.5
C. Dependence of detection efficiency
on the concentration of uncompensated impurities
0
0
5
10
15
Time (minutes)
20
0.001
0
0
200
400
600
V (V)
800
137Cs
Fig. 8. The time variation of energy resolution and detection efficiency of 137Cs isotope radiation during the continuous action of
voltage 850 V applied to the Ni/CdTe/Ni detector (a), and recovery of energy resolution after switching off the bias voltage (b).
V = 400 V
1000
0
109
1010
1011
1012
N (cm–3)
1013
1014
109
1010
1011
1012
N (cm–3)
1013
1014
241Am
Fig. 9. The ratio of the peak heights in the spectra of
and
isotopes, taken under irradiation of the detector from the sides of an
ohmic contact and Schottky contact, respectively, depending on the
bias voltage applied to the detector
Fig. 10. The calculated dependence of detection efficiency of CdTe crystal with a Schottky contact on the
concentration of uncompensated impurities N for the peaks of 137Cs and 57Co of isotopes at different bias voltages V
applied to the crystal (a) and the normalized spectra of isotopes at voltage of 400 V (b)
Conclusion The electrical characteristics and X/γ-ray detection efficiency of the Ni/CdTe/Ni Schottky diodes based on chlorine-doped CdTe crystals with nearly intrinsic conductivity are investigated.
(1) It is shown that the I-V characteristics of the Ni/CdTe/Ni Schottky diode structure with a record-low reverse leakage current at high bias voltages can be quantitatively described in terms of known physical models: the
generation-recombination in the spatial charge region, the processes under conditions of strong electric fields and currents limited by space charge.
(2) The Ni/CdTe/Ni structures have extremely high energy resolution (FWHM of 0.42% and 0.49% for the lines in the spectra of 137Cs and 57Co isotopes, respectively) the values of FWHM of the lines in the measured spectra are
close to the theoretical limit.
(3) From the ratio of the peak heights in the spectra of a 241Am isotope measured under irradiation of the detector from the sides of an ohmic contact and Schottky contact, respectively, the concentration of
uncompensated impurities (electrically active defects) N ≈ 1012 cm–3 in the CdTe crystals has been determined.
(4) Calculation of the dependence of the detection efficiency on the concentration of uncompensated impurities in the crystals for 57Co and 137Cs isotopes has been done. The maxima on the η(N) curves at N ranging from
2×1011 cm–3 to 1012 cm–3 are observed. The value of N = 1012 cm–3 in the CdTe crystals produced by Acrorad Co. Ltd. is close to the optimum value.
The studies were conducted during the implementation of the Collaborative Project COCAE (SEC-218000) of the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Commission.
Photoluminescence of CdTe(111) Single Crystals
after Laser Irradiation
D.V. Gnatyuk
T. Ito, T. Aoki
Graduate School of Science and
Technology, Shizuoka University
Research Institute of Electronics,
Shizuoka University
3-5-1 Johoku Hamamatsu 432-8011, Japan
[email protected]
3-5-1 Johoku Hamamatsu 432-8011, Japan
[email protected]
Low temperature photoluminescence (PL) of high-resistivity detectorExperimental procedure
grade Cl-compensated CdTe semiconductor crystals subjected to (a)
CdTe wafer
irradiation with nanosecond (τ = 7 ns) laser pulses of the second harmonic
Details of applied
#
(λ = 532 nm) of a YAG:Nd laser is studied. Irradiation of CdTe crystals
irradiation
within the certain range of laser pulse energy densities results in a relative
Non-irradiated
decrease in the emission intensity in both the deep energy level and edge
X-ray Computer Tomography
Security, Monitoring
0
CdTe crystal
regions and an increase in the exciton band intensity in the PL spectra.
5 mm
The evolution of the PL spectra depending on laser energy density,
1
50 mJ/cm2
CdTe(111) crystalline structure
excitation level and temperature under excitation are analyzed. Laser- (b) (111)B face (Te-terminated)
Chemical etching
Te atom
stimulated transformation of the point defect structure of the CdTe surface
2
75.8 mJ/cm2
Nuclear Monitoring
Industry
Space Science
region and mechanisms of laser-induced defect formation are discussed.
3
101.7 mJ/cm2
The optimal regimes of laser processing have been obtained which result
Cd atom
in the minimum ratio of the defect and exciton bands that is an evidence of
(111)A face (Cd-terminated)
4
146.6
mJ/cm2
an increase in the structural perfection of the irradiated crystals..
Results: PL spectra at 80 K
Fig. 1. Schematic image
Tab.
1.
Data
on the
of (111)-oriented CdTe
80
1
etched
surface treatments of
1
etched
single crystal (a) and its
(b)
2
1
(a)
2
2
34.2 mJ/cm
3
CdTe samples No 1-5.
Laser irradiation
2
J1 = 34.2 mJ/cm
crystalline structure (b)
2
3
62.6 mJ/cm
2
60
3
3
J2 = 62.6 mJ/cm
2
PL spectra at 5 K – dependence of the temperature
4
117.6 mJ/cm
5
2
2
J4 = 258 mJ/cm
2
2
2
1
20
3
4
3
1.4
1.5
1
0
1.3
1.6
2
1.4
1.5
1.6
hν (eV)
hν (eV)
Fig. 2. PL spectra of the CdTe(111) crystals measured from the Te-terminated side at excitation power density Jex =
4.5 W/cm2 for etched sample (1) and for samples treated by laser pulses of energy densities: J1 = 34.2 mJ/cm2 (2), J2
= 62.6 mJ/cm2 (3), J3 = 117.6 mJ/cm2 (4) and J4 = 258 mJ/cm2 (5) (a). The same spectra normalized by the intensity
of the PL band at 1.57 eV (b).
(a)
5K
12 K
34 K
40 K
3500
4
5
3.5
4000
258 mJ/cm
1
5
2 4
0
1.3
5
3000
2500
2000
1500
0.6
5
0.4
3
0.2
4
2
0.0
0
1.40
1.45
Energy (eV)
1.55
1.60
1.55
1.40
1.60
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
Energy (eV)
4000
(a)
0.8
0.6
0
20
40
60
80
J, mJ/cm
100
120
140
2
Fig. 4. PL spectra of the CdTe(111) crystals measured from the Te-terminated side at excitation energy
Jex = 150 mcW for non-irradiated sample (0) and for samples treated by laser pulses of energy
densities: J1 = 50 mJ/cm2, J2 = 75.8 mJ/cm2, J3 = 101.7 mJ/cm2 and J4 = 146.6 mJ/cm2. The spectra are
normalized by the intensity of the intrinsic PL band at 1.59 eV (a). The relative intensity of the bands in
different densities (b).
The PL spectra of all investigated CdTe samples can be divided into
three regions: (I) the deep level emission region (1.390-1.510 eV), (II) the
edge emission region (1.510-1.580 eV), and (III) the exciton emission
region (1.580-1604 eV). These regions are generally associated with defect
bands (I), shallow donor-acceptor pair transitions and LO-phonon replicas
of the exciton lines (II), and exciton recombination (III), respectively.
The relative redistribution of the band intensities in three regions of the
PL spectra, particularly a decrease in the intensity in the deep level and
edge regions and increase exciton bands for CdTe crystals subjected to
laser treatment with nanosecond pulses of energy density J ~ 50-100 mJ/
cm2 (Fig. 4) has demonstrated the possibilities of modification of the surface
state and improvement of the point defect structure in the surface region of
CdTe.
Summary
1.2
200 mcW
150 mcW
100 mcW
75 mcW
50 mcW
15 mcW
10 mcW
3500
0.7
0.4
1.50
1.50
PL spectra at 5 K – dependence of excitation energy
0.9
0.5
1.45
1.0
1.0
0.0
1.40
1.5
0.5
500
PL intensity (a.u.)
1
0.8
R = I(1.456) / I(1.594)
PL intensity (a.u.)
1.0
2.0
Fig. 3. PL spectra of the CdTe(111) crystals at excitation power density Iex = 200 mcW for sample treated
by laser pulse of energy density J = 101.7 mJ/cm2 in dependence of the temperature (a). The spectra are
normalized by the intensity of the PL band at 1.59 eV (b).
(b)
1.1
2.5
Energy (eV)
1.2
0
2
50 mJ/cm
2
75.8 mJ/cm
2
101.7 mJ/cm
2
146.6 mJ/cm
(a)
5K
12 K
34 K
40 K
1000
PL spectra at 5 K – dependence of irradiation energy
1.2
(b)
3.0
PL intensity (a.u.)
J3 = 117.6 mJ/cm
5
3000
2500
2000
PL intensity (a.u.)
4
PL intensity (a.u.)
40
nν (a.u.)
nν (a.u.)
0.5 mm
5
m
m
Application of CdTe semiconductor
1500
1000
200 mcW
150 mcW
100 mcW
75 mcW
50 mcW
1.0
0.8
(b)
0.6
0.4
0.2
500
0.0
0
1.40
1.45
1.50
Energy (eV)
1.55
1.60
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
Energy (eV)
Fig. 5. PL spectra of the CdTe(111) crystal, samples treated by laser pulse of energy density J2 = 75.8 mJ/
cm2 (a). The same are spectra normalized at 1.59 eV (b).
The evolution of PL spectra of CdTe(111) crystals subjected to irradiation with nanosecond laser pulses are
attributed to transformation of point defect structure of the surface region of the samples. The relative
redistribution of the band intensities in three regions of the PL spectra, particularly a decrease in the intensity in
the deep level and edge regions and increase exciton band intensity after laser irradiation with the certain energy
densities has demonstrated the possibilities to modify the surface state and increase the structural perfection of
the surface region of CdTe. Employing radiation of the second harmonic of a YAG:Nd laser with wavelength
longer compared with that of excimer KrF laser radiation used before has allowed us to modify and study thicker
surface layer of CdTe the material. On the base of the analysis of the PL spectra obtained at different laser pulse
energy densities, excitation levels and temperatures, the optimal regimes of laser processing of CdTe crystals
have been developed.
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