ISSN Applied CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) Quarterly August 2014 ISSN Applied CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Patron Dr. Krishna Rathore Tomar Editorial board Dr. Ravindra Mangal - Editor in Chief Dr. D.V. Singh Dr. S.C. Sharma Dr. Indersingh Rajpurohit Dr. Ujjawal Goswami Dr. Rajesh Bhakar Dr. Deepak Sharma Dr. N. Bhojak - Managing Editor Reviewer Board Physics - Dr. G.P. Singh Chemistry - Dr. R.P. Mathur Zoology - Dr. Meera Srivastava Botany - Dr. M.C. Mali Mathematics - Dr. Shashi Kant Geology - Dr. Satish Kaushik Geography - Dr. P.S. Shekhawat English - Dr. Divya Joshi Hindi - Dr. Shalini Moolchandani Sanskrit - Dr. Nandita Singhavi Rajasthani - Dr. Prakash Amrawat Urdu - Dr. Moinudin Economics - Dr. N. K. Vyas Drawing & Painting - Dr. Satish Gupta History - Dr. C. Kachhawa Public Administration - Dr. B.S. Rathore Sociology - Dr. R. K. Saxena Political Science - Dr. Narendra Nath Philosophy - Dr. Raj Narayan Vyas Commerce - Dr. K.K. Sharma Volume 1 (1) August 2014 Address for correspondence CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Government Dungar College Sagar Road, Bikaner (Raj) 334001 015102528047 FAX-01512528036 Email [email protected] ; [email protected] Website www.dungarcollege.ac.in Owner - Principal, Govt Dungar College Editor in Chief and Printer Dr. Ravindra Mangal Published and Printed (online) at Govt Dungar College Bikaner Publisher & Managing Editor - Dr. N. Bhojak All matter, ideas, contents and data presented in the journal are of the authors. Editorial board may not be agree with it. Jurisdiction area for any dispute will be Bikaner only. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 3 CONTENTS S.N. Title Authors 1 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA (SAFAD AAK) FIBER REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES ACOUSTICS AND AESTHETICS: MUSLIM IMPACT ON INDIAN MUSICAL TR ADITION WITH REFERENCE TO FILM MUSIC COMPLEXATION BEHAVIOR OF SOME ANTIOXIDANT FLAVONOIDS (PLANT PIGMENTS) TOWARDS Pr (III) & Nd (III) RARE-EARTH METAL-IONS. SIMULATION MODELING IN HEAVY ION COLLISIONS A STUDY ON CERTAIN R UMEN FLUID PARAMETERS OF CAMEL CAMELUS DROMEDARIUS MAINTAINED ON DIFFERENT DIETS AN OVERVIEW ON THE BAP BOULDER BED Navneeta Dey, R.Mangal, G.P Singh and N.Bhojak 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF WATER HARVESTING IN ARID REGION: A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF BIKANER TEHSIL (RAJASTHAN) UTILIZATION OF HUMAN HAIR WASTE AS SUBSTRATE AMENDMENT IN POT CULTIVATION OF OKRA (ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS) PLANT OPTIMIZATION OF MECHANICAL AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF BIKANER MINERALS FOR HIGH-STRENGTH ELECTRICAL PORCELAIN DISPERSIONS IN AN OPTICAL FIBER Page No 5 Divya Joshi 14 R.P. Mathur, Geetanjali Godara and Kirti Mathur 33 Abhilasha Saini and Dr. Sudhir Bhardwaj Rakesh Poonia, Suchitra Sena and Meera Srivastava 42 Karanveer S. Rajvi and Shishir Sharma Jai Bharat Singh 62 Suruchi Gupta and Anshumala Sharma 80 S.K.Tak and R.Mangal 89 Kamal Sardana and G.P. Singh Shashi Kant and Amit soni 97 Taruna Pahuja, S.K.S. Raghuvansi, Manish Bhati, D.V.S. Shekhawat, R.C. Jakhmola and Prakash Acharya 110 11 A CERTAIN SUBCLASS OF MEMOMORPHIC CLOSE TO COVEX FUNCTIONS 12 EFFICACY OF EUCALYPTUS ( EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS) OIL ON METHANE PRODUCTION AND RUMINAL FERMENTATION ( IN VITRO) 13 ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MILK SAMPLES N. Khiwani, M.Soni, K. UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS Solanki, Rama Gupta and N. Bhojak 52 70 103 116 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 4 From Editor's Desk We are in the era of energy demand a n d e l e c t r i c i t y d e f i c i e n c y. T h e consumption of electricity is being increased throughout the world and it will further increase as the process of development continues. The common reasons for scarcity in the electricity are poor management, lack of awareness to stop the wastage and unnecessary use of electricity. But another major reason is related with the production i.e. lesser utilization of non conventional sources of energy. Later requires the appropriate technology for which fundamental research in science is essential. Former requires a strong awareness campaign among intellectuals. To fulfil the need of society, there is a requirement of common platform where scientists, social scientists, historians, management researchers and intellectuals from languages can contribute, discuss, suggest critically for the positive development. Keeping these facts in mind idea of "Cross-Sections" has been encapsulated. For the benefit and need of developing society, this will able to generate issues of common interest, will provide a platform to students and researches where they can not only contribute for the development of their area of specialization but they can also peep in other subjects or subject of their interest. They can utilize their expertise intellectual ability for the development of another area or vice versa. "Cross-Sections" is being started from the city of Kapil Muni whose thoughts were parallel to the modern space science, this city termed as Chhoti Kashi is also an active site for mythological research. We will try to accommodate research papers from all areas to prove it truly multifaculty and interdisciplinary journal. We will also try to publish some theme based issues, where interest of all subjects may be focused on one topic and researchers from different areas may contribute for one common cause such as electrical problem, utilization of non conventional sources of energy like Solar energy etc to fulfil the need of society. For this a motivating force is required from our researchers, contributors and readers throughout the globe. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 5 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF Calptropis gigantea (SAFAD AAK) FIBER REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES Navneeta Dey*1, R.Mangal1, G.P Singh1 and N.Bhojak2 1 Condensed Matter Physics Lab, Dunger College Bikaner 2 GCRC, Dunger College Bikaner Email: [email protected] Abstract Thermal properties such as effective thermal conductivity (λ) and effective thermal diffusivity (κ) of Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde (PF) composite have been studied by Transient Plane Source (TPS) technique. Here the samples of different weight percentage of fiber (5, 10, 15, 20 & 25%) have been studied. It is found that effective thermal conductivity of composite decreases, as compared to pure phenol formaldehyde, as the percentage of fiber increase in composite. Thermal conductivity of pure fiber is determine using Y.Agari model and has been compared with extrapolated experimental value of composite. Good agreement between the experimental result of thermal conductivity of composites and theoretical results (obtained from two models Rayleigh-Maxwell and Meredith-Tobias model) has been found. Key Words: Fiber reinforced composites, Transient Plane Source techniques, Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity INTRODUCTION Natural fiber reinforced composite have received much attention due to their distinct advantages such as renewable sources, biodegradability, high filling effect and cost effective along with the possibility of tailoring their physical properties according to our specific need (1-5). So scientists and engineers in all part of world are looking for the inclusion of natural fiber over the synthetic fiber in polymer matrix to form new composite along with enormous new possibilities (6-8). Due to easy availability of Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) in western Rajasthan; our present study is aimed to observe the variation in thermal properties by reinforcing varying volume fraction of Safad Aak fiber in phenol formaldehyde (PF) matrix at room temperature and normal pressure using transient plane source (TPS) technique (10). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 6 MATERIAL PREPARATION Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) fibers reinforced phenol formaldehyde (PF) composites were prepared by hand layup technique followed by compression moulding. After removing the pithy material of Safad Aak stem by retting process, fibers were extracted and chopped to desired length of 1mm to 4mm approx and randomly oriented mats were prepared. Composites having weight percentage of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% have been prepared. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE Transient plane source technique has been used for the simultaneous measurements of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat of all the composites at room temperature and normal pressure. The sample size used for the study is of average diameter 2 cm. Thickness of the samples is approximately 0.25 cm to 0.5 cm. Fig.1 The TPS technique has proven to be a precise and convenient method for measuring the thermal transport properties of electrically insulating materials. The TPS method consists of an electrically conducting pattern (Fig. 1) in the form of a double spiral, which also serves as a sensor of the temperature increase in the sample and heat source. In figure 1, K-4521 is the design no. of the sensor and K stands for kapton. The sensor is sandwiched between the thin insulating layers of kapton. A constant electric power is supplied to the sensor and increase in temperature is recorded from variation of sensor resistance which is related to desired parameter as follows. Assuming the conductive pattern to be in the Y-Z plane of a co-ordinate system, the rise in the temperature at a point Y-Z at time t due to an output power per unit area Q is given by (9) CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 7 Where ρ is the density of composite, "c" is the specific heat and κ is the thermal diffusivity. If one of the integration variables in equation (1) is transformed by assuming κ(t-t') = σ2 a2 equation (1) can be written as 2 1/2 Where κ =λ/ρc, τ = (tκ/a ) , "a" is the diameter of the hot disc which gives a measurement of the overall size of resistive pattern, σ is a constant variable and λ is the thermal conductivity in the units of W/mK. For our experimental work the approximate solution of equation (2) assuming that the disc consist of certain (m) number of concentric ring source, the average increase in temperature Where Where L is the modified Bessel function and P is the total output power. This increase in temperature ΔT(τ) changes electrical resistance ΔR(t) which disturbs the balance of the bridge in the circuit. Transient calculations are done using a computer program. Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat of all the samples have been measured using the TPS method (10), which are reproducible within 2 2.5%. MODELS USED The thermal conductivity of Safad Aak fiber has been calculated using Y.Agari model (11-13). According to this model the logarithm of thermal conductivity of the composite and the volume percentage of the fiber in it are linearly proportional as Log λ = A V + B (5) Where A = Cf log [λf/(CP . λm)]; B = log (CP . λm) Here λf and λm are the thermal conductivity of fiber and matrix respectively. Cf and CP are constants and V is the volume percentage of fiber in the composite. The thermal conductivity of fiber and pure matrix has been obtained by extrapolating the experiments value i.e. plotting a graph between volume fraction of fiber and log of thermal conductivity, therefore using eq. (5) evaluating thermal conductivities at zero volume fraction of fiber (i.e. thermal conductivity of matrix) and at one volume fraction 0 O CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 8 of fiber (i.e. thermal conductivity of fiber). The effective thermal conductivity of two-phase composite has been explored by using two different theoretical approaches. In the first approach, we used Rayleigh and Maxwell (14-15) model, for effective thermal conductivity (λeR) of a composite, for a two-phase dispersion of spherical particle in the continuous medium is given as (6) V is the percentage of the filler in the composite and λf is the thermal conductivity of the fiber and λm is the thermal conductivity of the matrix. According to Meredith and Tobias (16) effective thermal conductivity (λeM) of two-phase materials can be calculated by the following expression (7) Where A = (2+K)/(1-K); B = (6+3K)/(4+3K); C=(3-3K)/(4+3K) and K = λf/λm. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The volume percentage of fibre or volume fraction of fibre V has been determined using the formula w1ρm V = --------------(8) w1ρm + w2ρf Where w1 and w2 are the weight percentage of fiber and matrix and ρf and ρm are the densities of fiber and matrix respectively, as given in table (1). Fig. 2 shows that as the volume fraction of Safad Aak fiber increases the thermal conductivity of the composite decreases. This behavior is also explained using Y.Agari model, plotting graph between logarithmic of experimental values of thermal conductivity of composite and volume fraction of fiber V, and obtaining a straight line (fig.3). Thermal Conductivity of PF matrix has been calculated using this model and found to be 0.377W/mK, which has also been obtained by extrapolation of experimental value and found to be 0.371W/mK. Fig.2 and 3 also shows that as we go on increasing the fiber contents in the composite the thermal conductivity goes on decreasing, these thermal conductivity values of composites remain in between the values of phenol formaldehyde and Safad Aak fiber. This behavior seems to be justified as the fiber fillers in the PF matrix have lower thermal conductivity, thus the effective thermal conductivity of composite CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 9 becomes less and compared with the thermal conductivity of PF matrix. Effective thermal conductivity of composite obtained using models and through experiment is given in Table 2. Here we have used Rayleigh-Maxwell model and Meredith-Tobias model. Table 1: Volume fraction of fiber at different weight fraction Weight frac. of fiber Volume frac. of fiber V Volume frac. of Matrix 0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 1.00 0.0 0.033 0.067 0.102 0.138 0.18 1.00 1.00 0.967 0.933 0.898 0.862 0.82 0.00 Density of Composite in gm/cc 1.323 1.359 1.396 1.432 1.468 1.505 2.05 Table 2: Experimental and theoretical model results of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat Volume frac. of fiber V 0.033 0.067 0.102 0.138 0.180 Thermal Thermal Thermal conductivity conductivity conductivity λe (w/mk) λeR (w/mk) λeM (w/mk) 0.360 0.356 0.356 0.347 0.341 0.341 0.332 0.326 0.327 0.32 0.312 0.311 0.300 0.294 0.294 Thermal diffusivity κe (wm2/s) 0.180 0.162 0.154 0.137 0.121 Specific heat Cp (MJ/m3k) 1.966 2.09 2.21 2.30 2.42 The observed deviation in the values obtained from Rayleigh-Maxwell model may be due to the fact that in this model shape of the filler is considered to be spherical, where as in our composite fibers have cylindrical shape. Model of Meredith-Tobias does not consider the size and shape of the filler particles. Table 2, shows close agreement between the values of Thermal conductivity obtained from both the models and experimentally measured values (fig.4). Fig.5 shows the variation in thermal diffusivity with volume fraction of fiber V, which is found of similar trend as obtained in the case of thermal conductivity. Similarly fig.6 shows the dependence of specific heat on volume fraction of fiber, specific heat values show a weak dependence but increasing trend with volume fraction of fiber. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Fig.2 Fig.3 Vol 1 (1) 2014 10 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Fig.4 Fig.5 Vol 1 (1) 2014 11 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 12 Fig.6 CONCLUSIONS Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of Safad Aak fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde composite decreases as we go on increasing fiber percentage in the matrix, thus, enhancing thermal insulation and heat resistive property of this composite, which may be due to the fact that increase in fiber concentration in the composite help in increasing the phonon scattering in it, thus forming a loose structure. Fiber concentration does not provide the conductive path to the heat energy in the composite for better thermal insulation. REFERENCES 1. Cheng SC& RI Vachon, Int J Heat MASS transfer, 12(1969)249 2. Budiansky B, J Comp Mat, 14(1980)120. 3. Nomura S&T W Chou, J Comp Mat, 14(1980)120. 4. Ma Chen-Chi M, Tseng Man-Thing et al., J Appl Polym Sci, 68(1998)1119. 5. M. S. Sreekala, Journal of Applied Poly. Science 66 (1997) 821-835 6. Stephen G K, John A H & Phillip A W, J Appl Polym Sci, 67(1998)349. 7. Bishop G R& Sheard P A, Compos Struct, 21(1992)85. 8. Vinson R Jack & Chou Tsu-Wei, Composite materials and their uses in structures, (Applied Science Publishing Ltd, London), Chap. 2, 1975, p.35-46. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Vol 1 (1) 2014 13 Carslaw H S, Jaeger J C, Conduction of heat in solids, (Oxford University Press).1950, p. 510-514. Gustafson S E, Rev Sci instrum, 62 (1991) 797. Agari Y, Ueda A et al., J appl Polym Sci, 49 (1993) 1625. Agari Y&Tanaka M, J Appl Polym Sci, 34 (1987) 1429. Agari Y&Uno T, J Appl Polym Sci, 32 (l986) 5705. Rayleight L, Philos Mag, 34 (l 892) 481. Maxwell J C.A treatise on electricity and magnetism, 3rd edition, (Oxford University Press), 1904, p. 435-440. Meredith R E&Tobias C W, J Appl Phys, 31 (1960) 1270. R.Mangal, GP Singh, NS Saxena, S. Thomas and M.S. Sareekala; Crystallization kinetics of pineaple leaf fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites IJPAP Volm. 41 June 2003 pp 470-473 G.P. Singh, R. Mangal, N. Bhojak, N.S. Saxena and Manasui Dixit; Thermal properties of capparis deciduas fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites R. Mangal, N.S. Saxena, M.S. Sreekala, S. Thomas and Kadar Singh; Thermal properties of pineapple leaf fiber reinforced composites, Material Science and Engineering, A 339 (2003), p.281-285. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 14 ACOUSTICS AND AESTHETICS: MUSLIM IMPACT ON INDIAN MUSICAL TRADITION WITH REFERENCE TO FILM MUSIC Dr. Divya Joshi P.G. Department of English, Govt. Dungar College Bikaner 334003. Abstract: This paper focuses on an ethno-musicological approach towards the musical tradition in India. It attempts to explore the impact and contribution of Muslims and Muslim culture on Indian classical music .The first part of the paper traces the basic underlying principles of Indian Classical music and the various styles and forms of vocal performances, with particular emphasis on Khayal, Thumri, Ghazal, Qawwali and Sufi music. It also discusses the novelization, modifications and extensions done under the Muslim impact. The second part explores the heterogeneous nature of Indian cinema, the place of music in cinema and exploitation and exploration of art music in the hands of cinema. Key Words: Culture, Music, Aesthetic experience and unity, Muslim influence. Music is a personal expression yet social and public in bringing people together under the sway of a common emotion more effectively than other art forms. In its temporal aspect, music has two chief characteristics, rhythm and melody. In our music these are inseparable; yet they can be separated for the purposes of analysis; and a rhythmical roll of drumbeats or a spontaneous succession of tones harmonically related proves that each may produce an aesthetic effect without the other. Melody depends on a definite scale and on certain relations between the tones of the scale. These relations illustrate three modes of aesthetic unity. First, there is harmony. Tones are harmonically related when they belong to the leading chords of the key. The tones of such chords, when sounded together, are consonant. Harmony, which is an aesthetic feeling, although not identical with consonance, (which is a purely sensory relation between tones) depends nevertheless upon consonance. Consonant tones have identical partial CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 15 tones and are caused by vibration rates that stand in relation to one another in simple ratios. The second of the tonal relations upon which melody depends is contrast. First, there is the contrast between the high and the low; even when notes are harmonically related, as a note and its fifth, they are in contrast, in so far as the one is measurably higher and more distant than the other. A tone that did not belong to any harmony would not be a dissonance, but a discord, a tone without musical meaning. Dissonances, like other contrasts, enrich the melody by establishing rival harmonies; discords destroy melodies. Just as the drama has little significance without conflict, so melodies are uninteresting without dissonances. The orderly beauty which the tonal relations confer upon music is further enriched and complicated by rhythm. Rhythm in music is of two sorts: a rhythm of time and a rhythm of accent, or increased loudness. Through the one, the duration of a musical composition is divided up into approximately equal parts filled by notes and rests of definite length, and through the other, the light notes are subordinated to the heavy notes. The two, however, are interrelated; for the bars are divided from each other by the accents, and the accents recur at approximately equal intervals. The pleasure in rhythmical arrangement is derived from two sources: first, from the need for perspicuity which is fulfilled through the regular grouping of the tonal elements in the bars, their length being adjusted to the average length of an attention wave, and the number of tones that fill them to the number of items which can be taken in at one act of attention, and through the subordination of the light to the heavy within the bars, the bars to the measures, and the measures to the periods. The second source of satisfaction in rhythm is the combination of feelings of balance and harmony aroused. The full significance of both melody and rhythm depends, however, upon their interrelation, the concrete musical structure, the motive or melody in the complete sense, being an indissoluble unity of both.Musicology as an academic discipline studies music in its historical, social, and cultural contexts. It is usually divided into two main approaches: historical musicology and ethnomusicology. While historical musicology focuses on art music and often examines music from a historical perspective, ethnomusicology is a branch of musicology defined as the study of social and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts. This paper focuses on an ethno-musicological approach towards the musical tradition in India. It attempts to explore the impact and contribution of Muslims and Muslim culture on Indian classical music .The first part of the paper traces the basic underlying principles of Indian Classical music and the various styles and forms of vocal performances, with particular emphasis on Khayal, Thumri, Ghazal, Qawwali and Sufi music. It also discusses the novelization, modifications and extensions done CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 16 under the Muslim impact. The second part explores the heterogeneous nature of Indian cinema, the place of music in cinema and exploitation and exploration of art music in the hands of cinema. Throughout the Middle Ages the only non-European music with which that of Christendom had come into contact was Islamic (Abraham 190-91). But the roots of Islamic music were in the music common to all the Middle East until the Christians gradually evolved their own ritual dialects. The Umayyad Caliphs (661-750), under whom the Maghrib (the West) and Spain were conquered, were great lovers of music. Court music which is Central Asian in origin began to be adopted under the early Abbarids; and is still the most important 'form' of Islamic music. The basis of the classical system had already been established under the Umayyads. Arabic/Persian music had a long relationship with that of Greece, Byzantine and Alexandria. But in practice, profusion of ornament and improvisation always has been a prominent feature of Islamic music. Since 16th century, India had numerous European contacts with the Portuguese, Dutch, French and English, but none of them were interested in its music. The differences between the music of North India and South India flowed from the Islamic conquest of North India (Abraham 562-63). During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Persian became the official and literary language, and unconverted Hindus used the Persianized form of their own language known as Urdu or Hindustani, whereas the South was conquered later and even the Mughal emperors failed to establish a long ascendancy there. But music of North India underwent deep, slow changes under the Muslim impact. With the coming of the Muslims around the 13th Century, momentous changes took place in the style, spirit and word-content of music in North India. For the five and a half centuries following, Islam's cultural influence steadily dominated the aboriginal musical forms till their very character was changed and, it may be added, basically improved. What passes for classical Indian music today is, properly speaking, a re-creation of the ancient Hindu system under the influence of dynamic Islamic culture. The impact of the Muslim influence brought music out of the temples CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 17 into the courts and chambers of royal families as well in North India. Some of the Muslim Mughal rulers, who loved music and helped it grow, enriched North Indian music by incorporating Persian elements into it. New melodies and new types of music like the Khayal, Thumri and Tarana were introduced so that by the 15th Century, Carnatic and Hindustani systems had evolved as two distinct streams of music. The medieval Middle Eastern system of music was a synthesis of ancient Iranian, Iraqi, Arabian, Egyptian, and Greek systems. As geographical and racial limitations transcended, a happy interfusion of different cultural values was brought about. The ancient Hindus of the subcontinent had migrated from the common home of all the Aryan peoples, probably to the north or north-west of Afghanistan. Like all the Aryan people, a form of music was an essential part of their rituals. Thus the roots of the so-called Hindu music of ancient India lay outside the geographical boundaries of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, in that very territory which later came under Islam's cultural influences. When the Muslims came to the subcontinent they found in its northern parts a system of music in fundamentals much like their own but still in the diatonic stage of development and suffering from a kind of culture stagnation. The Southeast Asian influence which had affected progress had worn away. In the Middle East countries, however, music had reached an advanced stage of development. Chromatic scales had already evolved and were part of the Middle Eastern music system. One can therefore well believe that when the famous South Indian musician, Gopal Naik, sang a classical song in the court of Alauddin, Amir Khusro was not only able to reproduce it but actually improve on it probably by incorporating some extempore variations. The words of Gopal Naik's song were unintelligible to Amir Khusro. He therefore resorted to the expedient of using short musical syllables - sounds without meaning. He called it a tarana. The tarana or tilana was probably the first innovation introduced by the Muslims. In imitation of Amir Khusro's vitalizing improvement, the slow Hindu ritual music began to be in faster tempos. Intermezzos of syllables without meaning were composed and interposed in the set pattern. A later development was the chaturang, a composition in four parts, one part being a slow movement and having words; another part was sung in a different tempo with meaningless words, generally a mixture of Persian and Hindu songs; the third part in very fast tempo was a short tarana; the finale was in syncopated time with syllables which normally denote drum beats. This form, though little popular, survives to this day. Together with the Ragmala (the 'rosary of melodies') wherein several melody-types are used in one composition by modulation, the chaturang offers considerable possibilities of developments. Some extremely beautiful Taranas of the Mughal period are still in existence today. The first improvements were the introduction CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 18 of mishra (mixed) diatonic melody-types wherein transient modulation was effected between two or more melody-types. Some of our most characteristic melody-types are of this kind. Later, melody-types were developed using augmented and diminished intervals and some very characteristic use of, what is called in Europe, chromatic harmony, was made. These are the real classical melody-types of the subcontinent writes Chagla, and many of these are Middle Eastern in origin (02). The principle was applied to even the pentatonic and hexatonic scales, resulting in some of the most beautiful translucent scales of chromatic derivation. There is no evidence whatsoever to show that these melodies of chromatic derivation, which now bear purely Hindu names such as Bhairav and Ramkali were known before the advent of the Muslims. According to Milind Malshe: The plural, multicultural nature of the traditions of classical music in India invites a dialogic perspective. From the ancient Vedic chants to the modern day 'Khayaal' the musical traditions have been multi-religious, multi-lingual and multi-cultural. The traditions have developed dialogically, developing through many languages like Sanskrit, Urdu, Braj and Punjabi; through many religious such as Hinduism and Islam; through many religious sub-sects such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Sufism; through many castes like Brahmins and the non-Brahmins (Malshe 126). This Bakhtinian principle of 'dialogue', applied by Milind Malshe in his article in the context of Indian Classical Music opens up the discourse at two levels, the dialogic development of Indian tradition and the dialogic aspect of culture as well. Before understanding the Indian musical tradition in the context of dialogue between Muslim culture and Indian tradition, it is essential to trace the history of Indian Classical Music and its various forms. Indian classical music distinguishes itself between two broad categories, the open and the closed forms. The former known as anibaddha having no rhythmic accompaniment or well defined parts (alap is an important example), the latter called nibaddha, which refers to compositions having a fixed beginning and definite end and is set to tal. It consists of three basic elements- Bhava (emotions), Raga (particular combination of musical notes and tals (rhythm). Raga literally means the colour, seven basic notes that form the body of Ragas are Shadja, Rishabha, Goudhara, Madhyama, Panchma, Dhaivate and Nishada (Bandopadhyaya 28). There are ragas with minimum 5 notes (Adava Ragas), 6 notes (Shadava Ragas) and all the seven notes called CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 19 Sampurna Raga. Raga gives a melodic structure through which a comprehensive emotional ethos is presented. Earlier there were 12 shrutis (microtonal intervals) in the ragas; it was Amir Khusro who is given the credit of changing it to 22, based on 22 Irani Mukaams. The inter-relationship of notes and their fragmentary graces (Shrutis) with the permanent invariable notes, and further their relationship with each other undergo a detailed improvisation in the course of performance. The basic principles in the development of raga depend upon the combination and structuring of melody and rhythm, and these principles are applied in specific forms in actual performances. The most distinguishing feature of Indian music is that it frees itself from rigidity and permits deviations and thus the composition is used in conjunction with the musical knowledge and skills improvised during the performance. As a performative art, music with its cultural manifestations attempts to locate the performance vis a vis its result like the construction of identity, enunciative use of language, and its social, cultural impact. According to Amartya Sen, 'The cultural inheritance of contemporary India combines Islamic influences with Hindu and other traditions and the results of the interaction between members of different religious communities can be seen plentifully in literature, music, painting, architecture and many other fields' ( 314-15). The contribution and influence of Muslims in the field of music is noteworthy due to integration and interaction between the two styles rather than individual contribution. Interactions of culture and music not only modified and improvised but also contributed greatly in the enrichment and popularity of musical tradition in India. Music in Muslim India projected itself as a true celebration of diversity and cultural association between Hindus and Muslims. It thrived at the imperial courts of Muslim kings in Delhi and Agra and provincial kingdoms like the Sharqui kingdom of Jaunpur, the Khilji kingdom of Malwa and Bahman kingdom of Bijapur and Golcunda. Amir Khusro is credited for inventing four styles of singing:(a) Qaul- in which words were Indian and Persian, singing style was Indian.(b) Tarana- Persian couplets, sung in one rhythm.(c) Qawwali- Indo-Persian style(d) Khayal- songs from Hindi language, sung in a simplified style The greatest influence on Hindustani classical music is said to have started from 1290 onwards i.e. from Alaud-din Khilzi's reign and the coming of Amir Khusro. During Lodhi reign, the desire to colour Hindustani music into Arabic music, gave birth to popular forms like ghazal, khayal, Qawwali and thumri. Focus shifted from grammar to performance, pleasure and execution. Dhrupad's devotional singing which sounded dry and technical stood in contrast to CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 20 khayal and thumri which thrived on an extrovert, sensual inspiration, hence gained more popularity. Although there were similarities in note composition, sthayi, and embellishments of dhrupad and khayal, yet what distinguished them was the unique extension and tan of khayal. Today khayal style of singing even includes thumri and regional folk music like Mand, Pahari, Bihari, and Rag. Dhrupad was treated as cold and intellectual and the embellished prose poems (Khayals) which mirrored the courtly lives of the times became popular. Sultan Husain Shurquee (1458-1499) invented khayal along with Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairvi, Rasool Todi, 12 types of Shyam, Jaunpuri, Sindoora etc. Khayal's subject is generally a love tale uttered by a female in a graceful style, replete with elegance and embellishments. The khayal form of vocal music is one of the most important genres of Hindustani classical music. The term khayal comes from a Persian word meaning 'thought', 'idea', 'conception', 'imagination'. The form is often conjectured to have arisen as a result of the mixing of the qawaali and the dhrupad styles of singing. The prominence of this musical form is generally attributed to Amir Khusro, some others suggest that Khusro used the term in the normal Persian sense of a figure of speech, not for a song form. Mughal king Mohammed Shad 'Rangeela's' (1719-1748) name is also associated with the form.The textual content of khayal covers diverse topics as divine love, separation of lovers, the seasons, praise of kings and pranks of Lord Krishna, unlike dhrupad which focuses largely on religious themes. It also differs from dhrupad in singing and presentation style. The manner of producing notes and embellishments used for melodic movements influence the nature of khayal because its nature is influenced by its singing techniques. The use of tan in khayal gayaki is one of its major features and there is also greater use of ornamentation like sargam-s, murki-s and khatka-s. (Bagchee 120-22) Khayal, as it is sung now, owes its existence to sources not earlier than the early eighteenth century. This style of musical composition is only a natural development of sadharan geets which used the exquisite features of all the styles. It is this sadharan geets with the predominant use of Bhinna and generous plentiful use of gamaks in it that became the khayal. It exploited all the famous features without bothering about their names- khatka, murki, meend, kamp, aandolan- everything was beautifully woven into its structure. In the hands of Muslim Sufis it developed it into a form of considerable CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 21 aesthetic appeal. The old musical forms of khayal were influenced by Qaul or Qawwali. Later thumri made the inherent conceptual structure simpler. When the glory of the Mughal regime was at its peak, both music and dance were moulded to please princes and lavish patrons. Classical music started borrowing from folk; thereby thumri and dadra were created both of them sweet evocative melodies which could freely express sensuality in the spirit. Thumri was created to give greater freedom and simplicity in technique and the treatment of ragas, than the khayal.. Greater emphasis was laid on sentiments and moods through varied interpretation of words, effectively accompanied by gestures (abhinaya). Thumri was created in Lucknow under courtly patronage and was imaginatively shaped out of a mixture of classical khayals with folk songs indigenous to Awadh (UP) and its neighbouring areas. Kajari, Chaiti, and Sawan are strong examples of its allied folk varieties. Thumri and dadra are invariably sung in rural dialects such as Awadh, Brij bhasha, Bhojpuri and when adopted into semi-classical music, the musical part became highly embellished and refined, while words dealing with day to day themes acquired unprecedented mass appeal. The credit for creation of thumri goes to Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan, who was patronized by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and some claim it to be Ghulam Nabi. This light classical variety is sung in ragas like Piloo, Kafi, Khamaj, Barwa, Zila, Gara, Bharavi etc., and even in heavier ragas like the Desh, Bihag, Yaman, and Jogiya as well .Thumri, in the form we knew today, somewhat influenced by khayal, became an independent vocal form by the beginning of 1800. However the 'uchchaas' i.e. the musical pronunciation of thumri, is totally different from that of khayal. Its theme is invariably romantic and features Nayikabhed in stereotype phrases. Teen tal ki thumri also known as bol-bant ki thumri as distinct from the slower versions i.e. bol banao ki thumri, evolved out of kathak dance in Lucknow. Originally bol-bant ki thumri in drut teentaal was sung as an accompaniment to kathak dance before it was taken up seriously by vocalists at a later stage. Both Hindustani Music and the kathak dance style owe much to the tawaifs of Lucknow says Manuel (74-6). Drut thumri belonging to Kalka Bindadin Gharana, constitutes an important expressional element of kathak. Thakur CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 22 Prasadji (kathak master) was an outstanding exponent of the Natwari aspect of kathak and thumris like batana or bhav-batana an emotional interpretation of the bols (texts), was taught by him. The very name thumri reveals close affinity with dance because thumak (thum) means a dance step and thumak also suggests a small size or small structure. Thus the etymology of thumri indicates "a short-song associated with dance". Although Urdu, Persian and Hindustani were widely known languages, the thumri was a mixed jargon of Brajbhasha, interspersed with the rural jargon of Lucknow and of the eastern districts (Pant 32). Tarana, is another vocal genre usually sung in a fast tempo using vocables such as na, ta, re, da, ni, odani, tanom, yalali, yalalom and so on. There is no text as such in the tarana and the emphasis is on producing rhythmic patterns with vocables. The inherent layakari that emerges from manner of delivery of intricate consonant pattern gives pleasure to the listener. This genre had a great impact on the Indian style of performance. From around 800 the term Sufi (from the Persian for coarse wool, denoting the kind of garment worn) was applied to Islamic mystics who adopted ascetic practices as a means of achieving union with God. Contrary to the spiritual mission of Sufism, the cult was primarily introduced in India for the spread of Islam with a view to help the Muslim rulers for political domination under the patronage of the state under Muslim rulers. The Sufi mystics while offering spiritual guidance and support to the Hindu subjects allured them for adoption of Muslim identity by emphasizing superiority of Arbo-Persian-Turkish tradition and accordingly transplanted them in the cultural tradition of India. Sufi movement became dormant with the decline of Muslim power in India with the failure of armed resistance against the British and Sikh-Hindu combined, the followers of hard line Sufism were forced to adjust with the ground reality of non-Muslim occupation of the Indian subcontinent but did not reconcile with it. Hindus for centuries have accepted Sufism as a symbol of communal harmony. Sufi saints did a commendable job by bringing music closer to the masses. Sufi music as a genre of music has been inspired by Sufi philosophy and works of Sufi poets like Waris Shah, Bulleh Shah, Faiz, Hafez, Rumi, and even Kabir ,Nanak, Mira etc. Sufi love songs are often performed as ghazal and kafi, a solo genre CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 23 accompanied by percussion and harmonium, using a repertoire of songs of Sufi poets. Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, sprang up largely in reaction against the worldliness which infected Islam when its leaders became the powerful and wealthy rulers of multitudes of people and were influenced by foreign cultures. The spread of Sufism has been considered as a definitive factor in the spread of Islam and in the creation of integrated Islamic culture particularly in Africa and Asia. Of the different types of North Indian song, Qawwali most closely fits the rubric of 'light classical' along with other supra-local song genres that are the preserve of specialist performers. Qawwali thus shares with other light classical songs a certain musical flexibility that allows for musical enhancement by means of techniques of classical music, but also for adaptations from popular and folk song. The texture of Qawwali has three components- the melodic line, musical meter, and the pitch outline. The dual requirement of a strong rhythmic framework and an emphatic stress pattern affects both duration and acoustic presentation. The form prospered because of its poetic quality. Traditional Hindustani music shackled by Shastrakars and Grammarians developed into a form of considerable aesthetic appeal in the hands of Muslim Sufis. Qawwali, a religious song in which more than one person joins in the chorus was prepared in the hands of the Muslim Sufis.Qawwali shares general traits with the light classical music of North India and Muslim traits but has unique characteristics (Indo-Islamic) related to its religious function. The term Qawwali applies both to musical genre and to the occasion of its performance. To a Sufi participant, Qawwali is a method of worship and a means of spiritual advancement. Today various dimensions of context are incorporated into it. Another form ,ghazal defined by Aqil Ahmed , ' a unique form of poetry, a blend of rhyme and rhythm, compressed and capsule thoughts conveyed through the medium of metaphors and imagery, delicate sensitive, and sometimes, sensuous', also had a remarkable impact on musical tradition in India.. He adds that, “Ghazal is a form of poetry so closely identified and linked with a culture that unless one could define culture, one cannot define ghazal. A culture has to be experienced, to be lived with, to be felt”(Ahmed34). It is said that the earliest mehfils of ghazals in India were held about 700 years ago in the Khanquah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti Ajmeri CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 24 Rahmatullah Aliah. At that time it was based on Iranian music and the singers were Iranian. Later on in the thirteenth century, it was Hazrat Amir Khusro who Indianised and popularized the Mehfil Sama.There are two branches of Ghazals; the Sufiana(devotional) type sung like Qawwalis in Sama Mehfils , and the Ashiqana(romantic) ghazals about love and wine(shabab and sharab) popularized chiefly through the tawaifs in their colourful kothas. The first variety was sung by the Sufis in their Sama Mehfils in a deeply devotional mood, while the second variety was available only to rich patrons. With the manufacture of gramophone records and the setting up of various broadcasting stations in India, ghazals became available to the masses and won country wide popularity. Ghazal is perhaps the best mirror of Urdu culture which took firm roots in Lucknow and blossomed into full glory during the Nawabi regime.Begum Akhtar took Lucknow ghazal to the peak of its glory and reigned supreme as the “Queen of Ghazals” for many decades. The records of Begum Akhtar, Mehendi Hasan, Chote Ghulam Ali, Jagjit and Chitra Singh, Farida Khanum, Iqbal Bano,Talat Aziz,Talat Mahmud,Shobha Gurtu,Lata , Asha and Hariharan immediately make their huge presence felt. Ghazal Gayaki, the art of singing or performing the ghazal in Indian classical tradition, is very old. Singers like Ustad Barkat Ali and many other singers in the past used to practice it, but due to the lack of historical records, many names are anonymous. It was with Begum Akhtar, and later on Ustad Mehdi Hassan, that classical rendering of ghazals became popular amongst the masses. The categorization of ghazal singing as a form of light classical music is a misconception. Classical ghazals are difficult to render because of the varying moods of the shers or couplets in the ghazal. The poetic arrangement of the ghazal is precise. The ghazal is based upon a series of couplets which are woven together by a rhyming formation. The first couplet is called matla and is the most important one. At times there are two matlas, where the second one is referred as matla-e-sani. The last couplet is vital and is called the maqta. The maqta usually contains the pen name of the poet. The maqta is generally different from rest of the ghazals as it is a personal statement. The ghazal music revolves usually around a few common themes. They are woven around unreciprocated love, madness, mystical reflection and even social commentaries ridiculing and highlighting religious orthodoxy. But the most important theme of ghazals is unrequited love. The traditional ghazals are similar to the Hindustani classical music forms such as dadra and thumri. Then there are some ghazal forms that are similar to qawwali. So far we have traced the various styles and forms of vocal performances, extended and modified under the Muslim influence. The small variations in the microtonal changes of the swaras (notes) in the ascent and descent came under Islamic influence. The vocal music of North India is influenced by the technique of the bowed Sarangi with its glissandi of nail on string and its sympathetic strings in contrast to the music of South India which is intimate and expressive on the plucked veena. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 25 Double reed pipes (Shahnai), Surna, Sitar, Tanbur (tambura), Rahab (Sarod) are instruments developed under the Persian influence. Urdu as a language helped in preserving cultural relationship between Hindus and Muslims above religion and class. According to Geert, 'Culture is a collective phenomenon, partly shared with people who live or lived within the same social environment, which is where it was learned' (05). Music in Muslim India was not identified with the Muslim minority in the first instance, but was thought reminiscent of Muslim traditions equally acceptable by Hindus. II In a culture, which mixes up characters, mythological 'actions' and the daily problems of contemporary life, the substrata of Indian cinema is founded on a very strong, artistic, moral and religious tissue, which has not been dislodged by post-industrial modernity (as often the case in western society), and, in fact, regards with a rather confused apprehension the advent of this modernity generated by increasing industrialization. That is why popular Indian cinema gives the impression of functioning like a myth, which reinforces the structure of belief, considered necessary by the cinema industry and by politicians for the existence of homo indicus, a typically Indian myth-related image (Thoraval 117). The element of myth that Thoraval talks about is in fact attributed to the heterogeneous nature of Hindi Cinema. Films act as a strong medium of representation of a nation and its culture. It lives in the psyche of the masses and serves as a powerful image of collective consciousness as cultural products because culture and religion have always been important for an individual. Indian (Bombay) cinema has always acted like a fusion institution of Indian mass culture carrying the implications of immense social, cultural, and religious diversities. This is what makes it one of the finest examples of heterogeneity dialogic tradition. Popular cinema today stands as an evidence of unbroken continuity of Indian culture, the dominant textual forms being social and cultural. Both films and music are beyond the definition of a nation . Indian nationstate was thus created in the process of the establishment of a colonial relationship CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 26 around 1850.It was during British India that the growth of Indian cinema created conditions for the growth of Muslim sensibility. Film displayed a national as well as cultural symbiosis to show the deep Indianness of Muslims living in India. Films that exaggerated the splendours of the Mughal period, the glory of India under the Mughals vis a vis colonial power before the arrival of British were like affirmative narratives of national glory. But after Independence the need was to create a national awareness and Mughal grandeur became a platform for the fusion of both the cultures.1920 onwards films dealing with culture, preoccupations from a shared culture common to majority of the population, and emerging nationalist movement was an important factor in the growth of indigenous cinema. The intention of film makers became a cultural tract, a sort of reviving of culture through indigenous themes, motifs, music etc. Since the beginning of sound film in India in 1931, virtually all Indian commercial films have had a musical format. The enduring presence of songs in Hindi films has been identified with history, society and culture. Film music or popular music has always been prominent in commercial cinema, unlike art (cinema of intelligentsia). A Hindi film is conceived as an assemblage of pre-fabricated parts, like the story, dance, song, comedy scenes, fights etc. making it heterogeneous though non-linear, melodramatic and so unrealistic in character (Prasad 43).The Hindi cinema inherited its musical format from the urban theatrical traditions of the nineteenth century, such as the Parsi Theatre, Marathi theatre and Bengali Jatra. The coming of sound made it possible for Hindi cinema to tap into the tradition of music and song as a part of dramatic expression that reaches back as far as around two thousand years to Sanskrit theatre, observes Ranade (295). The presence of songs in the Hindi film narrative can also seen in terms of the reality of most Indian drama. Film songs developed form sources of light classical and theatre music, and emerged in the 1940s into a distinctive 'filmi' style. This is so because film songs have always interacted with the context of Indian culture and society, as any tradition of music does, but in terms of music, they do not directly interact with the film narrative. They are like gratuitous insertions into the plot, to be enjoyed for their own sake. Songs are like para-narrative units, emanating from their own traditions, therefore less cinematic in the narrative context. The power of songs in creating an ambiguous aura is what has made them indispensable because the parallel world created through songs and music remain entrenched in memory for long. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 27 While concerts help us understand musical texts and performance in their own social and cultural context, music in a film is a process within larger social and cultural practices. In the latter case, music helps us to understand the processes (what it does); whereas in the former, processes help us to understand music. Music as performance takes into consideration three main disciplines viz. linguistics, anthropology and theatre. As one of the members of performing triumvirate (other two being dance and drama) it forms an integral part of cinematic art which comes under the category of composite art. A fusion of different art forms produce aesthetic results and hence constant attempts have always been made to maintain proper balance between the operating forces of both. These bi-polar elements combine to create a musical structure with certain identifiable qualities. The songs initially were activated by a dramatic impulse (theatric tradition) but deeper cultural needs shifted the focus from music proper to more semiclassical and popular songs. Efforts were made in such a way that communicative channels are not disrupted or broken, thus except in rare cases carrying significance but no meaning. The relationship of correspondence between words, lines, motifs, symbols and music, along with the language used creates an impression that music is matched with the non-musical stimuli in action. The non-musical stimuli in a song sequence are suggestive and help in making the whole act more accommodating. Music has offered many things like form, technique, style to cinema and cinema has reciprocated by putting music to numerous new uses. Interchange of influences between the two; have generally taken place under the shadow of circumstances identified as 'considerations of the industry (business, popularity, trends…). Reasons and process of bringing the two together are claimed and contested on the grounds of aesthetic requirements and Indian cultural behaviour. Since earlier times cinema has explored and exploited all the five categories of Indian music and musical experience. The different categories of music correspond with the kind of experience. The variety of music categories in India defines the socio-cultural diversity in the society, primitive (tribal) exhibiting an ethnological basis, folk, having sociological churnings, art (classical) related to value experience, popular, produced by cumulative operations of mass media, and devotional. The experiential content imparts distinctiveness to these categories (Ranade 04). Primitivity in the case of music is related to and directly linked CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 28 to human experience in which dance, instrumental music and vocal expressions are closely woven together, relying more on rhythm than on melody. Collectivity emerges as one of the important characteristics of folk as well as popular music. Folk songs are created by a cultural group, and regional, religious and linguistic orientations of folk music stress its culture bound character. The determining factor in bringing about changes in folk music is its proximity to art music at various periods and points in history. Unlike folk, art music is more homogenous and therefore common and similar music forms that exist for culturally diverse groups and communities. The term art (classical, as it is generally called) is generally thought of as a product of philosophizing a particular kind of value experience. The most significant feature of art music is its aesthetic intention to concurrent operations in which performative and scholastic (codification) are prominent. Pertinent rules, methods and techniques are systematized in accordance with established practices. It provides maximum scope to soloists. Apart from non musical factors, it also displays technical competence. A highly structured teaching-learning process is also a remarkable feature of art music, projected in the establishment and tradition of Gharanas. A total aesthetic experience is created by linking (with other art forms) and delinking (for establishment of an independent aesthetic control) method in the process of performance. Ballet, Opera, Raga Mala Paintings are some examples of its being versatile and all pervasive. Art music allows abstraction at every possible level. It creates its own universe of reference and proposes to adhere to a contextual framework built of only musical elements. The beauty lies in total dependence on musical parameters yet giving/extending total freedom for interpretation. Indian cinematic tradition, unlike west, is known by its musical dimensions because music and dance has always been assigned a primordial place. The musical elements form an integral part of the film narrative either as mainspring of the action, extra embellishments or visualization of the story. Despite this, music and songs are independent and autonomous within the general structure and so when performed describe a kind of subjective state. The inter-relatedness and distinctiveness in respect of the issue of rasa, creates identical aesthetic experience between the aesthetic object and aesthete. Life phenomenon itself is abstracted into the principal categories of love, pathos, heroism, fierceness, laughter/humour, jealousy, disgust, fear, wonder etc., all ultimately leading to harmony. The experience is manifested through abstract emotive categories. The dancer and the singer communicate the idea and evoke a similar experience in the viewers. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 29 Even though music as a component is created in a certain tradition, it has a separate existence in the context of the film and is also significant in determining the form of the text. In the case of Indian films, music is relatively independent yet woven into the structure with its autonomous existence. Music in Indian films has served as a signifier for aesthetics, which also helps in blending cinematic and narrative context. It has also acted as an agency of construction of cultural identity and served as a negotiating medium between history/culture and society. Numerous films have recaptured the ambience of feudal and princely courts of North India and of Bengal, films have also been made on musicians or on celebrating a particular form of music, on tawaifs (courtesan, dancing/singing girls) etc. Satyajit Ray's Jalsa ghar (The Music Room, 1958) deals with kathak dance form of Mughal origin and music, Wara Mendel (The Dance of the Wind, 1997), by Rajan Khosa is about a classical thumri singer. From 1960-1990, under the influence of western music, classical and semiclassical music was replaced by light music as box office formula films, sentimental comedies and romantic films dominated the scene. A qualitative revival was needed around 70s and films were now made more on social issues which had less or no place for music. Today Indian cinema is increasingly using Sufi songs. The tradition goes back to Begum Akhtar, Ghulam Ali, Farida Khanum, Jagjit Singh, Hariharan to name a few. Abida Parveen and late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are renowned sufi artists who have taken Sufi music to great heights. Qawwali and ghazal are also well known forms of Sufi music. The decline in the feudal society at the end of the 19th and early 20th century brought with it a decline in the tawaif tradition. This change in culture also saw a change in the performance of ghazal. It continued to build upon its musical component, and began to be heard more and more in the concert hall. The job of converting ghazal to a musical form was finished in the 20th century. The development of the recording and film industries created a mass media that was well suited to the musical ghazal. They also created an environment where it was convenient to treat the ghazal as though it were a mere geet. All of this had tremendous economic advantages for performers and producers alike. Unfortunately, it also created economic pressures to lower the standards for the lyrical content. Simplified forms of classical music based on styles like Thumri, Tappa, Dadra, and Ghazal have also been beautifully used in film music. (Mishra, “Thumri songs in the Hindi films") The music directors of Hindi films composed thumri songs whenever CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 30 they got a proper situation in the story. Thus a rich heritage of thumris is available, if we reinvestigate the songs composed for Hindi films. The talent of many reputed vocalists like Ustaad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar,Birju Maharaj, Nirmala Devi, Parveen Sultana, Shobha Gurtu and many others of Hindustani Classical style were occasionally also used by film makers. Many composers came to the film industry from the theatre, and used existing theatre songs, or songs of a similar style, containing a mixture of classical, light-classical and local folk traditions for the films. The dhrupad texts which usually cover themes such as religious or philosophical views of life, devotion and praise of deities including Sri Krishna, celebration of seasons, particularly Basant and Hori are in the dhamar variety. All these themes and texts have always been a favourite with film makers, though the form and singing style modified. Hindi film songs developed from their sources of light-classical and theatre music, and emerged in the 1940s into what has become a distinctive filmi style. To some extent, Indian film music assumed a life and significance of its own that was independent of cinema', but the significance of film songs has always remained allied to their cinematic context. The musicians/composers of the earlier Indian cinema (Alamara onwards) were disciples of musical Gharanas. For example, Ravindra Sangeet dominated New Theatres, Saraswatidevi and S.N. Tripathi composed compositions based on pure ragas at Bombay Talkies, Marathi Natya Sangeet was popular at Prabhat. In Bombay cinema ghazals, Qawwali, thumri and tunes inspired from the Parsi theatre dominated. Qawwali from the Sufi tradition and ghazal (love poetry in Arabic-Persian) introduced by the elite of the Turkish and Afghan Muslim conquerors and cultivated in the courts of Indian Muslim rulers, were the two important genres that were integrated into film music under the Muslim influence. The decline of Delhi and emergence of Lucknow as the capital of the kingdom of Avadh, led to consequent shift in cultural activities. Singers from Mirasi families, Abdul Karim Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan are well known names. Glimpses of Lucknow and her Nawabi culture have been projected in a large number of films and all along lured away writers, lyricists, singers, actors etc. in Bollywood. Film makers have captured the tehzib (manner), music, mujras (dance of tawaifs) in films like Sangram, Sheesh Mahal, Palki, Chaudvi Ka Chand, Mere Mehboob, Mere Huzoor, Bahu Begum, Mehndi, Benazir, Junoon, Gaman, Aagaman and many others. Lucknow was an important cultural centre during eighteenth and nineteenth century with a reputation for Urdu poetry, music and dance that combined elements of both Hindu and Muslim tradition. The stories related to tawaifs enabled CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 31 film makers to portray all facets of femininity. Films made on great composers and musical genres like Kumar Sahni's Khayal Gatha (The Saga of Khayal, 1988) and Mani Kaul's The Dhrupad Singer are examples of Hindu Muslim cultural symbiosis. Some of the great composers like Ghulam Mohammed, Sajjad Hussain, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Zahur Mohammed Khayyam, Naushad were all trained in classical music. Aesthetic requirements and cultural needs are the two important factors responsible for a deeper and extensive exploitation of music by film makers. Thus we can conclude that music has always complemented cinema and cinema in return has explored almost all the categories of music. The journey of music and cinema together has been a wonderful one, moulding, modifying, accommodating and combining together and changing as per cultural and aesthetic needs. To have more songs, and less music, was a cultural prompting which took care to introduce novelty of expression without sacrificing the nourishment offered by an oral tradition writes Ranade (294). Three phases are discerned in musico-cultural movement in India and they are approximations to melody-making, creation of songs and finally movement away from songs to music. Songs tend to envelope the entire communicative act in a haze-at once welcome, unsettling and attractive. The greatest quality of art music is its homogeneity in a vast country like India with too much diversity. And therefore it has and will always emerge as a strong cultural expression/ medium. References: Abraham, Gerald, "Music in the Islamic world", The Concise Oxford History of Music, Oxford University Press, 1979. Bandopadhyaya, S. The Origin of Raga, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1977. Chagla ,Ahmed Ghulamali, "Muslim Contribution to Indo-Pakistan Music", http://akchagla.com.updated 14 Jan 2004. Dhareshwar, Vivek, 'Our Time': History, Sovereignty and Politics", Economic and Political Weekly, 11 Feb., 1995. Geert, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Hammersmith, London; Harper Collins, 1994. Malshe, Milind, "A Bakhtinian Perspective on Indian Classical Music", Journal of Contemporary Thought, No. 30, Winter 2009. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 32 Mishra, Ramesh, "Thumri songs in the Hindi films", Life and Music: A Comprehensive List of thumri compositions in Hindi Cinema posted on his blog. http://mishraraag.blogspot.in/2009/02/thumri-songs-in-hindi-films.html. Peter, Manuel, "Courtseans and Hindustani Music", Asian Review, Dec. 1992. Prasad, M. Madhava, "The Economics of Ideology", Ideology of Hindi Film: A Historical Construction, Oxford University Press, 2008. Ranade, Ashok D, "Cinematic Structure and Music in India", Essays in Indian Ethnomusicology, Munshiram, Manoharlal Pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1998. Said, Edward, "Representing the Colonized Anthropology's Interlocuters", Critical Inquiry, I 5.2., 1989. Sen ,Amartya, "Secularism and its discontents," The Argumentative Indian, Penguin Books, 2005. Thapar, Romila, ''Imagined Religious Communities, Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity”, Kingsley Martin Memorial Lecture, University of Cambridge, I June 1988, Published in School of Social Sciences Working Paper Series, New Delhi : Jawaharlal Nehru University, 1988. Thoraval ,Yves, The Cinemas of India (1896-2000), Macmillan, 2001. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 33 COMPLEXATION BEHAVIOR OF SOME ANTIOXIDANT FLAVONOIDS (PLANT PIGMENTS) TOWARDS Pr (III) & Nd (III) RARE-EARTH METAL-IONS. R.P. Mathur* and Geetanjali Godara The Werner Lab, Department of Chemistry, Govt Dungar College, BIKANER- 334 001(INDIA), Kirti Mathur Department of Physics, M.S. College, BIKANER-334 001(INDIA). Abstract The interaction of some antioxidant flavonoids (plant pigments) namely, 3hydroxyflavone (MHF), 5,7-dihydroxyflavone (DHF), 5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone (THF), 3,4,7,3′-tetrahydroxy flavones (QHF) & 3,5,7,3′4′-pentahydroxyflavone (PHF) with Pr (III) & Nd (III) metal ions have been studied. The electronic spectra of rare-earth metal complexes in solution have been recorded & analyzed to determine complexation behavoir of rare-earth metal ions. To record the spectra solutions were prepared by taking metal and ligand solutions (0.01 M) in stiochiometric- ratio (M: L) of 1:2.The spectra consist of narrow bands that undergo changes in the energies & intensities due to the immediate ligand fields. These changes are though very small but are very interesting & important. On complexation, spectral band shifts towards the longer wavelength region i.e. the red shift and is known as nephelauxetic effect & regarded as a measure of covalence. The intensity of each sharp band of the f-f electronic transitions in the spectra have been individually analyzed in terms of various energy and intensity parameters such as Racah (Ek), Slator-Condon (Fk), Lande (ζ4f), Oscillator strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt (T) parameters etc. These parameters have been computed using partial & multiple regression methods. The bonding parameter (b½) & nephelauxetic ratio (β) have also been evaluated. The metal binding sites are preferentially at the oxo and hydroxyl groups in the flavonoids. Two binding sites have been expected in these complexes, the first one is the 3-hydroxy & the second one is the 5- hydroxy groups, which are strongly dependent on the medium and pH. In these complexes, complexation behavoir is enhanced by the presence of hydroxyl group(s) in conjugation with the carbonyl group. Keyword: Pr (III), Nd (III), Racah (Ek), Slator-Condon (Fk), Lande (ζ4f), Oscillator strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt (T) parameters CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 34 INTRODUCTION A considerable interest has grown dramatically in the potentially important role of flavonoids in maintaining human health in the last two decades. A considerable number of phytomedicines contains the flavonoids which have been reported as having anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-mutagenic, anti-viral etc activities. 1-10 . As the totality of the available evidences on the flavonoids suggest that the pharmacological effects of these are related to antioxidant properties through complexation with metals. The metal- flavonoid complexes are considerably more potent free radical scavengers than the parent flavonoids and play a prominent role in protecting from oxidative stress11. The aim of this paper is to give the structure of the complexes, metalligand complexation sites , stoichiometric ratio and different energy & intensity parameters. In all the cases, the complex formation involved 1:2 Pr (III) and Nd (III) metalions to flavonoids ratio. It is probable that the groups 3- or 5-OH and 4-C=O of a 1 flavonoid take part in the binding with a rare-earth ion in the complexes . The coordinating behavior is enhanced by the presence of hydroxy groups in conjugation 12 with the carbonyl group . The complexation of these flavonoids with rare-earth metal ion may be as uni-dentate or bi-dentate ligands. This leads to the formation of complexes that contains protons in addition to metal ion and the ligand, which tend to dissociate at higher pH values. The bathochromic shift observed in the absorption spectra of metal-flavonoid complexes at higher pH values can be endorsed to the dissociation of the protonated complex, rather than the formation of complexes with 13-14 different stoichiometric compositions .In the present study routine solvents were used but in future green solvents19 will be used and data will be compared. Experimental All the reagents were of analytical grade and were used without further purification. The rare-earth metal salts and the ligands used were in the powder form. Preparation of Stock solutions The stock solutions (0.01 M) of the namely, 3-hydroxyflavone (MHF), 5,7dihydroxyflavone(DHF), 5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone(THF), 3,4,7,3′-tetrahydroxy flavones (QHF) & 3,5,7,3′4′-pentahydroxyflavone (PHF) were prepared by dissolving the calculated mass of dry ligand by dissolving each of them in water or mixture of water & alcohol. The stock solutions of metal ion (0.01 M) were prepared by dissolving metal salt of Pr (III) and Nd (III) in double distilled water and were standardized complexometrically with EDTA. Recording the Spectra The sample solutions were prepared by taking metal and ligand solutions in 16 stiochiometric ratio (M: L) of 1:1, 2:3, 1:2, & 1:3 to record the spectra . The electronic absorption spectra of these sample solution have been recorded on a spectrophotometer CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 35 (Beckman DU-600) in the range of 200-1200 nm. It has been found that the absorbance of the sample solutions having 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry is maximum and hence this is the metalligand stoichiometry for the complexation in the solution. Results and Discussion The analysis of the obtained spectra has been carried out by evaluating various k energy and intensity parameters such as Racah (E ), Slator-Condon (Fk), Lande (ζ4f), Oscillator strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt parameters (T) etc, using partial and multiple regression methods. Energy Parameters: The energy level structure of 4f-configuraitons arise as a result of columbic and k spin-orbit interactions, which is expressed as electronic repulsion (Fk, E ) and Lande parameters (ζ4f) respectively.These parameters can be evaluated by solving Taylor 11, 19 series expansion equations Ej (Fk, 4f) = Eoj (F k, 4f) + Ej / Fk . Fk + E j / 4f. 4f k=2,4,6 where Eoj = the zero order energy of level j. Fk = F0k + Fk 0 4f = 4f + 4f Fk << F0k 4f << 04f The difference between the observed Ej values and zero order ones, Ej can be expressed as Ej = Ej Fk .Fk+ Ej 4f 4f k=2,4,6 The magnitude of parameters F2, F4, F6 and 4f were computed using regression analysis and refined by the least squares technique. For all the complexes of Pr(III) and Nd (III) metal ions the order of Slater-Condon parameter is found to be F2>F4>F6 with each ligand, respectively, and values are summarized in Table-3. In rare-earths, the 4f-orbitals are deep seated and thus are less available for bonding and ligand field stabilization energy effect is also negligible even then there is a contraction or expansion of wave function on the complexation. This indicates mixing of metal-ligand orbitals and covalency of the bond. This is also reflected by the changes in values of Fk and 4f parameters as compared to the corresponding free ion values. This phenomenon is known as nephelauxetic effect and can be expressed by the 17 nephelauxetic ratio β= Fkc/Ffk CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 36 where 'c' and ' f ' refer to the complex and free ion ,respectively. The values of nephelauxetic ratio for all the metal-complexes were found to be less than one (1> β), indicating that the metal-ligand interaction is not ionic but there is a mixing of metal and ligand orbitals i.e. the metal ligand bonding in these chelates is not 18 mere ionic but there is a covalency in them. The bonding parameter is related to nephelauxetic ratio (β) by the relation ½ b½ = [1/2 - (1-β)] The values of energies (E) for peaks of various transitions of all the metal-ligand complexes are summarized in Tables-1 & 2 and all other parameters in the Table-3. The changes in values of all the parameters of these complexes in various metalligand ratio(1:1,1:2,2:3,1:3) is not very large indicating that the ligands have a little effect on the spectral pattern. Intensity Parameters: The intensity of each absorption band was measured in terms of oscillator strength (Posc). The oscillator strength of each band has been computed using the following equationPocs= 4.6x10-9 x max x ½ ½ Where = half band width and max = molar extinction coefficient The r.m.s deviation (σ rms) between experimental and calculated values of oscillator -6 -6 -6 -6 strength is in the range of 0.281 x10 to 0.935 × 10 & 4.26 x 10 to 5.57 x 10 , for Pr(III) & Nd(III) complexes, respectively, and these values are listed in Table-1 & 2 indicating the suitability of of the relation used. The low values of r.m.s. deviation (σrms) for all the complexes support the applicability of Judd-Ofelt theory. The Judd-Ofelt intensity parameters T (=2,4,6) for Pr(III) and Nd(III) complexes with the flavonoids ligands have been determined to demonstrate the sensitivity of these parameters to the ligand environment (Table-4). The values of T ,parameters are too low and this shows largely outer sphere or high spin complexation.There are much variation in Judd-Ofelt parameters (T2, T4 and T6) and these values follow the order T2<T4<T6 for Pr (III) and Nd (III) metal complexes. The higher values of T6 for Nd(III) metal chelates than Pr(III) metal chelates. The ratio of Judd-Ofelt parameters T4/T6 of Pr (III) complexes and Nd (III) complexes have been 9 9 9 found in the range of (0.291 x10 to 0.33x10 ) and ( 0.560 x10 to 0.747 x109),respectively, suggesting that complexation is through the oxygen donor atoms. This indicates that there is a very slight change in the symmetry around Pr (III) and Nd (III) in this case. Conclusions The metalflavonoids bonding is not just ionic but the various parameters evaluated advocate covalency in the bonding. In case of both the Pr (III) and Nd (III) CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 37 metal ion complexes, the absorption was highest for 1:2 metal ligand stiochiometric ratio. This indicate highest molecular stacking around the central metal ion in almost neutral medium (pH 7.8) .On the basis of various parameters, molar extinction coefficient and molecular weight the order of covalency of the Pr (III) and Nd (III) metal ion complexes with these ligand is follows L5 >L4>L3 >L2>L1. The complexation and covalency have been related to spectral intensity i.e. oscillator strength. The metal-ligand stoichiometry affects the oscillator strength: higher the value of oscillator strength, higher will be complexation and covalency. This is in an agreement with earlier findings. 19 Acknowledgements One of the authors (GG) is thankful to CSIR, New Delhi for providing a fellowship (Senior Research Fellow) and the financial assistance. Thanks are also due to the Principal, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner-334 001(INDIA). References 1. D. Malesev and V. Kuntic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc 72,921 (2007) 2. M.L. Neuhouser; Nutr. Cancer, 50 ,2004,1. 3. N. Schmiedebergs; Arch. Pharmacol, 370,2004,290. 4. R.R. Huxley, H.A. Neil; Eur. J.Clin. Nutr., 57, 2003,904. 5. W. Rem, Z.Qiao, H.wang; Med. Res. Re. 23 ,2003,519. 6. V. Kuntic, I.Filipovie, D. Malesev; Med. Biochem; 18,1999,167. 7. M.Katan; Am. J.Clin. Nutr; 65 ,1997,1542. 8. P.Knekt, R.Jarvinen, A.Reunamen, J.Maatela; Br. Med. J. ,312,1996,478. 9. M.G.L. Hertog, E.J.M. Feskens, D. Kromhout; Lancet, 349, 1997,699. 10. N.C. Cook and S.Sammn; J.Nutr. Biochem. 7 ,1996,66 . 11. G.T. Castro, S.E. Blanco; Spectrochim. Acta 60,2004,2235. 12. M. Aleksic, S. Blagojevic, D. Malesev, Z. Radonic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 65,2000,631. 13. N. Pejic, V. Kuntic, D. Malesev; Pharmazie, 57,2002,216. 14. R.C. Mathur, S.S. L Surana and S.P. Tandon; Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys. ,17, 1979,452. 15. N. Bhojak, Rashmi Jain, H.S. Bhandari; Intl J Chemistry,8,2010,42. 16. M. Aleksic, S. Blagojevic, D. Malesev, Z. Radonic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 65,2000,631. 17. S.N. Misra, N. Kiran and G.G. Talale; Indian, J.Chem. ,26 A, 1987,309. 18. R.C. Mathur, S.S. L Surana and S.P. Tandon; Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys. ,17, 1979,452. 19. S.S.L Surana, M. Singh and S.N. Misra; J. Inorg Nucl. Chem, 42, 1980,61. THF QH(L4) (L3) - Oscillator strength and energy, wave length max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) D2 590 3.562 3.562 16949 17125 590 3.43 3.43 16949 17113 589 3.111 3.111 16977 17122 589 3.166 3.166 16977 17143 590 3.298 3.298 16949 17111 1 Pσ 3 P1 468 3.004 3.404 21367 21219 468 3.831 3.774 21367 21197 469 3.617 3.520 21321 21200 467 3.542 3.533 21413 21235 468 3.313 3.447 21367 21180 Energy Levels 485 3.716 3.325 20618 20619 486 3.622 3.679 20576 20579 487 3.336 3.431 20533 20534 486 3.428 3.437 20576 20580 488 3.477 3.347 20491 20497 3 P2* 443 10.045 10.045 22573 22453 444 10.365 10.365 22522 22443 443 10.432 10.432 22573 22474 443 10.568 10.568 22573 22500 444 10.666 10.666 22522 22464 3 127 0.935× 10-6 127.08 0.65 × 10-6 106.77 0.682× 10-6 124.86 0.412 × 10-6 129.88 0.281× 10-6 ± σ r.m.s. CROSS-SECTIONS PHF (L5) 4’,5,7 5,7-DHF(L2) 3-MHF (L 1) Ligand Table : 1:Observed and computed values of Oscillator strength(P), Energy(E) and wave length (max.) of various transitions of Pr (III)- 3-MHF (L1) 5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4) ,PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 38 Oscillator strength and energy, wave length max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) max.(nm) Pexp × 106 Pcal×106 Eexp(cm-1) Ecal (cm-1) F3/2 868 1.072 1.151 11520 11452 868 1.072 1.221 11520 11471 868 1.072 1.152 11520 11463 869 1.287 1.337 11507 11469 868 1.074 1.156 11520 11477 4 F 5/2 802 3.576 3.580 12468 12466 803 3.571 3.673 12453 12468 802 3.583 3.581 12468 12473 802 3.573 3.661 12468 12477 803 3.572 3.572 12453 12475 4 F 7/2 747 3.423 3.251 13386 13294 749 3.410 3.192 13351 13291 748 3.412 3.256 13368 13298 748 3.418 3.127 13368 13304 750 3.390 3.234 13333 13296 4 F 9/2 682 1.492 3.481 14662 14762 681 1.492 3.451 14684 14754 681 1.491 3.492 14684 14769 682 1.490 3.428 14662 14770 681 1.492 3.485 14684 14772 4 G 5/2* 581 5.461 5.473 17211 17251 579 5.502 5.431 17271 17283 578 5.502 5.441 17301 17273 580 5.481 5.405 17241 17277 576 5.563 5.492 17361 17296 4 G 7/2 522 2.742 1.681 19157 19256 521 3.251 1.753 19193 19287 522 2.714 1.683 19157 19294 521 3.252 1.857 19193 19278 521 2.724 1.691 19193 19334 4 Energy Levels G 9/2 513 8.764 2.323 19493 19589 511 8.792 2.385 19569 19599 512 8.791 2.334 19531 19615 511 8.794 2.472 19569 19604 511 8.831 2.345 19569 19637 2 G 9/2 469 3.651 8.841 21321 21260 469 3.672 9.124 21321 21279 468 3.682 8.880 21367 21302 469 3.672 9.581 21321 21275 467 3.682 8.893 21413 21351 4 G 11/2 462 2.703 1.290 21645 21539 463 2.681 1.382 21598 21523 462 2.691 1.291 21645 21546 461 2.704 1.338 21691 21549 461 2.714 1.292 21691 21539 4 P 1/2 430 2.481 2.693 23255 23257 429 2.491 2.972 23310 23309 430 2.490 2.731 23255 23258 429 3.002 3.402 23310 23301 429 2.513 2.724 23310 23306 2 81 4.29× 10-6 70.29 5.35× 10-6 74.6 4.27× 10-6 53.27 5.57× 10-6 76.86 4.26× 10-6 ± σ r.m.s. CROSS-SECTIONS PHF (L5) QH(L4) 4’,5,7THF (L3) 5,7DHF(L2) 3-MHF (L1) Ligand Table : 2:Observed and computed values of Oscillator strength(P), Energy(E) and wave length (max.) of various transitions of Nd (III)- 3-MHF (L1) 5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4) ,PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 39 5,7-DHF(L2) 3-MHF (L 1) Ligand PHF (L5) 5105 5114 5090 23.59 22.88 23.53 23.39 493 494 492 493 331 329 330 330 52.10 53.47 51.95 52.59 5.36 5.31 5.33 5.36 861 853 864 854 0.9999 0.9941 0.9974 0.9989 0.0064 0.0542 0.0357 0.0225 0.0522 0.9945 861 5.3 52.63 329 493 23.17 5091 5115 0.1636 0.1496 0.1600 0.9464 0.9552 0.9487 0.1561 781 741 773 0.9512 4.69 4.64 4.61 767 42.08 42.47 42.18 4.62 304 307 305 42.29 0.1537 452 456 453 306 0.9527 23.41 23.62 23.46 454 749 Lande Bonding parameter(ζ4f) Nephelauxetic parameter (b (in cm-1) ratio(β) 1/2) 4475 4517 4486 23.53 4.63 42.36 306 455 23.56 4505 4498 F6 F4 F2 E3 E2 Slater-Condon -1 parameters (Fk) (in cm ) E1 k Racah Parameters (E )(in -1 cm ) CROSS-SECTIONS QH(L4) Nd(III) metal 4’,5,7THF(L3) 5,7-DHF(L2) 3-MHF (L 1) PHF (L5) QH(L4) Pr(III) metal 4’,5,7THF(L3) Metal ion Table:3: Racah(Ek),Slater-Condon (Fk),Lande parameter (ζ4f), and Bonding parameters [Nephelauxetic ratio(β),Covalency parameter (b ½ )] of Pr(III) & Nd(III) ion with 3-MHF (L1) 5,7DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4), PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry . (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 40 Nd(III) metal Pr(III) metal Metal ion 5.12 0.747 5.4 0.56 5.41 0.56 0.63 0.56 T4/T6 3.83 3.06 3.04 3.35 3.05 T4 5.28 1.55 1.92 1.91 1.77 1.9 T2 5.41 0.291 0.30 0.30 0.3 0.33 T4/T6 T6 3.24 3.03 3.15 3.2 9.45 9.33 9.67 9.67 1.03 T4 3.12 3.81 -1.4 -1.1 -1.47 -8.67 T2 T6 PHF (L5) QH(L4) 4’,5,7THF(L3) 5,7DHF(L2) 3-MHF (L1) Judd-ofelt 9 Parameters(Tλ×10 ) Table:4: Computed values of Judd-Ofelt parameters ( Tλ ) for Pr(III) & Nd(III) ion with 3-MHF (L1) 5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4), PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry . (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 41 CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 42 SIMULATION MODELING IN HEAVY ION COLLISIONS 1 2 Abhilasha Saini and Dr. Sudhir Bhardwaj 1 Department of Physics, Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur, India 2 Associate Professor, Govt. College of Engineering & Technology, Bikaner, India Email: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract In current epoch, it is mandatory to develop a system with prior project management consisting high-quality estimation, prediction and prototype creation of the entire system and its components, stating their work flow and all the major mechanisms. Simulation modeling is one of the procedure which helps in development and analysis of a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real scenario. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible or it may simply not exist. Involvement of Computer and various programming languages plays a major role in simulation and hence, has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Human Systems, Economics, Social-Science as well as in Engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Here, in this work, we have attempted to use simulation study and programming language FORTAN 77, to describe quark gluon plasma (QGP) state, the new state of matter which can be created in the laboratory by colliding two nuclei at relativistic energies. It is expected that such high temperature can be achieved in the laboratory by colliding nuclei at relativistic heavy ion collider (RHIC) and large hadrons collider (LHC) energies. This phase undergoes a transition to hadrons, which carry information about the state of the QGP. Measuring these hadrons and their features is the only way to study the properties of the high density state. In this work we will study how the properties of QGP can be extracted by analysing the signatures like J/ψ production, Dilepton production, Strangeness production, Collective flow etc. For this work, two methods could be followed. First method involves the collection of above mentioned signature through experimentation done with RHIC and LHC collider, and the other method involves simulation techniques, implemented with the help of event generators like HIJING (Heavy Ion Jet INteraction Generator), AMPT (A Multi Phase Transport Model). In this work, we will generate events for different energies and will produce the results for global variables using this data and then the experimental and simulation results will be compared. HIJING is written in FORTRAN 77, consisting of subroutines for physics simulation and common blocks for parameters and event records. This simulation study will help us to understand the reaction mechanism of heavy ion collisions and is highly significant for the search of QGP state, by the study of global variables for the signature of the quark gluon plasma. This work will help scientific society to understand theoretically as well as practically, those parameters which are not yet explored in depth. Keywords - Heavy Ion collisions, Quark Gluon Plasma, Simulation Modeling, Fluctuation. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 43 INTRODUCTION The quantum chromo dynamics calculations on lattice predict that if the heavy nuclei are collided at extremely high energy densities and temperature the matter would undergo a phase transition and the temperatures are so high that protons and neutrons split into their constituents, the quarks and gluons.This state of matter is defined as the quark gluon plasma (QGP). The electron collision experiments on proton indicate the internal structure of nucleons as they are built of quarks and gluons. This quantization is described by quantum chromo- dynamics (QCD) field theory, and this tells that quarks and gluons cannot be found freely as they are confined by strong interaction which binds them to each other. This tie is defined by a quantum number called color. At high energy density the quark gluon plasma state can be expected in laboratories at projectile energies of the order of 10-100A.GeV. This is the only possibility to produce unbound quarks and gluons, in a small volume and in a large number in the reaction zone. The nature of the phase transition the temperature and the energy density depend upon the quark flavors. This new state of the matter existed in the universe after few micro seconds of the big bang [Fig. 1]. And as the universe is cooled down further in subsequent phases the quarks and gluons combined to form hadrons resulting in the baryonic matter that we observe today. Figure 1: The quark gluon plasma state and the hadronization. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 44 This state of matter can be created in laboratory by colliding nuclei at RHIC and LHC energies and the long range properties of nuclear matter for comparatively small systems can be studied. By changing the bombarding energy as well as the projectile & target nuclei combinations, the systems of different energies and baryon density can be created in laboratories. The major curiosity associated with the transition from the QGP to baryonic matter is the experiments which are going on in this field to study the observable phenomena associated with the dynamics of this interface. These experimental programs involve the collision of relativistic heavy ions that produce (relatively) small drops of QGP. Large particle detectors are able to analyze and study systems the products of these collisions, which provide description and information about the transition to the baryonic phase and the QGP itself. From the last few decades the high energy physics has changed revolutionary as we have many accelerators like Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) and Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at CERN (European Center For Nuclear Research) etc. which can accelerate heavy ions at large energies. The measurement of these hadrons and their features is a very good tool to analyze the properties of this highly dynamical and dense state. This quark to hadron transition is called chemical freeze out. The measurement of the various particle ratios (which is fixed in this stage) provides the information about the conditions at this transition point, within the framework of some statistical models. Further evolution reaches to the kinetic freeze out stage, beyond which particle stream freely to the detectors. Bulk Properties: Soft Physics The major bulk of the particles produced in heavy ion collisions are with transverse angular momentum 1.5GeV/c. The determination of identity of these particles and their kinematic variables enable us to determine most of the global variables, of heavy ion collisions (to reflect the properties of the matter produced in heavy ion reactions.) Energy density: The measurements by experiments reveal that the transverse energy per particle produced is independent of colliding energy, so the measured particle energy directly determines the energy density for a given collision. Chemical Freeze-Out: Since the energy density is large enough to support to the formation of extremely dense matter i.e. the quark gluon plasma, so now it's imperative to estimate the temperature at which the matter hadronizes. That point in the collision is called the chemical freeze-out. The measured ratio of yields of hadrons put limits on the values of system temperature and baryon chemical potential at chemical freeze-out. For example in Cu-Cu collision the chemical freeze-out is estimated at 155MeV (temperature estimated). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 45 Kinetic Freeze-Out: At chemical freeze out the particle produced interact to each other and the space time evolution of these particles can be modeled using hydrodynamics because in this state the matter behaves like a fluid. This hydro dynamical modeling is able to predict the transverse momentum distribution of particles called the spectra. So the hadron spectra reflect the integrated effect of expansion from the beginning of the collision and to the later conditions. This indicated more rapid expansion of collision after chemical freezeout, called the kinetic freeze-out. Collective Flow: The meaning of collective flow in heavy ion reactions is the emission of same type of particles or emission of many ejectiles with a common velocity field or into a common direction. There are several collective phenomena in heavy ion collisions. 1. The longitudinal flow, which describes the collective motion of particles along the original beam direction. 2. The radial flow means the flow of particles with common velocity field with the spherical symmetry. 3. The transverse flow represents the flow when the velocity field is independent of azimuthal angle. 4. The impact parameter vector orientation defines a specific azimuthal direction in nucleus-nucleus collision and a large emission is observed experimentally in this direction called the “elliptic flow”. Figure 2: Left: Schematic of the collision zone between two incoming nuclei and x-z is the reaction plane. Right: Initial-state anisotropy in the collision zone converting into final-state elliptic flow, measured as anisotropy in particle momentum. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 46 Azimuthal anisotropy (the elliptic flow): One of the major experimental evidences for the existence of thermalized system is the observation of large anisotropic flow of hadrons. The emission of particles correlated with the reaction plane is termed as anisotropic flow. Azimuthal asymmetry in the overlap region increases with increasing impact parameter. The yield of various hadrons with respect to the reaction plane can be characterized by Fourier expansion, where the different coefficients measure different anisotropies present in the system. The first coefficient is known as the directed flow () and the second coefficient is the elliptic flow (). The elliptic flow measures the effect of unequal pressure gradients, along and perpendicular to the reaction plane, and the extent of thermalization of the system. Its value increases with particle density and the large values observed experimentally, indicates that the thermalized system behaves like ideal fluid. So the hydro dynamical models are adapted for the explanation of radial and elliptic flow. The bulk properties discussed above indicate that hadrons are emitted from a thermalized and strong and collectively expanding source, after reaching to chemical equilibrium. Hard probes: There are some other signals and probes for gaining the information about the state of matter in heavy ion collisions like: (i) Dileptons: This is an electromagnetic probe i.e. the photons and lepton pairs (dileptons) do not participate in the strong interaction and can therefore mediate important information on the electromagnetic current correlated in the interior of the hot and dense matter. These are the important tools to study the heavy ion collisions at ultra-relativistic energies. So they carry the signature of primordial state of the matter produced, and their spectra are nearly unaffected by the final state hadronic interactions. (ii) J/ψ Suppression: In the search for quark-gluon plasma (QGP), J/ψ suppression is proposed as one of the important signals [1] of the deconfinement in high-energy heavy-ion collisions when the matter is in the deconfined state of quarks and gluons the colour charges of quarks are screened in colour plasma. This is similar to what is seen in electromagnetic plasma. The screening of colour charges is characterized by Debye screening. In normal circumstances the linear confining potential in vacuum binds two heavy quarks to form a quarkonium but in the presence of Debye screening the strength between quarks is effectively decreased, and does not allow the formation of bound state. Thus causes the suppression of J/ψ production. (iii) High hadron yields & Jet Quenching: When the scaling behaviour is investigated in different regions, it is observed that the yield of high hadrons is suppressed in central collisions. This suppression CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 47 interactions of hard scattered partons. Due to the large bombarding energies at RHIC, high transverse momentum () particles become statistically abundant in heavy-ion collisions. High particles come predominantly from jets emerging from initial hardscatterings between partons. They require sufficient time to go away from the collision zone, and mean while a dense medium is formed. The partons and fragmented hadrons are expected to lose energy via interactions with the medium (mostly by gluon radiation), and the high particles are quenched. This is called the jet quenching phenomena - suppression of yield and angular correlation strength at high [5]. The larger the medium gluon density, stronger the interaction and the larger the suppression magnitude. Thus, high particles and jet quenching provide a powerful, direct tool to measure the density of the medium created in ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions. So by studying these signatures at high energies we are in search of the features of this deconfined state of matter i.e. the quark gluon plasma. There are some theoretical models which are used to understand the situation theoretically, and they provide a very good agreement with the experimental results. The theoretical models: In heavy ion collisions when the system reaches to the hydrodynamic regime, this state can be well described by the theoretical simplification and provides a quasimicroscopic description, with the help of hydro dynamical models. This was actually the first approach to predict the behaviour of the system and their collective behaviour [2, 3]. But soon it was observed that the assumption of instantaneous local equilibrium in ideal fluid hydro dynamics is not fulfilled in heavy ion collisions, when compared with actual data, even the viscosity and freeze out concepts were also introduced [6]. To overcome these complications, the models based on superposition of individual N-N collisions were developed. In the starting the simple concept of overlaying independent N-N collisions were considered [7, 8], because the collective side flow effects were missed in the early cascade models. Further they were refined by introducing collective mean fields i.e. the particles propagate in their common nuclear mean field and experience hard two body collisions, when their distance in space & time is small enough. Further they were divided into two different program classes: (a) RBUU, for relativistic Boltzmann Uhiling Uhlenbeck , the approach which was limited to single particle distributions because it propagates test particles in the common mean field of several parallel collisions [9, 10]. (b) RQMD, for relativistic quantum molecular approach in which the individual collisions and the fluctuations are described by the treatment of particles as classical wave packets [4, 11, 12] The transport models provide the study of influence of different EOS (equation of state), different momentum dependences of the interactions and in medium crosssections on all observables. With these inputs the results from different models are generally in agreement with the real data. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 48 But still the proper strategy to describe the Ultra-relativistic energy range collisions is not yet established. The Simulation Techniques : For a long time the simulation techniques in heavy ion collisions are rather more phenomeological in nature. As experiments became more sophisticated and inclusive, the need for the advanced simulation models appeared. The transport models are one of those microscopic models which are able to dynamically simulate the collisions without any assumption to thermal equilibrium. Like RBUU is a semi-classical simulation techniqe (theoretical model as mentioned above). The semiclassical transpot code can work reliably at energies beyond 100 MeV. Per nucleon. Transport models have sucessfully described many aspects of intermediate energy heavy ion collisions. Event Generators: Event generators are aimed to describe the heavy ion collisions deeply by making use of physics known from p-p scattering.So the dynamics of A-A collision can be considered as particles produced in initial binary binary collisions and subsequent rescattering produces the secondaries. In order to include these rescattering, particles are used as expicit degree of freedom and individual particle trajectories and reactions are followed through the evolution. This can be done when the particles are treated as localized wave-packets, also the reaction cross-sections are implemented by purely geometricalcal considerations. Observables are then calculated by Monte-Carlo simulation of a large sample. We have a variety of event generators which are dependent on degrees of freedom employed, the way of hadronization and the use of additional physics which is not considered in p-p collision. Most prominantly used are, HIJING [20] tracking hard partonoic evolution and hadronization. RQMD [18], & UrQMD [19] tracking hadronic degrees of freedom, and LUCIFER [21] etc. Once the transition to hadronic degrees of freedom from either strings or partons has been made, measured hadron-hadron cross sections enter the simulation and the model dependencies greatly reduced. To understand experimental results of these global variables, we required simulations study for the same. For Simulations: We will generate events using HIJING and AMPT event generator for different energies. We will produce the results for global variables using these data. We will compare these results with experimental data. Provided by various experiments and also explain these results by putting a suitable theoretical explanation. HIJING (Heavy Ion Jet Interaction Generator.), the Monte Carlo Model : It is expected that hard and semi-hard parton scattering with transverse momentum of a few GeV, dominate high energy heavy ion collisions. The HIJING model was developed by M. Gyulassy and X.N. Wang with special emphasis on the role of minijets in pp, pA, AA reactions at collider energies. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 49 The systematic comparison of results with HIJING, with a very wide range of data demonstrates that a quantitative understanding of the interplay between soft string dynamics and hard QCD interaction has been achieved. In particular, HIJING reproduces many inclusive spectra two particle correlations, and can explain the observed flavor and multiplicity dependence of the average transverse momentum. It is basically designed to simulate multiple minijets and particle production in pp, pA, & AA collision HIJING is written in FORTRAN 77, consisting of subroutines for physics simulation and common blocks for parameters and event records. The main features added to HIJING are: 1. The modeling of soft beam jets using the Lund FRITIOF and the dual parton model DPM [13]. In addition multiple low exchanges among the end point constituents are included to model initial state interactions. 2. Multiple minijets production with initial and final state production is included, along the lines of the PYTHIA model. 3. The impact parameter dependence of the number of inelastic processes is calculated by exact diffuse nuclear geometry. 4. A model for jet quenching and an impact parameter dependent parton structure function are introduced. AMPT (A Multi Phase Transport Model.) AMPT is a Monte Carlo transport model for hardon-hadron, hadron-nucleus and nucleus-nucleus heavy ion collisions at relativistic energies. This model has four main parts: the initial conditions, partonic interactions, the conversion from partonic to hadronic matter and hadronic interactions. It uses the Heavy Ion Jet Interaction Generator (HIJING) for generating the initial conditions which include the spatial and momentum distributions of minijet partons and soft string excitations, the Zhang's Parton Cascade (ZPC) [14]( includes only two-body scatterings with cross sections obtained from the pQCD with screening masses) for modeling partonic scatterings, the Lund string fragmentation model or a quark coalescence model for hadronization, and A Relativistic Transport (ART) model for treating hadronic scatterings, are improved and combined to give a coherent description of the dynamics of relativistic heavy ion collisions [15, 16, 17, 18]. At present, this model includes only gluon-gluon scatterings. Summary & Conclusions The information collected till today about the field of heavy ion collisions is still far away from the complete exploration. The important developments are expected in this direction like up gradation of RHIC detectors which can provide more precise results about anisotropic flow, strangeness production, J/ψ production, strangeness and other important features. Moreover the important thing is to search the critical point of QGP state. The RHIC beam energy scan would cover the region from top AGS energies, over CERN & SPS energies and higher. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 50 The main difficulty of event generators is found in the initial multi-particle production. Because of the contribution of both soft and hard processes, the choice of the correct degrees of freedom is therefore not obvious. Usually, soft particle production is calculated in the framework of the Dual Parton Model or the Lund string model it describe the particle production as the of color strings stretching breaks between the scattered partners. For the hard particle production, partonic degrees of freedom have to be employed along with the fragmentation functions known from e.g. deep inelastic scattering experiments. If there is any QGP phase, its properties are encoded in nontrivial physics of particle production within event generator type models. Suggested concepts involve interactions or fusion among color strings ('color ropes', implemented in RQMD and UrQMD), percolation of strings and modifications of the string tension (HIJING). In general, the implementation of these additional mechanisms allows no straightforward connection to equilibrium properties of the QGP extracted from the lattice, which makes it difficult to make use of this information. These days we have detailed simulation studies of such collisions with the methods developed for desired geometry of the collisions. The results from different simulation models are providing good agreement with the experimental results at low energies and relativistic energies as well as at high energies. References [1] T. Matsui and H. Satz, Phys. Lett. B 178, 416 (1986).[ 2]. Amsden AA, Bertsch GF, Harlow FH, Nix JR. Phys. Rev. Lett. 35:905 (1975) [3]. Scheid W, M¨uller H, Greiner W.Phys. Rev. Lett. 32:741 (1974) [4]. Aichelin J, St¨ocker H.Phys. Lett.B176:14 (1986) [5] Gyulassy M and Plumer M 1990 Phys Lett B 243 432 .Wang X-N and Gyulassy M 1992 Phys Rev Lett 68 1480 Gyulassy M and Wang X-N 1994 Nucl Phys B 420 583 .Wang X-N, Gyulassy M and Plumer M 1995 Phys Rev D 51 3436 Baier R, Schiff D and Zakharov B G 2000 Ann Rev Nucl Part Sci 50 37 [6]. Schmidt W, et al. Phys. Rev. C 47:2782 (1993) [7]. Cugnon J. Phys. Rev. C22:1885 (1980) [8]. Yariv Y, Fraenkel Z. Phys. Rev. C 24:488 (1981) [9]. Bertsch G, Das Gupta S. Phys. Rep. 160:189 (1988) [10]. Cassing W, Mosel U. Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 25:235 (1990) [11]. Aichelin J. Phys. Rep. 202:233 (1991) [12]. Sorge H, et al. Phys. Lett.B243:7 (1990) [13] B.Andersson, G. Gustavson, and B. Nilsson- Almaqvist, Nucl. Phys, B 281, 289 (1987); B. Nilsson- Almaqvist and E. Stenlund, Comp. Phys. Commun. 43, 387 (1987) [14] B. Zhang, Comput. Phys. Commun. 109, 193 (1998). [15] X. N. Wang, Phys. Rev. D 43, 104 (1991). [16] X. N. Wang and M. Gyulassy, Phys. Rev. D 44, 3501(1991). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 51 [17] X. N. Wang and M. Gyulassy, Phys. Rev. D 45, 844 (1992). [18] M. Gyulassy and X. N. Wang, Comput. Phys. Commun. 83, 307 (1994). [18] H. Sorge, H. St¨ocker and W. Greiner, Ann. Phys. 192 (1989) 266; H. Sorge, M. Berenguer, H. St¨ocker and W. Greiner, Phys.Lett. B 289 (1992) 6; H. Sorge, Phys. Rev. C 52 (1995) 3291. [19] S. Soff, S. A. Bass, M. Bleicher, L. Bravina, E. Zabrodin, H. St¨ocker andW. Greiner, Phys. Lett. B 471 (1999) 89; M. Bleicher, M. Belkacem, S. A. Bass, S. Soff and H. St¨ocker, Phys. Lett. B 485 (2000) 213; M. Bleicher, W. Greiner, H. St¨ocker and N. Xu, Phys. Rev. C 62 (2000) 061901. [20] X.-N. Wang and M. Gyulassy, Comput. Phys. Commun. 83 (1994) 307. [21] D. E. Kahana and S. H. Kahana, Phys. Rev. C 58 (1998) 3574. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 52 A STUDY ON CERTAIN RUMEN FLUID PARAMETERS OF CAMEL Camelus dromedarius MAINTAINED ON DIFFERENT DIETS Rakesh Poonia*, Suchitra Sena** and Meera Srivastava* *Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner 334001, Rajasthan, India **National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner Email: [email protected] Abstract The camel Camelus dromedarius, is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid environment. More than 70% and often as much as 95% of the feed selected by camel is composed of dicotyledons (plants with broad leaves including browse and legumes). Clusterbean (guar) is an important drought resistant leguminous crop most suitable in arid areas. Camels, under conditions of scarcity of grazing, especially in summer, are fed roughages and concentrates. The proportion of the concentrate and roughage in the complete ration is expected to change the microbial population in the rumen, which in turn may affect their capacity to colonize feed particles and may influence the nutrient utilization from the feed. In developing countries like India where economy is growing, the supply of well established diet to the cattle is not possible for poor animal holders especially to the camel because it needs so much dry matter and concentrate to fulfill its daily feed requirements. So common keepers most often do not feed concentrate to their camels unless they become rundown. In that case they feed some millet flour or barley flour and gur (molasses) 1g/kg body weight for a few days till the camel regains his condition. If this molasses is given in excess amount, it causes gastro-intestinal disorders. These have been used widely to identify problem and to indicate dietary causes of diseases or low production. Due to introduction of new feed resources, this study was an attempt to investigate the rumen fluid parameters of camels maintained on different diets. Group 1 camels were given guar phalgati (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba) and ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) chara in 1:1 ratio. Group 2 camels were given ground nut chara alone while in Group 3 camels jaggery 50%w/v was administrated as a single dose orally @15g/kg body weight apart from feeding of ground nut chara. Among the physical parameters, in Groups 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic odor, brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency, whereas in Group 3, the rumen fluid exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency. The cellulose digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2 while in Group 3 camels it exceeded more than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and 18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating highest SAT in Group 3. The methylene blue reduction time (MBRT) was normal in both the Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02), while in Group 3 there was a reduction in MBRT 3.00±0.40. It could be concluded that in Group 3 camels which were given jaggery in addition to groundnut chara showed a significant change in the digestive pattern leading towards acid indigestion and it could be envisaged that there exists a significant role of plan of nutrition on digestive pattern. Key words: Camel, rumen fluid, physical parameters, biochemical parameters, diet CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 53 INTRODUCTION The camel Camelus dromedarius, is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid environment. Although camelidae are ruminating animals, they are classified as pseudo-ruminants because they differ from true ruminants in structure of their compound stomach. The camelid stomach is considered two-chambered, with a fore stomach (comprising the reticulo-rumen) and a tubular stomach. The most striking feature differentiating it from the appearance of the true ruminant stomach is the presence of glandular sacs. Rumen fermentation can supply 70-100% of ruminant animals amino acid supply and 70-85% of the energy supply can be absorbed as volatile fatty acids, the main end product of microbial fermentation. More than 70% and often as much as 95% of the feed selected by camel is composed of dicotyledons (plants with broad leaves including browse and legumes). Clusterbean (guar) is an important drought resistant leguminous crop most suitable in arid areas. An appreciable amount of edible biomass is obtained as waste or byproduct after screening of seeds popularly known as guar phalgatti which includes stem and empty pods of the plant. Camels, under conditions of scarcity of grazing, especially in summer, are fed roughages and concentrates. Dry roughages consist of bhoosa (straw), tree leaves and pods collected in rainy season. Bhoosa (straw) is chaffed into small pieces. Chaffed grass mixed with straw of one or two different crops is also used for feeding camels. The proportion of the concentrate and roughage in the complete ration is expected to change the microbial population in the rumen, which in turn may affect their capacity to colonize feed particles and may influence the nutrient utilization from the feed. The nutritional value of feed is influenced by the feed characteristics, and their influence on rumen microbial characteristics, knowledge of both, and their interaction can contribute to a better understanding of the nutritional qualities of ruminant feedstuffs. In developing countries like India where economy is growing, the supply of well established diet to the cattle is not possible for poor animal holders especially to the camel because it needs so much dry matter and concentrate to fulfill its daily feed requirements. So common keepers most often do not feed concentrate to their camels unless they become rundown. In that case they feed some millet flour or barley flour and gur (molasses) 1g/kg body weight for a few days till the camel regains his condition. If this molasses is given in excess amount, it causes gastro-intestinal disorders. The rumen fluid profiles can be considered important in evaluating the health status of animals. These have been used widely to identify problem and to indicate dietary causes of diseases or low production. Due to introduction of new feed resources, this study was an attempt to investigate the effect on certain rumen fluid parameters of camels maintained on different diets. MATERIALS AND METHOD The present investigation was carried out in three groups of four camels each, at National Research Center on Camel, Bikaner, maintained on different diets. Group 1 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 54 given guar phalgati (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba) and ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) chara in 1:1 ratio. Group 2 camels were given ground nut chara alone while in Group 3 camels jaggery 50%w/v was administrated as a single dose orally @15g/kg body weight apart from feeding of ground nut chara. In all the three groups de-worming was done with a broad spectrum anti-helminthes prior to the start of the experiment and all the camels were in clinically healthy condition. All three groups of camels were given ad lib water. Collection of rumen fluid Rumen fluid was collected from camels by using rumen fluid extraction unit through suction by using stomach tube specially designed for camels. The camels were tranquilized before rumen fluid collection using 3-4 ml of xylazine.100 ml of the collected rumen fluid was filtered/ strained through 4 layer muslin cloth and used for analyzing physico-chemical parameters immediately. The parameters studied included: I. Rumen fluid physical parameters 1. Color: The visible color of the rumen fluid was noticed and recorded. Color of the rumen fluid varies depending on the diet given. 2. Odor: The odour/smell was recorded which also depends on the type of feed and clinical condition. 3. Consistency: The consistency was recorded which also varies from viscous to watery depending on the diet. 4. Sedimentation activity time (SAT): The strained rumen fluid was kept in a small beaker at room temperature in incubator. Time required for floatation of particulate material (SAT) was noted. It has been expressed in minutes. 5. Cellulose digestion time (CDT): The thread of cotton with known diameter was kept suspended with a metal bead in 50ml strained centrifuged rumen fluid and kept at 37°C temperature and glucose solution @ 1-2 ml per 5 ml rumen fluid was added. The result (CDT) was observed at one hour interval, at least for 30 hrs. 6. Methylene blue reduction time (MBRT): It was carried out by adding 1ml of 0.03% aqueous solution of methylene blue to 20 ml of strained rumen fluid. A second tube was filled with rumen fluid for comparison. The time was measured until the contents of the first tube were discolored and expressed as MBRT in minutes. II. Rumen fluid biochemical parameters 1. pH: The pH of strained rumen fluid was estimated with the help of electrical digital pH meter. 2. Total acidity: 10ml of strained rumen fluid was taken in a beaker and two drops of phenolphthalein were added and this was titrated with N/10 NaOH until pink color appeared. The amount of N/10 NaOH utilized was measured (total acidity) directly from biuret and expressed as units. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 55 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Among the physical parameters, in Group 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic odor, brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency whereas, in Group 3 the rumen fluid exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency. The cellulose digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2, while in Group 3 camels it exceeded more than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and 18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating significant (P<0.01) variation among Groups 1, 3 and 2, 3. The mean methylene blue reduction time (MBRT) was normal in both the Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02) while in Group 3 there was a significant (P<0.01) reduction in MBRT 3.00±0.40 in comparison to Groups 1 and 2. The result of SAT and MBRT is presented in Fig 1. The results of rumen physiological parameters in different groups of camels are presented in Table 1. The rumen fluid biochemical changes viz., pH and the total acidity in the rumen fluid of Groups 1, 2 and 3 revealed a mean pH of 7.1±0.05, 7.1±0.06 and 5.00±0.8 as well as total acidity of 43.50±3.09, 30.00±0.81 and 67.75±1.54 units respectively. The results of rumen fluid pH and total acidity are presented in Table 2 and Figs. 2 and 3. The results showed highly significant changes among groups. The physical parameters of rumen fluid viz., color and odour revealed that in camels fed on diet groundnut chara and guar phalgatti (Group 1) as well as on groundnut chara alone (Group 2), there was normal brownish gray color with aromatic odour and slight viscous consistency. In the camels administered jaggery @ 15g/kg body weight, orally (Group 3), after 24 hours the rumen fluid was collected which showed milky gray color, pungent/sour odour, and porridge consistency revealing the changes towards acid indigestion. The similar findings in acidosis were also reported by Garry (1990), Basak et al., (1993), Miranda et al. (2005), Kumar & Verma (2005), Shihabudheen et al. (2006) and Darwin et al. (2007b).The changes in the color and odour of Group 3 camels are attributed towards the increased concentration of lactic acid in the rumen liquor. The consistency was changed from viscous to watery in acidosis which might be due to passage of fluid from vascular bed to rumen as a result of increased osmolality of rumen content as envisaged by Kumar & Verma, (2005). The physiological changes of rumen liquor have direct relationship towards change in feed offered to the animals (Dash et al., 1972; Rosenberger, 1979). The mean cellulose digestion time (CDT) and sedimentation activity (SAT) showed a slight increase in Group 3 in comparison to Groups 1 and 2 which were in normal range depicting normal rumen fluid. The mean values of methylene blue reduction time showed a decrease in Group 3 camels in comparison to Groups 1 and 2. The rumen fluid physiological parameters of SAT, CDT and MBRT showed highly significant (P<0.01) variation between the three groups based on ANOVA. The statistical significance based on paired t-test showed a non-significant (P>0.05) variation among Groups 1 and 2, CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 56 whereas highly significant variation (P<0.01) was observed between Groups 1 and 2 as well as Groups 1 and 3, except for the MBRT values which showed significant difference at 5% level (P<0.05) among Groups 1 and 3. Randhawa et al. (1980) and Braun et al. (1992) revealed absence of floatation or prolonged sedimentation activity during acid indigestion which also supports the findings of present study. They also mentioned that the destruction of cellulolytic bacteria and the increase in number of gram positive organisms contribute to the increase in SAT. On the contrary Basak et al. (1993) observed a significant (P<0.01) reduction in sedimentation activity as well as MBRT in rumen fluid of goats affected with acidosis, whereas Miranda et al. (2005) reported reduction in sedimentation activity. The present findings were similar to that of Randhawa et al. (1980) and Braun et al. (1992). This effect of changes in the physiological parameters may be contributed towards change in pattern of microorganisms in rumen fluid (Randhawa et al., 1989). On the contrary few reports suggest an increase in MBRT (Braun et al., 1992; Shihabudheen et al., 2006; Kasaralikar et al., 2007) in acid indigestion. On the whole the animals maintained on sole ration of ground nut chara and on guar phalgati and groundnut chara revealed almost similar changes in the rumen fluid physiological parameters but when jaggery was fed i.e., a shift towards energy rich carbohydrate there was change in rumen fluid physical parameters which are more likely towards acidosis of rumen fluid. The mean values of rumen fluid pH and total acidity showed a significant (P<0.01) reduction in both these parameters of Group 3 camels where as there was a significant increase (P<0.01) in total acidity in Group 3 in comparison to Groups 1and 2. The rumen biochemical parameters viz., pH and total acidity showed highly significant variation (P<0.01) among Groups 1, 3 and 2, 3 when analysis of these values were performed by paired t-test. The reduction in rumen fluid pH of Group 3 camels is in close correlation of the previous observations made by Afonso et al. (2002), Karaca et al. (2003), Hajikolaei et al. (2006), Kasaralikar et al. (2007) and Lila et al. (2007). This drop in pH of rumen fluid might be due to the rapid utilization of carbohydrate rich diet by amylolytic bacteria (Streptococcus bovis) which leads to production of large quantity of lactic acid in rumen (Patra et al., 1993; Martin et al., 2006). Specific diet, such as wheat straw + concentrate mixture having mustered cake treated with formaldehyde @ 2g/100g crude protein also causes drop in ruminal pH (Madan et al., 1997). A low rumen fluid pH was also due to production of large quantities of lactic acid and volatile fatty acids in rumen of acidosis ruminants was reported by Nikolov et al. (2003), and Dunlop (1972). The present study also envisaged that decline in pH and increase in total acidity is attributed towards rapid utilization of jaggery in the rumen leading to large production of lactic acid. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 57 CONCLUSION Among the physical parameters, in Groups 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic odor, brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency, whereas in Group 3, the rumen fluid exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency. The cellulose digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2 while in Group 3 camels it exceeded more than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and 18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating highest SAT in Group 3. The methylene blue reduction time (MBRT) was normal in both the Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02), while in Group 3 there was a reduction in MBRT 3.00±0.40. It could be concluded that in Group 3 camels which were given jaggery in addition to groundnut chara showed a significant change in the digestive pattern leading towards acid indigestion and it could be envisaged that there exists a significant role of plan of nutrition on digestive pattern. Acknowledgement The Principal, Govt.Dungar College, Bikaner and The Director, NRCC, Jorbeer, Bikaner is thankfully acknowledged for providing facilities and extending their cooperation in carrying out this work. References Afonso, J.A.B., Ciarlini, P.C., Kuchembick, M.R.G., Kohaya Gawa, A., Fettrin, L.P.Z., Ciarlini, L.D.R.P., Laposy, C.B., Mendonca, C.L.and Takahira, R.K. Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileira. 22(4), 2002, 129-134. Basak, D.N., Pan, S. and Chakrabarti, A. Indian Journal of Animal Science. 63, 1993, 263-267. Braun, U., Rihs, T. and Schefer, U. Veterinary Rec. 130, 1992, 343-349. Darwin, L., Suresh, R.V., Thangathurai, R. and Dhanapalan, P. Indian Veterinary Journal. 84 (8), 2007b, 882-883. Dash, P.K., Misra, S.K. and Mohanty, G.P. Indian Veterinary Journal. 49, 1972, 672677. Dunlop, R.H. Adv.Vet. Sci.Comp.Med. 16, 1972, 259-302. Garry, F. Veterinary Medicine. 85, 1990, 660. Hajikelaei, M.R.H., Nouri, M., Afshar, F.S. and Dehkordi, A. J. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science. 9(10), 2006, 2003- 2005. Karaca, M., Ceylan, E., Akkan, H.A. and Kelees, I. Indian Veterinary Journal. 80(12), 2003, 1245-1247. Kasaralikar, V.R., Singari, N.A., Hafiz, M., Parsad, E.P. and Kumar, S.P. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 27 (2), 2007, 111-114. Kumar, A. & Verma, S.P. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 25 (2), 2005, 100-101. Lila, Z.A., Mohammed, N., Khanda, S., Kurihara, M. and Itabashi, H. AsianAustralian Journal of Animal Sciences. 18 (12), 2007, 1746-1751. Madan, J. & Puri, J.P. Indian Journal of Animal Science. 67(8), 1997, 709-711. Martin, C., Brossard, L. and Doreau, M. INRA productions animals. 19(2), 2006, 93107. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 58 MirandaNeto, E.G., Afsono, J.A.B., Mendonca, C.I. and Almeida, M.Z.P.R.B. Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileria. 25(2), 2005, 73-78. Nikolov, Y. Indian Veterinary Journal. 80(1), 2003, 36-39. Patra, R.C., Lal, S.B. and Swarup, D. Res.tet. Science. 54, 1993, 217-220. Randhawa, S.S., Seita, M.S. and Mishra, S.K. Current Science. 49, 1980, 82-83. nd Rosenberger, G. Clinical examination of cattle. 2 edition. Verlag Parey, Berlin and Hamburg, 1979. Shihabudeen, P.K., Pillai, U.N., and Kumar, S.A. Indian Veterinary Journal. 83(3), 2006, 267-270. CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 59 Table 1. Rumen fluid physical parameters (*) in different groups of camels fed with different diets Parameters Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Color Brownish grey Brownish grey Milky grey Odor Aromatic Aromatic Pungent/sour Consistency Slightly viscous Slightly viscous Porridge CDT >36 >36 >48 SAT** 4.25±0.47a 5.25±0.47b 18.75±1.49a,b MBRT** 6.25±0.62a 6.25±0.62b 3.00±0.40a,b *values given are Mean± SE. ** (P<0.01: significant at 1% level; Figures with similar superscripts reveal significant difference between groups). Table 2. Rumen fluid biochemical parameters (*) in different groups of camels fed with different diets Parameters Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 pH** 7.1±0.05a 7.1±0.06b 5.00±0.8a,b Total acidity**(units) 43.50±3.09a 30.00±0.81b 67.75±1.54a,b *values given are Mean± SE. ** (P<0.01: significant at 1% level; Figures with similar superscripts reveal significant difference between groups). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 Fig 1. Rumen fluid physiological parameters SAT & MBRT (min) values in camels fed with different diets Fig 2. Mean rumen fluid pH values in different groups of camels fed with different diets 60 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 Fig 3. Mean rumen fluid total acidity (units) values in different groups of camels fed with different diets 61 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 62 AN OVERVIEW ON THE BAP BOULDER BED Karanveer S. Rajvi and Shishir Sharma Department of Geology, Government Dungar College, Bikaner Email: [email protected] and [email protected] Abstract After the deposition of the Nagaur Group (Proterozoic) there was a break in sedimentation in this part of the state. Upper Carboniferous glaciation is represented in the Nagaur basin by the NE-SW trending remnants of the Bap Boulder Bed-an assortment of pebbles and cobbles with occasional boulders and a few erratics exhibiting well-marked glacial striations. Bap Boulder Bed is a spread of rocks of different sizes and composition. The spread covers an area of about 68 square kilometers from Nokhra to Khirwa. The Spread is not continuous and is in the form of isolated patches as most of the part of the spread is covered with recent alluvium. The land is not fit for farming but the part of covered area is being farmed at some places. Glacial striations and ventifacts are clearly seen on the pebbles and boulders found there. There was a huge controversy in the age determination of Bap boulder bed, Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh (1976) suggested it is to be of Post-Eocene and possibly Pleistocene age- the only Post-Eocene glacial period. According to Faruque and Ojha (1970) these boulder beds are of Upper Carboniferous age. The determination of age of Bap boulder bed is based on various correlation and fossils contents. The age of Bap boulder bed was suggested to be of Eocene by some workers and Permo-Carboniferous by others. The criteria for determining the age of the formation is different. On the basis of different correlations and fossils content the age of Bap boulder bed is concluded to be of Permo-Carboniferous. Keyword: Proterozoic, Bap Boulder Bed INTRODUCTION After the deposition of the Nagaur Group (Proterozoic) there was a break in sedimentation as a result of which sediments of most of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous periods are not represented in Rajasthan. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 63 Upper Carboniferous glaciation is represented in the Nagaur basin by the NESW trending remnants of the Bap Boulder Bed-an assortment of pebbles and cobbles with occasional boulders and a few erratics exhibiting well-marked glacial striations, spread over 68 sq km extending in a NW-SE direction from Khirwa to Nokhra. These are referred to either as Bap Boulders (Mishra et al.,1962; Shrivastava, 1971; Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh,1976) or Bap Boulder Spread (Pareek and Sinha,1978),Bap Boulder Bed (Pareek, 1981). However, earlier workers have assigned the name Bap Boulder Bed (Oldham, 1886; La Touche, 1902; Heron, 1932). Bap Boulder Bed is overlain by a very small remnant of the marine Badhaura sandstone of 30 m computed thickness. Extending from northwest of Badhaura up to Harbans, these marine sediments, designated as the Badhaura Formation, comprise medium- to coarse- grained brownish-yellowish and ferruginous sandstone, clay, shale and siltstone containing Permian fauna and flora. Location Bap Boulder Bed lies in the vicinity of Village Bap (27.3867°N 72.3518°E) which is situated in North of Jodhpur district and at 130 kilometers on Bikaner- Jaisalmer highway. These Early Permian marine sequences exposed in and around Bap in the nearby areas of Khirwa, Bhartasar, Bap, Badi-Dhani, Badhaura, Gunget ka Magra and Bhimji Ka Gaon area of Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The Badhaura Formation is well exposed as isolated patches in the area bounded by Badhaura in the south, Gadna in the north, Bhimji ka gaon in the west and just west of Bap in the east (Fig. 1). It is comprised of yellow calcareous sandstone inter-bedded with friable sandstone, ironstone and ferruginous clay. The Badhaura Formation is underlain by the Bap Formation. The Bap Formation occurs from Khirwa in the south-west to Nokhra in the north-east covering an area of about 68 square kilometers. The Spread is not continuous and is in the form of isolated patches as most of the part of the spread is covered with recent alluvium. The land is not fit for farming but the part of covered area is being farmed at some places. Lithology Bap Boulder Bed is basically a spread of pebbles, cobbles and boulders having a great variation in the composition of rocks. The rocks range in size from 1 cm to some boulders of even 80 cm in dimension. etc. Ventifacts are also seen on the pebbles and boulders found there. The rock types include gravel/boulder, 5 cm to 25 cm across in size, of rhyolite, tuff, granite, basalt and dolerite of the Malani Igneous Suite; granite, syenite, dolerite, quartzite, porphyritic granite, syenite, phyllite, slate amphibolite and basic rocks, and limestone, dolomitic limestone and sandstone of the Marwar Super group and other older rocks. The thickness of the bed as recorded by Ranga Rao et al. 1977 is 50-160 m. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 64 Fig.1. Geological Map of Bap and Badhaura area, part of topo sheet No. 45 A/7, district Jodhpur, Rajasthan. (After Jain and Kumar, 2010) CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 65 Permo-Carboniferous Bap and Badhaura Formation Photo: p38-39, Geol ogy of Rajasthan A.B.Roy, S.R.Jakhar Fig 2: Location of Bap Boulder Bed in the Geological Map of Rajasthan Fig 3: Spread of Boulders near Badi sid Village on NH-15 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 66 Bap Boulder Bed is also known as Bap Boulder Spread as it is a conglomeritic bed in which the matrix has eroded and a spread of rocks of different sizes can be seen. As the spread have a wide variation in rock type and its sizes, it can be said a polymictic conglomeritic bed. Fig 4: Bivalves collected from the Badhaura Formation exposed in Badi-dhani village on Bikaner- Jaisalmer National Highway (NH-15). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 67 Origin Bap boulder bed is a result of glacial deposition. When glacier moves it plucks rocks from the strata which are in its contact, these rock particles thus travels with the movement of glacier and when the glacier melts the rock particles are dropped. Glacial striations are clearly seen on the rock type of the area which indicates its formation to be of glacial origin. Ventifacts are flat surface on a rock. As the area is arid, so the windblown here carries sand particles with it and these sand particles make abrasion action on the rocks and forms these ventifacts. Ventifacts also indicate that after the deposition of Bap boulder bed, it has not suffered any depositional phase. Geological Age There was a huge controversy in the age determination of Bap boulder bed, Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh (1976) suggested it is to be of Post-Eocene and possibly Pleistocene age, the only post-eocene glacial period. The stratigraphical position and the field evidences tend to indicate it to be post- Marwar Super group and pre-Badhaura in age. They are Upper Carboniferous in age (Faruque and Ojha, 1970). The determination of age of Bap boulder bed is based on various correlation and fossils contents. The Bap boulder bed could be correlated with the Talchir boulder bed of Madhya Pradesh (La Touche, 1902) and many with the Umarian marine bed of Madhya Pradesh (Narayanan, 1964; Pareek and Sinha, 1977; Shrivastava, 1971; Faruqi and Ojha, 1970). Different fossils of Eurydesma sp., Polypora sp., Ambikella sp., and Neosprifer sp., have been reported from the Bap boulder bed by Ranga Rao et al. (1977). Etherilosia, Lamniplica and Arctitreta; a bryozoan genus Polypora and oysters were reported from the Bap boulder bed by Jain and Kumar (2010). Foraminifers are also known from the Bap Formation (Shah and Mehrotra, 1985). The Bap boulder bed is conformably overlain by the Badhaura formation which is rich in its marine fauna and flora fossils. Bap boulder bed is unconformable with the overlying Tunklian formation of Nagaur group (Marwar Super group). Bap boulder bed does not contain rocks younger than those of Bilara group (Marwar Super group). The presence of Permian fossils from the overlying Badhaura formation indicates Permian age of the Badhaura formation. The Similarity in the Rock type & fossil content of Bap boulder bed and Talchir boulder bed, Umarian marine bed, and boulder bed of Salt range of PermoCarboniferous age is suggestive of Permo-Carboniferous age of Bap boulder bed. It can be assumed that in the Late Carboniferous time glacier at the Western flank of india, with the upliftment of Aravalli started drifting in two opposite directions, The part of glacier going NE formed the Bap boulder bed and the boulder bed of Salt range and the part going SW formed the Talchir Boulder Bed and Umarian Marine Bed. The palaeogeographical reconstruction suggests that the Indus basin was connected through the North-Western Rajasthan and Gujarat, to Narmada Valley and then extending as far as CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 68 Umaria, by the Permian transgression (Pareek, H.S., 1979). The connection of the Salt Range through the Aravallis could not have been probable because of the uplands., and hence the arm of the Permian sea penetrated from Salt Range through Rajasthan, and Narmada to Umaria (Ghosh and Bandopadhyay,1967; Sastry and Shah, 1964). The marine transgression took place wherever a route had been formed by an extensive glaciations. The occurrence of solitary patches of these sedimentaries at all the places mentioned above indicates extensive erosional agencies have reigned during the postPermian, to the pre-Jurassic period, leaving only traces of these sedimentary deposits. On the basis of field observations, presence of boulders of the older rocks i.e. of Malani Igneous Complex, Delhi Super group and Marwar Super group only, complete absence of boulders of rocks of Mesozoic age, relation of Bap Boulder Beds and overlying Badhaura Formation, presence of fossils characteristics of Permian age, it is concluded that the Bap Boulder Beds are of Permo-Carboniferous in age. References Ahmed, N.; Hashimi, N. H. & Ghauri, K. K. 1974. Middle Carboniferous fossil bed from western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci.,43 (16): 512513; Delhi. Bharti, S.K.,2013. First record of foraminifera from the Badhaura Formation, Rajasthan. Paleontology Div. I, CHQ, GSI, Kolkata. Faruque, N.H. and Ojha, B.K., 1979. Report on the age relationship of the Bap Boulder Bed and Badhaura Formation, dist. Jodhpur and Bikaner, Rajasthan.Unpublished Report, Geol. Surv. India. Heron, A.M. 1932. The Vindhyans of Western Rajputana. Rec.Geol. Surv. India, v.65(4), p.457-489. Jain, R. L. and Kumar, R., 2010, Palaeontological study of Permian fossils from the Bap and the Badhaura Formations exposed in the Jodhpur and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan,Unpublished report, GSI FS 2007-09. La Touché T.D.H., 1902, Geology of Western Rajputana. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. 35, pt.1, 18 pages. Mishra, J. S., Srivastava, B.P. and Jain, S.K., 1961, Discovery of marine PermoCarboniferous in Western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci., vol. 39 (7), p. 262-263. Mishra, J.S., Srivastava, B.P. and Jain, S.K., 1962. Discovery of marine PermoCarboniferous in western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci., Vol.30. Mukhopadhyaya, A.K. and Ghosh, R.N., 1976. The problem of the stratigraphic position of the Bap Boulders, Rajasthan. Ind Jour. Earth Sci., 3 (2). Oldham, R. D. 1928. Prospects of finding coal in Western Rajputana. Rec. Geol. Surv. Ind.,19: 122127; Calcutta. Oldham, R.D., 1886. On probable changes in the geography of the Punjab and its rivers a historico-geographical study. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 55:322-343. Pareek, H.S. 1981. Basin configuration and sedimentary stratigraphy of Western Rajasthan. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.22,pp.517-527. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 69 Pareek, H.S., 1978, New evidence on the age relationship of Bap boulder spread and Badhaura formation, N-W, Rajasthan Pareek, H.S.1984. Pre-Quaternary geology and mineral resources of Northwestern Rajasthan. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, v.115,pp.1-99. Pascoe, E. H. 1975. A Manual of the Geology of India and Burma, 23rd Ed. Repr. Geol. Surv. India, IX- XXII: 485-1343; Calcutta. Ranga Rao, A.;Dhar, C. L. & Obergfell, F. A. 1977. Badhaura Formation of Rajasthan its stratigraphy and age. Fourth Intern. Gondw. Sympos. 1977,2: 481490; Calcutta. ROY, A.B. and JAKHAR, S.R. 2002. Geology of Rajasthan (northwest India), Precambrian to Recent. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, 421p. Shah, S. C. and Mehrotra, D. K., 1985, Early Permian foraminifera from the Bap Formation,Jodhpur, Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min.Met. Soc. India, no. 52, p.311-318. Shah, S. C. 1963. Marine Permian fauna from Bap Boulder Bed, Rajasthan. Ind. Miner.,17: 195197; Calcutta. Shah, S. C. and Mehrotra, D. K., 1985, Early Permian foraminifera from the Bap Formation, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min.Met. Soc. India, no. 52, p.311-318. Shrivastava, B.P. 1971. Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of West Central Rajasthan. Bull. Geol. Min. Met.Soc. India, No.44, pp.1-19. Sinha, A.A.K., 1977, New evidence on the age relationship of Bap Boulder Spread and Badhaura Formation, Northwestern Rajasthan , Curr. Sci., 47, No.1. Srivastava , B.P. 1971, Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of west central Rajasthan. Bull. Geo.Min. Met.Soc. Ind., 44. Srivastava, B.P., 1971, Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of westcentral Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India., vol. 44, p.1-19. Waterhouse, J. B. & Ranga Rao, A. 1977. Early permian brachiopod and molluscan species from the bap formation of peninsula India. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, June 1989, Volume 63, Issue 1-2, pp 25-39 Waterhouse, J.B. and Ranga Rao, A., 1989, Early Permian brachiopod and molluscan species from the Bap Formation of Peninsular India. Palaeotologische Zeitschrift, Band 63, Heft ½, p.25-39, 7 figures. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 70 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF WATER HARVESTING IN ARID REGION: A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF BIKANER TEHSIL (RAJASTHAN) Dr. Jai Bharat Singh Lecturer in Geography, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner (Rajasthan) Email: [email protected] Abstract Rainwater harvesting is not new to India. The art and science of collecting water where it falls is ancient and needs to be revived to meet our modern freshwater needs adequately, equitably and sustainably.1 Our aim and in fact, our responsibility is then to revive and modernize this traditional method which holds key to our water future. The water is becoming source commodity from day by day and will be difficult to cope up with the demand of the population constantly increasing, it is necessary that every individual citizen should work to harness rainwater and conserve for his own use. Therefore, the first and foremost need for today is to create awareness amongst the people in both rural and urban masses for revival of old water structures. Keyword: Rainwater harvesting, Old water structures. INTRODUCTION Water harvesting can be defined as the process of concentrating rainfall as runoff from a larger catchment area to be used in a smaller target area. This process may occur naturally or artificially. The collected runoff water is either directly applied to an adjacent agricultural field or stored in some type of storage facility for domestic use and 2 as to supplement irrigation. It is primarily of two types (i) roof water harvesting, and (ii) in situ water harvesting. Roof water harvesting has traditionally comprised of collection of precipitation falling on the roof or terrace of a building and storing it in a waterproof sump at ground level for year round use. While in situ water harvesting is, a type of rainwater harvesting in which the rainfall on a plot of land is harvested there itself by storing it in a pit or trench. In modern time, the rainwater from rooftop on plot of land may be stored in a sump, pit or trench, or discharged into the immediate local aquifer through an existing open well or tube well, or a recharge shaft or recharge well. Objectives: To evaluate the significance of traditional techniques of water harvesting in the present context. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 71 Hypothesis: There is shortage of both ground and surface water in the desert tehsil of Bikaner. The increasing pressure of population and livestock, expansion of agricultural activities, extraction of groundwater to irrigate water loving crops, supply of drinking water by government are some of the factors responsible for extinction of ancient traditional practices of water harvesting in the study area. As the inadequate supply for drinking water and irrigation reducing with the decreasing groundwater level, people have started adopting the traditional systems to mitigate the water problem. Thus, the movement of water harvesting traditions will be a positive factor for revival of these age-old practices and constructions of new structures. METHODOLOGY A schedule was prepared to collect the primary data and information from 10 households of each sample 13 villages and 2 urban centres of the study area. The sample water structures were surveyed to investigate their historical background and environmental impact in the local area. The local people have been asked about the need of water harvesting structures (WHS) at domestic and community level, other methods of water harvesting, supply and quality of drinking water, means and methods of irrigation, methods used for roof and field water harvesting etc. With this, secondary data and information have been collected from various governmental and semi-governmental institutions. Then the collected data and information have been analysed to obtain the objectives of the study and to test the hypothesis. The tables, maps, charts and graphs have been prepared to conclude the study. This study is an important attempt to give a clear perspective of small water harvesting structures in the study area. Study Area: Bikaner tehsil is located in the western part of Rajasthan and has extreme climate with a hot, dry and long summer, a cold winter and a short monsoon. The maximum temperature in the summer season reaches up to 48C and in winter season, the minimum temperature goes to freezing point. Normal annual rainfall in the tehsil is 23.37 cm and the average humidity percentage is 45. The rainfall is irregular and uncertain. Soils comprise 90-95 percent of sand. The depth of ground water varies 90-130 m. The continuous failure of monsoon and inadequate supply of water from Indira Gandhi Canal has caused the scarcity of water resources at a critical level. The study area spreads over an area of 3192.52 sq km lying between 27°40' and 28°22' north latitudes and 73°06' and 73° 52' east longitudes.3 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 72 Status of groundwater: There are three stages of groundwater availability in Bikaner tehsil. The tehsil was under safe zone in groundwater until 1998. However, as the exploitation of groundwater increased with the growing number of public and field tube-wells since last fifteen years, the tehsil has reached in critical and very critical stage. The exploitation of groundwater for irrigation and adoption of commercial and water loving crops has put the area in very critical zone. Water Harvesting Structures: The followings are main techniques of rainwater conservation in arid zones. 1. Tanka: It is a small circular or square underground tank constructed with lime mortar or cement plaster. It is constructed normally on fallow ground where surface runoff can be diverted to the structure by creating a clean catchment all around. It is constructed on individual family basis and it provides drinking water for 4-8 months depending upon the total storage, water use and other losses. 2. Kuin: it is a very narrow, shallow, vertical and cylindrical structure. It serves to slowly convert the moisture in the sand into water. In a very slow process, the kuin converts the conserved moisture of the sand to water and is employed particularly in those areas where ground water is saline and no other source of drinking water is available. Saline ground water is commonly found in all those areas where a hard stratum of gypsum or chalk exists. Kuins are mainly constructed on this hard strata which checks the percolation of rainwater.4 3. Kund: Older communities in desert settlements used the roofs of their houses and courtyards to serve the same purpose as the catchment areas of the ponds to collect rainwater Field Kund Bambloo on the rooftop and courtyard of the houses. These are called kunds or tankas. Rainwater collected in this way assumes greater significance when we realise that ground water in some areas is saline and unsuitable for drinking. Almost every rooftop has a gentle slope so that water can flow from here into a pipe and through that to an underground tank. The pipe has a provision for straining out dirt and grains of sand. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 73 The size of the underground storage tank depends on the average quantity of rainfall in that area. Normally the capacity of these tanks varies from 50,000 lt to 500,000 lt. In the older days, their capacity was determined according to the size of ghadas (earthen pots for storing water) and there was a standard size for these ghadas.5 It is also constructed at a slight incline with a mixture of sand and limestone. The incline could be from one end of the courtyard to the other. If it is large, the incline could be from all corners towards the centre of the courtyard and in this central point a kund is made. The kund is constructed in such a manner that no water can seep through its base. Throughout the year the water remains intact and clean. 4. Beris: They are shallow and small diameter percolation wells. These occur in two situations. In one case they lie close to the bed of a nadi or khadin, and the deeply percolated water is drawn till the nadi has dried out. The other situation is the sandy terrain in the highly desetic part. These structures of 1-2 m diameter are dug in the bed or in the vicinity of a khadin or naadi to extract deeply percolated water long after the surface storage has dried out. The depth varies a deal. Whereas, the temporary structures in a khadin to last for a season may be only 2-3 m deep, the permanent ones are of 7-10 m depth. The wall of the hole in later case is usually lined. The opening is covered with a stone slab or twigs to prevent birds from nesting and also prevent evaporation or accidental fall of animals. Those beris, which are more productive, have a concrete or stone slab platform with an opening for convenience of drawing water. During period of persistent droughts and consequent lowering of water table, the beris are deepened to restore water supply. 5. Talab: It is the name given to big pond or tank generally found in cities or towns. If a bigger space is found where rainwater can be received and held, then, a talab is made. These can retain the rainwater till the following rainy season. It is true that some ancient talabs have been damaged: however, even today, there is no dearth of talabs that can retain water for a whole year. Harsolao talab In the city of Bikaner itself, there were about sixty talabs but most of them are non-functional and abandoned. The functional ones are also having problem of reduction in runoff water from their respective catchments due to urbanization and unchecked encroachment. If the existing talabs are renovated and maintained properly, water scarcity problem in cities, towns and villages may be minimized substantially. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 74 6. Bawri: It was constructed to mitigate drinking water supply, particularly in cities and towns. Though both of these are neglected, the bawris (step-wells) were simply made pucca providing pulley to draw the water through rope and bucket. However, it has been seen that in general ground water aquifers of bawri and step-well were essentially sweet water aquifer and not saline. These systems are used to get very regular heavy recharge every year to meet the society's requirement. Thus, the site selections for these essentially have been based on sound scientific line of exploring ground water with high and regular recharge source of high quality water. 7. Jhalra: It was given much more importance with reference to religion, art, culture and economics also, by making not only the huge investment required for making the step alone but incurring still higher investment in a way of making these spots the site of religion. For instance, the stepwells are often example of beautiful mansion, delicately carried embroidery in stone covering on large areas and giving a look of temples. Historically, many of these step wells carry the name of either important social or royal personalities or the holy sites. It has been seen that in general groundwater aquifers of step-wells were essentially sweet water aquifer and not Old well at temple in Bikaner saline. These systems used to get very regular heavy recharge every year to meet the society's requirement. Thus, the site selections for these must have been based on sound scientific line of exploring ground water with high and regular recharge source of high quality water. This is the most prevalent rainwater harvesting structure in the form of an underground cistern. It is a small circular or square underground tank constructed with lime, mortar or cement plaster. It is constructed normally on fallow ground where surface runoff can be diverted to the structure by creating a clean catchment all around. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 75 8. Khel/Thala: The small open tanks are built outside of varying heights are called khel, thala, arada or ubara. They contain water for camels, cows, goats or other animals that are passing by especially during summer months. The animals get water outside and there is no need to go inside the kund for water. 9. Nadi/Johad: It is an open tank Nadi - Jaitsar constructed for storing water available from an adjoining natural catchment during the rainy season. In this arid tehsil, construction of nadi is one of the oldest practice and is still the common source of water for conjunctive use the capacity of nadi generally ranges from 1200 to 15000 cubic mt. depending upon physiographic conditions and rainfall pattern. At present, most of the villages in the area have one or more nadis. It is a small traditional rainwater harvesting structure, constructed at an appropriate site to harness the surface runoff water of relatively impervious non-arable uplands for drinking water for animals and ground water recharge, or for increasing the yield of open wells in the lower reaches. These are also constructed to store water in the monsoonal nallas in the upper reaches for various purposes, primarily for recharge of ground water aquifers. The depth of such nadi generally does not exceed 3 m. 10. Khadin: It is a system basically innovated for runoff farming area. This system was developed way back in the 15th century in the extreme desert. It is a sitespecific system, needing a large, natural, Khadin - Godu high-runoff potential catchment in the proximity of a plain valley land with deep soils. Rocky terrain around a valley slope, constitute the catchment area of a khadin. Stony gravels, wasteland with gentle slope in the form of valley can also form the catchment area or such structures. At the lower point of the valley, earthen bund is constructed to arrest the runoff. The stored water helps the crops as well as recharging of ground aquifer. Spillway of stone masonry is provided in the bund to let out the excess runoff. A sluice is provided a bed level to drain out standing water, if any at the time of bed cultivation. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 76 Structures for Rainwater Harvesting: The following table shows proposed Structures for rainwater harvesting based on rooftop area Table 1: Proposed Structures for Rainwater Harvesting Rooftop Surplus run - Type of recharge Dimensions of the Anticipated rate area off available structure structure of recharge (sq km) for recharge recommended (m3/h) 3 (m /year) 100 43.52 200 87.04 300 130.56 400 174.08 500 217.60 600 261.12 700 304.64 800 348.16 900 391.68 1000 435.20 Recharge pit wit inverted filter Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) h 0.5 x 0.5 x 2.0 L x WxD 3.5 m x 0.60m depth x diameter 5.0 x 0.60 m depth x diameter Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) Recharge shaft (7f x 7f x 1.5m) 6.0 x 0.60 depth x diameter 7.0 x 0.60 depth x diameter 8.0 x 0.60 depth x diameter 8.5 x 0.60 depth x diameter 9.0 x 0.60 depth x diameter 9.5 x 0.60 depth x diameter 10 x 0.60 depth x diameter 2.80 5.90 10.20 13.97 17.94 22.41 26.01 27.70 29.79 33.50 Source: CGWD, Jodhpur Status of WHS in Bikaner Tehsil: It has been analysed by the data given in table 2 that in Bikaner tehsil; 75.94% of talabs, 33.3% of bawries and 32.25% of wells have become extinct since the electrification of wells and tube-wells started in the study area. The percentage extinction of talabs is greater than bawries and wells as they have been constructed outside to the settlement area while bawris and wells are mainly located inside in the rural and urban settlements. The catchment areas of talabs are encroached due to expansion of cultivable land. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 77 The number of wells is also influenced by government supply since last two decades. The drinking water is supplied by PHED who never preferred to initiate awareness programme for water conservation and revival of old structures. Table 2: Bikaner Tehsil: Water Structures in Sample Villages Village/town Deshnok Raisar Talriabas Palana Barsingsar Lalamdesar Udairamsar Bhinasar Gadwala Himtasar Napasar Seenthal Moondsar Ranisar Bikaner city Total Talab (Pond) Bawri Kua (Well) Extincted Existing Extincted Existing Extincted Existing Nil Nil 2 1 1 4 1 Nil Nil Nil 1 3 1 Nil Nil Nil 1 1 2 1 Nil Nil 2 5 1 Nil Nil Nil 1 3 (1) DCBW 1 1 Nil Nil Nil 2 (1) DCBW 2 Nil Nil 3 3 4 (2) DCBW 2 1 Nil 2 2 3 3 Nil Nil Nil 2 1 DCBW Nil 2 (1)* Nil Nil 1 3 (1) DCBW 2 3 Nil Nil 2 4 Nil Nil 2 2 3 4 1 1 Nil Nil 1 2 (1) DCBW 1 2 (1)* Nil Nil Nil 3 (1) DCBW 43 8(6)* Nil Nil Nil 67 17 11 4 8 20 109 Source: Field Survey 2010-1013 * Revived FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 1. Factors responsible for extinction of old water harvesting structures: The sample households 150 (10 each from 15 villages) of Bikaner tehsil both in rural and urban areas answered that there are many factors behind the extinction of traditional water harvesting structures. The main factors are increasing population and livestock in the study area. It further accelerated shrinking of catchment 43 (28.66%), expansion of agriculture and industrial activities 32 (21.33%), increase in settlement 25 (16.66%), government supply 22 (14.66%), change in life style and economic status 16 (10.66%) and negligence of old structures 12(8.03%). 2. Views about traditional structures: The old aged respondents of both rural and urban areas complained about the government policy and encroachment of agors of old water structures. They have also replied that the consumption-ratio of water has increased due to economic and social improvement. They strongly recommended 124 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 78 (83%) that the old structures should be revived by the government for the proper utilization of water and efficient supply for the increasing population and livestock. The respondents 116 (77.33%) have also replied that kundi and tanka are essential for storing water in every household but these small structures are used to store tap water only. Even today, there are many kuin, bawri, talai, talab, tanka etc. in every village and at temples and palaces in Bikaner tehsil. But their catchment areas (agors) have been shrinking due to population pressure in the form of encroachments, increasing settlements, agriculture and industrial activities. 3. Views about revival of old water harvesting structures: The respondents of the study area replied about the revival and construction of traditional water structures and gave many suggestions. Most of them 84 (56%) have stressed for removal of encroachment on agor (catchment) that may be by government or individual. It is the main reason for low amount of rainwater supply. There is large areas under WHS in the study area which is either encroached for agriculture or for settlement, construction of government buildings, allocation of land to landless farmers and settlement purposes etc. Secondly, these old structures 53 (35.33%), should be maintained and they should be cleaned and dugged well before onset of monsoon rain. Therefore, the agor area should be demarcated and fenced well and the stored water should optimally be used. Construction of new water structures 21 (14%), model village development 54 (38.57%), control over population and livestock 23 (15.33%), adoption of rainfed crops 40 (26.66%), rational supply of water 12 (8%) are suggested for revival of traditional methods of water harvesting in this arid area. When the respondents have been asked who should take responsibility for care of this age old technique, the majority 110 (73.5%) of them replied that the government should take care of these water structures with the participation of local people while others responded for village panchayat, committee members etc. 4. Views about water conservation: The responses of farmers as well as households analyse that shortage of water during summer season 144 (33.48%), inadequate supply of water in the Indira Gandhi Canal 44 (29.33%), low and decreasing water level 36 (24%), loss of soils and natural vegetation etc. 70 (46.66%) are some of the factors motivating water conservation in this arid tehsil. Some of the respondents (mainly old farmers) replied that the time has come when we will have to adapt the age-old methods of water harvesting. They also replied that expansion of cultivable land along with mechanization in agriculture is losing natural habitat of wildlife, vegetation and livestock. All these factors are not ecologically feasible in the arid region. 5. Site Selection for construction of water harvesting structures: The rural people mainly old farmers are well aware about the sites of water harvesting structures (WHS) construction. They replied 47 (31.3%) that it is necessary to revive the existed structures which are sufficient to fulfill the demand of drinking water. They suggested that low land with good drainage having hard and rocky surface is suitable for construction of CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 79 new water structures. They also suggested that surface of both small and large structures are already very hard to control over seepage of water. The small structures i.e. tanka, kui, bawri, kundi etc. should be roofed well to protect evaporation 22 (14.66%) and the large structures like talab, talai, johad etc. should be de-silted before monsoon rains. The respondents 31 (20.66%) have advocated to construct the new structure to meet out the increasing demand of water in rural as well as urban areas. Suggestions: In Bikaner tehsil, land is easily available for construction of WHS at both individual and public levels. Therefore, it is suggested to take the following measures to motivate traditional water harvesting structures. 1. Revival of existing water harvesting system, 2. Adoption of water harvesting measures in independent houses, flats and campuses, 3. Removal of encroachments in the catchment areas of WHS, 4. Ban on cultivation of water loving crops, 5. Effective regulation of laws related to water conservation, 6. Long-term planning, 7. Formation of Jal Samitis, and 8. Organizing training programmes. References: 1.Water Harvesting Management, Practical Guide Series-6, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, April, 2003, SDC/Inter-cooperation Coordination Unit, Jaipur, Rajasthan, pp. 1-23, 58-87. 2.Theib Oweis, A. Hachum and J. Kijne (1999): Water Harvesting and Supplemental Irrigation for Improved Water use Efficiency in Dry Areas, ICARDA SWIM paper, International Water Management Institute, PO 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka. T. Oweis, A. Hachum and J. Kijne (1999) pp. 1-41. 3.Economic Review 2004-05, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Rajasthan, Jaipur. 4.Rainwater Harvesting in Industrial Areas, RIICO, Udyag Bhawan, Tilak Marg, Jaipur, pp. 1-16, June 2005. 5.Harvesting the Rains in Thar, Gramin Vikas Vigyan Samiti, 3/458, Milk Man Colony, Pal Road, Jodhpur, pp. 1-97. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 80 UTILIZATION OF HUMAN HAIR WASTE AS SUBSTRATE AMENDMENT IN POT CULTIVATION OF OKRA (ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS) PLANT Suruchi Gupta and Anshumala Sharma Deptt. of Chemistry, Dungar College, Bikaner (Rajasthan) 334004. Abstract Recent agricultural practices i.e., the use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and biocides etc. are employed to increase the soil fertility and crop production. These fertilizers crowed out essential nutrients present in top soil layers and initiate plant growth but fertilizers enriched soil can not support microbial flora. Hence there remains poor humus and fewer nutrients while the soil can readily become eroded by wind and water. To avoid the use of these chemical fertilizers, number of waste materials and by products (such as animal manure, municipal solid waste compost and sewage sludge) are used currently in agricultural crop production. This study utilized hair waste as nutrient source for crop and observed the effect of these waste materials on soil microbial community. In the pot experiment, the addition of uncomposted hair waste to soil not only increased the yield in Okra plant but also increased macro and micro nutrient concentration in plant tissue and stimulated soil microbial biomass. Its addition in soil increased NH4-N, NO3-N, organic carbon and microbial biomass in soil and total N in plant tissue. Besides this it also increased Na, S, Ca, Fe, Zn and Mn concentration in soil as well as in plant tissue. The study suggest that the addition of 6.6 g/kg or 14784 kg/ha of hair waste is sufficient for Okra crop and this can support at least 2-3 harvest of crop without the addition of chemical fertilizer. Key words: Uncomposted hair waste, Okra, Mineral elements, Microbial Biomass. INTRODUCTION The mad race among nations over the globe for development jeopardized the health of man itself. Progress in agriculture and industry is taken a general criterion of development of any country. This craze resulted into unlimited exploitation of every bit of natural resources. Unlimited exploitation of nature by man disturbed the delicate 1 ecological balance between living and non-living component of the biosphere . Further to meet the food requirement of the ever increasing population modern agricultural practices are carried out which in turn pollute the soil to a large extent. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 81 On the other hand barber shops situated at every corner of the city generate a significant amount of human hair waste that is usually put to garbage and ultimately ends up in landfills which are creating severe environmental problem because nitrate leaching from hair can contaminate the ground water as nitrogen is one of the components of hair composition. Hair is made of protein which originates in the hair follicle. As the cell mature they fill up with a fibrous protein called keratin. Approximately 91% of the hair is protein made up of long chains of amino acids. There are various elements found in the hair and they are used to make amino acids, keratin, melanin and protein. The average composition of normal hair is composed of 45.2% carbon, 27.9% oxygen, 6.6% hydrogen, 15% nitrogen and 5.2% sulphur. The keratin found in hair is called “hard keratin” this type of keratin does not dissolves in water and is quite resilient. Keratin is made from 18 amino acids. The most abundant of these amino acids is cystine which gives hair much of its strength. Property of hair as a source of slow releasing organic nitrogen is a valuable soil conditioner. It has been proposed that body stores of minerals may be estimated from hair analysis because growing hair is metabolically active and is a sequestering tissue2. It has been also found that sweat secreated by sebaceous glands may be an important source of minerals in hair and that fatty secretions of apocrine glands may provide physical or chemical means by which exogenous minerals may bind to hair. Hair is made up of keratin and keratin contains disulphide bonds that may be major binding 3 sites of minerals in hair . Above discussion suggest that protein of hair can be utilized as natural fertilizer and farmers are escaped from using expensive and harmful chemical fertilizer. With the use of composted hair as fertilizer there is considerable loss of nitrogen4. So this study utilized uncomposted hair waste as a nutrient source for high value plants. The objective of the study was to examine the effect of uncomposted hair waste as nutrient source for Okra plant. Okra is also known as Lady's finger, in Hindi it is termed as 'Bhindi'. It is a flowering plant in the Malvaceae famiy. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. The species is an annual or perennial and is cultivated through out the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Okra requires adequate amount of N, P, K for its proper growth. MATERIAL & METHODS The samples of hair waste were collected from two local shops of Mukta Prasad Colony, Bikaner. These wastes were cleaned by hand picking the polythenes, matchsticks and other types of wastes. Experimental pots were prepared by adding 6 kg of soil to each pot along with 300 g of cow dung compost. Treatment consisted of 0 g, 20 g, 40 g and 80 g of hair waste addition to the prepared pots. Okra seeds were sown in these pots. The experiment had a control with same treatment but with no plant to evaluate the effect of nutrient availability on CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 82 plant. Okra was fully developed in one and a half month with a 14 hr. day and 10 hr. night photoperiod, with an average day temperature of 280C. These were irrigated carefully and evenly once a day with sufficient water. The plant species were harvested when they were fully grown. After the harvest, the plant species were washed under running tap water to remove soil particles and then spread on newspaper for drying. After sun drying the plants were 0 weighed and oven dried at 70 C for 72 hrs. The herbage was ground using a Wiley Mill to pass through a 1.0 mm screen. The powdered form was kept for mineral and trace element analysis. Fresh soil samples from all experiments were taken at harvest and kept in a cooler at 40C for microbial biomass and NH4-N and NO3-N analysis. Additional soil samples for 0 nutrient and trace element analysis were taken at harvest, air dried (at 20 C), and ground with a mortar and pestle to pass through 2.0 mm screen. For tissue and soil trace element analysis, plant tissues were digested in the diacid 5 mixture of 20 ml conc. HNO3+2-3 ml conc. HClO4 and extract was prepared. For soil 6 sample extract, DTPA method was used . Parameters like pH is determined by pH meter, EC is determined by electroconductivity meter, Organic carbon by Walkley and Black titration method, Phosphorus in soil by Olsen's method and in plant tissue by titrametric method, K and Na by flame photometer, Ca & Mg in soil by Versenate (EDTA) titration method and in plant tissue by AAS, Sulphur estimation in soil and plant tissue in CaCl2-extractable S by Williams and Steinbergs, 1969 in spectrophotometer, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn in soil and plant tissue by AAS and microbial biomass of soil by fumigation-incubation method. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Result from this study suggests that hair waste is an excellent soil amendment and nutrient sources for high value crops. The soil used in the pot was sandy soil with very low nitrogen content and other minerals as shown in table 1. Analysis of hair showed that it contain good amount of all nutrients required by plants ( table 2) and almost all nutrients showed their positive effect except few like Phosphorus and Potassium. It also introduces a significant amount of Na into the soil. Table 1. The initial physical and chemical characteristics and the concentration of plant available nutrients of soil used in the pot experiments. Parameter pH Zn OC EC P K Ca&Mg (%) millimhos/cm Kg/ha ppm ppm ppm ppm Conc. in soil 8.72 0.13 0.17 24 187 8.5 0.788 2.036 S me/L 0.055 Na Fe ppm 750.2 0.638 Mn ppm 1.6 Cu ppm CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 83 Physico- Chemical and Biological parameters of soil NH4-N and NO3-N of Okra increased with increase in conc. of doses in control as well as with plant experiment (table 3). NH4-N ranges between 0.512-18.02 ppm in control and between 0.27-10.63 ppm in with plant soil. NO3-N ranges between 0.054-32.5 ppm in control and 0.42-22.14 ppm in with plant soil. The increase in NH4-N and NO3-N in soil is due to mineralization of N in wool rather than mineralization of soil N. pH of soil decreases with the addition of high doses of hair in soil and this is good for arid and semi arid regions where soil is mostly alkaline in nature. The optimum range of pH for plants is between 5.5-7.0 7. pH decreased from 8.78 to 8.50 (table-3) in control experiment. The decrease in pH helps in the availability of nutrients in soil to plants. Organic carbon is a measure of organic matter which is the seat of nitrogen in soil and 8 the permissible limit is between 0.20%-1% .Our experiment showed an increase with increase in dose i.e. from 0.14%-0.18% (table-3). EC also increased with increase in dose but all values are with in permissible limit which is below 0.75 millimhos/cm9. The range found is between 0.12-0.40 millimhos/cm (table-3). The increase is because of liberation of sodium which increases the salinity of soil. Calcium and Magnesium content in soil as well as in plant tissue increases with increase in dose. This is because hair contains a good amount of Ca & Mg. The range found of Ca & Mg in soil is 8.9-13.0 me/l (table 4). In plant tissue the maximum conc. of Ca & Mg is found at 40 g dose after that conc. decreases because excess ammonia induces Ca 10 deficiency Sulphur content increases in both soils as well as in plant tissue. Sulphur present in our soil is very low i.e.0.055 ppm and with addition of hair it's conc. increases but still below the permissible limit i.e. 10-20 ppm 11.The value increases from 0.055 to 0.605 ppm (table 4) and in plant tissue it increased from 32.5 to 62.0 ppm and values are below 12 permissible limit of 0.05%-1.5% . The increase in S value is due to mineralization of wool. Experimental soil is rich in sodium content i.e. 750.2 ppm and is not required further and with the addition of hair it's conc. further increases from 750.2-890.4 ppm but not 13 beyond the critical level of 5 % . In plant tissue also it increases from 121.0-429.0 ppm (table 4). Soil used in experiment is deficient in iron content i.e.0.638 ppm and is below the permissible limit of 2.5 ppm14. So the addition of hair is beneficial as it enrich the soil with iron content from 0.638-1.380 ppm (table 4). In plant tissue the maximum value comes at 80 g dose i.e. 26.80 ppm. Values of plant tissue are within permissible limit i.e. 12 from 10-250 ppm . Manganese content in soil is found to be 1.6 ppm (table 4) which is above the 14 permissible limit of 1.0 ppm ,hair waste addition further increase it from 1.6-27.74 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 84 ppm and it is a good increase. In plant tissue the increase is from 10.86-14.54 ppm but the values are within the permissible limit i.e.10-1000 ppm 12. Copper conc. increases in soil but in plant tissue it decreases i.e from 0.788-0.816 ppm in soil and 3.81-2.32 ppm in plant tissue (table 4). All the values are within permissible 14 12 limit i.e. 0.2-10 ppm in soil and 1-50 ppm in plants . Zinc conc. increases with increase in dose from 2.036-3.726 ppm in soil and values are 15 above the critical level of 0.3 ppm and experimental soil has Zn content as 2.036 ppm. In plant tissue also it increases from 4.00-10.28 ppm and the values are with in the 12 permissible limit i.e. from 1 to 200 ppm (table 4). Microbial biomass increased in soil with plant as well as in soil without plant, this is because various chemicals secreated by plants attract myriads of micro organisms. The increase is from 1x104/g to 20x104/g in Okra grown soil and 1x104/g to 255x104/g in control experiment (table 3). Table 2. The elemental concentration of hair waste used in the pot experiment with Okra. Parameters C N Ca Mg K Na Fe Cu Mn Zn P S This Study ^ 395 g/kg 1.2 g/kg 2.1g/kg 70 mL/kg 22 ppm 143 ppm 4.43 ppm 14.77 ppm 1.1 ppm 117 ppm 92 mL/kg 50.6 g/kg Hair $ 413 g/kg 1.3 g/kg 2.45 g/kg 78 ppm 72 ppm 187 ppm 39 ppm 19 ppm 2 ppm 217 ppm 104 ppm 89.6 g/kg Literature Hair # 1022 µg/g 94 ppm 5.3 µg/g 261µg/g 22 ppm 2.5 ppm 192 ppm 207 µg/g 42300 ppm Hair @ 1090 ppm 105 µg/g 11.8 µg/g 266 µg/g 23 ppm 2.94 ppm 189 ppm 184 µg/g 46900 µg/g ^ Elemental concentration of hair in this study was measured on AAS and various techniques described in material and methods following digestion in conc. HNO3. $ Hair mineral content as reported by Zheljazkov, V.D., 2005. # Hair mineral content as reported by Dean A. Bass, 2001. @ Certified Value of hair mineral content as suggested by Shanghai Institute of Nuclear Reasearch Academia Sinica (SINRAS). 8.78 8.85 8.80 8.60 8.50 8.72 8.70 8.69 8.65 8.60 Microbial Biomass (per g) 1 x 104 1 x 104 20 x 104 23 x 104 255 x 104 1 x 104 3 x 104 6 x 104 14 x 104 20 x 104 DM Yield (kg/pot) - 0.345 0.332 0.464 0.630 0.592 Ti ssu eN (%) - 1.512 1.568 1.932 2.380 2.456 Soil NO3-N (ppm) 0.054 0.180 1.200 3.240 32.500 0.42 1.33 5.56 10.23 22.14 Soil NH4N (ppm) 0.512 0.437 0.587 1.600 18.020 0.27 0.32 0.43 3.47 10.63 Hair (g/pot) 0 10 20 40 80 0 10 20 40 80 Crop No Crop Okra pH 0.17 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 EC (mmhos/ cm) 0.18 0.12 0.21 0.28 0.40 Table 3. Okra yield, NH4-N, NO3-N, pH, EC, OC and microbial biomass as affected by hair waste addition to soil with or without Okra plant and total Nitrogen conc. of Okra tissue as affected by hair waste addition to soil in pots. 0.1 4 0.1 3 0.1 5 0.1 7 0.1 8 0.1 2 0.1 4 0.1 7 0.1 9 0.1 8 OC (%) (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 85 Hair g/pot 0 10 20 40 80 0 10 20 40 80 Crop No Crop (Soil) Okra 0.055 0.110 0.119 0.450 0.605 S ppm 8.9 12.0 11.2 12.2 13.0 Ca&Mg me/L 0.638 0.638 0.762 1.134 1.380 Fe ppm 2.036 2.662 2.790 3.404 3.726 Zn ppm 121.0 176.0 209.0 242.0 429.0 32.5 44.0 48.0 57.5 62.0 Ca (ppm) 3045.12 3061.42 4007.12 4061.13 3524.57 Mg (ppm) 128.78 128.83 128.60 128.99 128.76 14.33 17.42 19.23 24.23 26.80 4.00 4.79 8.73 9.38 10.28 Total concentration of nutrients in plant tissue 750.2 772.2 838.2 842.6 890.4 Na ppm 10.86 12.68 13.22 13.84 14.54 1.60 2.24 4.60 9.00 27.74 Mn ppm Table 4. The phytoavailable nutrient conc. in soil (with or without plant), amended with hair waste and total nutrient content in Okra tissue grown in pots with 0, 20, 40 and 80 g/pot in the hair waste pot. Only nutrients with conc. affected by the treatment are shown. 3.81 3.40 2.59 2.32 2.32 0.788 0.770 0.790 0.810 0.816 Cu ppm (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 86 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 87 Analysis of Plant Tissue Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) belongs to family Malvaceae, is a vegetable plant. It can be grown on variety of soil but light sandy soil is unsuitable for it. It requires adequate amount of N P K for its proper growth. In the study Okra responded good with the use of hair as fertilizer in spite of the growing medium used is sandy soil. The best results of Okra plant when applied with hair as fertilizer were observed at 40 g dose of hair. The conc. of different parameter observed at this dose are: NO3-N 3.24 ppm in control and 10.23 ppm in 'with plant' soil, NH4N- 1.60 ppm in control and 3.47 ppm in 'with plant' soil, Plant tissue N2- 2.38 %, Ca- 4061.13 ppm, Mg- 128.99 ppm, S- 57.5 ppm, Na- 242 ppm , Fe- 24.23 ppm, Mn- 13.84 ppm, Cu- 2.32 ppm and Zn-9.38 ppm. 4 Okra grown soil showed good result in microbial biomass and is 14 x10 /g in 40 g dose of hair. Most of the nutrients are maximum at 40 g dose. Chemical result synchronize with physical appearance i.e. the growth was also maximum in 40 g. In Okra plant tissue the conc. of N2, Ca, Na, S, Fe, Mn and Zn increased with the application of hair. CONCLUSIONS The results from this study suggest that addition of hair waste not only increased macro and micro nutrients in soil and plant tissue but also enrich the soil with microbial biomass. Study concluded that 40 g dose of hair in 6 kg soil is sufficient in Okra for their appropriate growth. Following conclusions are drawn from the results We added 0-80 g of hair waste in Okra and observed that Okra gave best results with maximum growth at 40 g dose which synchronize with chemical results. At this dose the vegetable were maximum in number and plant was healthy. If we apply this dose in field it will be equivalent to 6.6 g/kg or 14784 kg/ha (or 40 g of hair waste in 6 kg soil). The use of a large quantity of human hair waste as a nutrient source for crop production used for direct human consumption (e.g. vegetables) may be questioned; these might be point of issue with marketability and social acceptance. As there are specific guidelines and regulations for the use of sewage sludge or industrial waste, similar guidelines should be developed for the use of these waste materials in agricultural crops. Our results also demonstrated that the addition of large amount of hair waste to soil would depress soil pH due to mineralization and oxidation of Sulphur and Nitrogen containing compounds. But this is good for arid and semi-arid regions where soil is mostly alkaline in nature. In acidic soil the application of higher dose of hair is not recommended. Study also showed that there is increase in Organic carbon % with the addition of hair waste which not only help in the increase of organic matter but also increases the water holding capacity of soil. S, Fe, Mn & Zn conc. increases both in soil as well as in plant tissue because of high amount of these nutrients in hair. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 88 So our study will help Barbers and Farmers as Barbers get the better way of disposing waste and in turn get the monetary benefit by selling it. On the other hand, Farmers will get a better option for chemical fertilizers as the hair waste is not only inexpensive but also enrich their fields chemically and biologically. Overall our results suggest that uncomposted hair waste can be an excellent soil amendment and nutrient source for high-value crops. Acknowledgements Author acknowledge the support extended by Dr. Tribhuvan Sharma, Deptt. Of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College, Bikaner (Raj.) References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Sharma P.D.,Ecology and Environment- Sixth Edition, Rastogi Publication, New Delhi, 199495, 305. Combs D.K., Goodrich R.D. and Meiske J.C., Journal of Animal Science, 54, No.2, 1982, 391398. Hopps,H.C., The biologic basis for using hair and nail for analysis of trace elements. Sci. Total Environ, 1997, 7:71. Epstein, E., Trace elements, heavy metals and micronutrients. In E. Epstein(ed.) The Science of composting. Technomic Publ., Lancaster, PA, 1997, 137-170. Singh D., Chhonkar P.K., Dwivedi B.S., Manual on soil, plant and water analysis, Westville Publishing House,2005, 86. Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. , Development of a DTPA soil test for Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu. Soil Sci.Soc.Am.J.1978, 42:421-28. Perry leonard,' pH for the Gardens' ( http://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/pubs/oh 34. htm). Retrived 11 December 2012. Tandon H.L.S., Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters, Fertilisers and Organic Manures, Fertiliser Development and Consultation Organisation, 2013, 50. Solanki S. Ajay, Thesis- Physico-chemical and toxicological studies and treatment of industrial effluent of dying and printing units in Bikaner city of Rajasthan, 2009, 263. Nutrient deficiency: www.ces.nscu.edu/dept/hort/ Consumer/quickref/fertilizer/ nutri.def.html. Shivanand Tolanur, Practical Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, International Book Distributing, 2004, 55. Baruah T.C. and H.P.Barthakur, A Text Book of Soil Analysis, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,1997, 297. Clancy Ken (2013)-Plant and soil sciences , Sodium affected soils. www.fusion fert.com. Shivanand Tolanur, Practical soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, International Book Distributing, 2004, 59. Baruah T.C. and H.P.Barthakur , A Text Book of Soil Analysis, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,1997, 196. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 89 OPTIMIZATION OF MECHANICAL AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF BIKANER MINERALS FOR HIGH-STRENGTH ELECTRICAL PORCELAIN ¶ ¶ S.K.Tak and R.Mangal* Department of Physics, Marudhar Engineering College, Bikaner, *Department of Physics, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner. Email: [email protected] Abstract Five sample mixture of Kaolin from Indu ka Bala (Bikaner district), ball clay from Mud (Bikaner district), feldspar & quartz from Ajmer district were formulated and porcelain samples fabricated by extrusion, shaping and firing. Samples were also evaluated for formability. The degree of densification of sintered specimen fired at 1100˚C to 1275˚C was evaluated by measuring the firing shrinkage, bulk density, water absorption and Modulus of Rapture. Dielectric and Modulus of Rapture deteriorated at high temperature because of pore formation and decreasing amount of undissolved quartz in crystalline phase. An optimized composition of 30% kaolin, 15% ball clay, 30% feldspar and 25% quartz yielded a body with highest modules of rapture and dielectric strength of 19kv/mm after firing at 1225˚C. Keywords: Dielectric Strength, Modulus of Rapture, Porcelain, Quartz. INTRODUCTION Porcelain is a hard ceramic substance made by heating at high temperature selected and refined materials often including clay in the form of Kaolinite, quartz and alkaline feldspars [4, 6]. Porcelain clay when mixed with water forms a plastic paste which can be worked to a required shape or form that is hardened and made permanent by firing in a kiln at temperature of between about 1200 degree Celsius and 1400 degree Celsius. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from the formation at high temperature within the clay body of mineral mullite and glass [1]. Electrical Porcelain is widely used as insulators in electrical power transmission system. It is also used to make wares for the table and kitchen, sanitary wares, decorative wares and objects of fine art. MATERIAL AND SAMPLE PREPARATIONS Raw materials: The raw materials used in the present investigation were ball clay from Mud (Bikaner District), China clay from Indu ka Bala (Bikaner District), Quartz and feldspar from CROSS-SECTIONS Vol 1 (1) 2014 (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) 90 Ajmer district. These deposit and their locations are described by department of mining, Govt. of Rajasthan. Representative samples were collected from the deposits and processed for use in the study. Sample preparation The material were each separately wet--milled, run over a magnetic iron separating tray to remove iron contamination and sieved to 45 microns for china clay and ball clay, 53 microns for feldspar and 25 microns for quartz. They were subsequently dried with the exception of ball clay which was mixed as slip in the composition. The dry content of ball clay in the slurry was calculated using Brogniart's formula [2,5]. The flow diagram depicted in figure 1 was used for preparation of the samples for mechanical strength properties. Quartz Feldsp ar China Clay Ball Clay Weighing hopper Water Ball milling Filtering Vacuum pugging Extruding Drying Firing Figure 1: Flow chart for preparation of samples CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 91 Batch compositions were formulated on the basis of triaxial plot presented by Norton (1970) [4] but with slightly higher clay content in accordance to more recent literature [6]. In samples S-1to S-3, Clay content was maintained at 50% while systematically varying feldspar and quartz contents. In addition, the ratio of ball clay to china clay content in the constitution of clay was varied. In S-4 and S-5, the clay content was reduced to 45% with a fixed clay constitution to evaluate the effects of quartz and feldspar on properties. Respective batches (Table 1) were mixed in required proportions by weight and wet milled in ball mill with a self fabricated high temperature fired pabbles as a grinding medium for 3 hours. The dry compositions of the major components were calculated according to Brogniart's formula [2,5]. Where Wdry and Wwet represent the dry and wet mass percentage of the major components, respectively and LOI represents loss on ignition. Table 1: Batch Composition and Formability Sample Ball Clay China Clay Feldspar Quartz Total Dimensional Accuracy S1 35 15 25 25 100 Good S2 25 25 30 20 100 Good S3 30 20 20 30 100 Low S4 30 15 30 25 100 Good S5 30 15 25 30 100 Very Low In preparation for extrusion, the milled materials were left to dry at room temperature to form a paste of sufficient plasticity for extraction through a vacuum pugmill. The extruder was washed clean after every batch. Cylindrical sample of a 16mm diameter and length 100mm are made to measure modulus of rapture. Using pulverized dried material from the extraction process, samples for dielectric strength tests were prepared by uniaxial pressing at 100MPa to form discs of 3±o.5 mm thick and 25mm diameter. All the samples were dried in air and then at 110˙C for 3 hours in an electric furnace. Samples from each batch were then fired to temperature of 1100, 1150, 1200, 1225, 1275˙C at a heating rate of 6˙C/m and held at the top temperature for one hour before cooling in the furnace. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 92 EXPERIMENTAL Firing shrinkage of the sample was determined by measuring the length of samples before and after firing and expressing the difference as a percentage of the length before firing. Bulk density was determined from measurement of volume and mass of fired samples. Water absorption of fired samples was determined by Archimedes' immersion technique, involving boiling in water for one hour and a further soaking for 24 hours at ambient temperature and noting the differences in weight of samples before and after the treatments in water. MOR was measured using a Testometric universal testing machine in a three point bending fixture for the as-fired specimens. Five to eight specimens from each sample batch were tested in 3-point bending load-tests [3, 8]. The measured values for modulus of rapture (MOR) were ordered an experimental value of MOR, σ was calculated through the expression in equation (2) P = Load need to break the rod L = Gap between Support d = Diameter of rod Dielectric breakdown voltage was measured using an A.C voltage with a frequency of 50Hz applied through a transformer to the testing equipment, with the test specimen immersed in transformer oil. The voltage was gradually raised (automatically) until the sample started conducting, causing the circuit breaker to trip [11]. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Batch formability The formulated samples exhibited significant levels of variability in their formability as shown table 1. Three of them, S-1, S-2, and S-4 showed good formability whereas S-3, and especially S-5, showed poor formability. Not even after 5 days of ageing, the plasticity was improved. It is interesting to note the big difference between S-4 and S-5 although the only difference in formulation is the relative amounts of feldspar and quartz, both considered to be non plastic components. Vitrification The firing shrinkage, MOR water absorption and bulk density are shown in fig.2, 3, 4, 5. as seen the highest firing shrinkage and MOR, corresponding to the highest degree of vitrification is found at 1200-1225˙C firing temperature [2,3]. Also from figure 4, the lowest water absorption, corresponding to the lowest amount of open porosity is found at 1225˙C due to improved vitrification. Above that temperature, however, it increases due to bloating. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Fig. 2: Fired Shrinkage Fig.3: Modulus of Rapture Vol 1 (1) 2014 93 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Fig. 4: Water Absorption Fig. 5: Bulk Density Vol 1 (1) 2014 94 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 95 Dielectric Strength The result from dielectric strength tests are shown in figure 6. As seen, the maximum strength is found at 1200-1250˙C firing temperature. All samples show decreasing strength at higher temperatures. At lower temperatures two batches, S-4 and S-5, preserve their strength while the others reduce their strength. Fig. 6: Dielectric Strength Discussion The first demand to fulfill for a ceramic batch mix is the demand of formability. As seen from Table 1, S-3 and S-5, both with the highest content of quartz show low formability. Comparing S-4 and S-5, having the same amount of non plastic constituents (feldspar and quartz), clearly demonstrates the inferior forming properties of quartz-rich batches compared with feldspar [9]. The second demand to fulfill is vitrification. Good vitrification gives high firing shrinkage, high bulk density and low water absorption resulting from the formation of a dense body. Density and porosity changes are a net result of two counteracting actions viz., gas generation, which decreases density and increases porosity and liquid phase formation, which fills the pores and cavities of the body and increases density. In addition, good vitrification reduces flaw size and number of flaws thereby increasing the two most important properties of the final product, modulus of rapture and dielectric strength [10, 11]. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 96 CONCLUSION Quartz is detrimental for formability and must be limited to 25% in the batch composition. Firing at 1225°C gives optimum mechanical and dielectric strength which is connected to optimum vitrification. Firing at higher temperatures results in increased porosity, reduction of quartz and increase in glass phase leading to a reduction of both bending and dielectric strength. A porcelain composition of 30% kaolin, 15% ball clay, 30% feldspar and 25% quartz yielded a body with highest mechanical and dielectric strength at 1225°C. The values of both dielectric strength and modulus of rapture attained make it suitable for use as an electric insulator. References 1. Islam, R. A., Chan, Y.C, and Islam M. F. (2004) “Structure-property relationship in high-tension ceramic insulator fired at high temperature” Materials Science and Engineering B106 pp 132-140. 2. Kirabira, J.B, Jonsson S. and Byaruhanga, J.K (2005). “Powder Characterization of High Temperature Ceramic raw materials in the Lake Victoria Region” Silicate Industries 70[9-10], pp 127-134. 3. Stathis, G., Ekonomakou, A., Stournaras, C.J, and Ftikos, C. (2004) “Effect of firing Conditions, filler grain size and quartz content on bending strength and physical Properties of sanitary ware porcelain” Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24 pp 2357-2366. 4. Norton, F.H. (1970) “Fine Ceramics, Technology and Applications.” McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York. 5. Maity, S. and Sarkar, B.K. (1996) “Development of high-strength whiteware bodies” Journal of the European Ceramic Society 16, pp 1083-1088. 6. Prasad, C.S, Maiti, K.N. and Venugopal R.(2002) “Effect of silica fume addition on the properties of whiteware compositions” Ceramics International 28 pp 9-15. 7. Schroeder, E. J. (1978) “Inexpensive high strength electrical porcelain” Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 57, 526. 8. Papargyris, A. D. and Cooke, R. D (1996). “Structure and mechanical properties of kaolin based ceramics” British Ceramic Transactions, 95[3]. 9. Prasad, C.S, Maiti, K.N. and Venugopal R. (2003) “Effect of substitution of quartz by Rice husk ash and silica fume on the properties of whiteware compositions” Ceramics International 29, pp 907-914. 10. Kobayashi, Y., Ohira, O., Ohashi, Y. and Kato, E. (1987). “Strength and Weibull distribution of alumina strengthened whiteware bodies” Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan, International Edition 95, pp 837-841. 11. Thurnauer, H. (1954) “Dielectric Materials and Applications” (A.R.V. Hippel, Ed.) Ceramics, Chapman & Hall, London CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 97 DISPERSIONS IN AN OPTICAL FIBER 1 2 Kamal Sardana and G.P. Singh 1 Mewar University Chittorgargh Rajasthan 2 Dungar College Bikaner Rajasthan Abstract Copper wire or cables used for transmission of data from one point to other is not at all useful in modern electronics. One of the major problems of consumer electronic branch is spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of cable, called Dispersion. This limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity. We are intended to discuss the problem and their possible solution with special reference to Indian context. The type of optical fiber generally used, various factor affecting performance and possible solution to improve Linear and non linear characteristics. Keyword: Copper wire, Optical fiber INTRODUCTION Copper wires have been used in data transmission since the invention of the telephone in 1876. But as the demand increased, the use of copper wires consistently got reduced due to many reasons such as low bandwidth, short transmission length and inefficiency. Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber optics, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidth (data rates) than other forms of communication. Optical fibers may be connected to each other or can be terminated at the end by means of connectors or splicing techniques. This was the reason for the introduction of optical fiber. Optical fiber played a very important role due to its wide properties like high bandwidth, long distance transmission, and high level of security. The use of optical fiber allow use of carrier frequencies typically ∼ 200 THz. This increases capacity of optical communication systems by a factor of up to 10,000. This increase can be understood by noting that the bandwidth of the modulated carrier can be up to a few percent of the carrier frequency. Taking, for illustration, 1% as the limiting value, optical communication systems have the potential of carrying information at bit rates ∼ 1 Tb/s. It is this enormous potential bandwidth of optical communication systems that is the driving force behind the worldwide development and deployment of light wave systems. Current state-of-the-art systems CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 98 operate at bit rates approx 10 Gb/s, indicating that there is considerable room for improvement. V. FIBER TYPES The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding. Two main relationships exist: Step Index Graded Index The step index fiber has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding. By this classification there are three types of fiber: Multimode Step Index fiber (Step Index fiber) Multimode graded Index fiber (Graded Index fiber) Single- Mode Step Index fiber (Single Mode Fiber). STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER This fiber is called "Step Index" because the refractive index changes abruptly from cladding to core. The cladding has a refractive index somewhat lower than the refractive index of the core glass. As a result, all rays within a certain angle will be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary. Rays striking the boundary at angles greater than the critical angle will be partially reflected and partially transmitted out through the boundary. After many such bounces the energy in these rays will be lost from the fiber. The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step index fiber travel differ, depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a pulse will arrive at the far end of the fiber at different times, resulting in pulse spreading which limits the bit-rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted. High order Mode Dispersion Refractive Index Profile Low Order Mode Multi mode Step Index Input Pulse Output Pulse n1n2 GRADED INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBER This fiber is called graded index because there are many changes in the refractive index with larger values towards the center. As light travels faster in a lower index of refraction. So, the farther the light is from the center axis, the grater is its speed. Each layer of the core refracts the light. Instead of being sharply reflected as it is in a step index fiber, the light is now bent or continuously refracted in an almost sinusoidal pattern. Those rays that follow the longest path by travelling near the outside of the core, have a faster average velocity. The light travelling near the center of the core, has the slowest average velocity. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014 99 As a result all rays tend to reach the end of the fiber at the same time. That causes the end travel time of different rays to be nearly equal, even though they travel different paths. Dispersion Multi mode Graded Index n1n2 The graded index reduces modal dispersing to 1ns/km or less. Graded index fibers have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 m and a cladding diameter of 125 m. The fiber is used in applications requiring a wide bandwidth and low model dispersion. The number of modes in the fiber is about half that of step index fiber having the same diameter. Single mode step index fiber: Another way to reduce modal dispersion is to reduce the core's diameter, until the fiber only propagates one mode efficiently. The single mode fiber has an exceedingly small core diameter of only 5 to 10 m. Standard cladding diameter is 125 m. Since this fiber carries only one mode, model dispersion does not exists. Single mode fibers easily have a potential bandwidth of 50 to 100GHz-km. The core diameter is so small that the splicing technique and measuring technique are more difficult. High sources must have very narrow spectral width and they must be very small and bright in order to permit efficient coupling into the very small core diameter of these fibers. One advantage of single mode fiber is that once they are installed, the system's capacity can be increased as newer, higher capacity transmission system becomes available. This capability saves the high cost of installing a new transmission medium to obtain increased performance and allows cost effective increases from low capacity system to higher capacity system. As the wavelength is increased the fiber carries fewer and fewer modes until only one remains. Single mode operation begins when the wavelength approaches the core diameter. At 1300 nm, the fiber permits only one mode, it becomes a single mode fiber. As optical energy in a single mode fiber travels in the cladding as well as in the core, therefore the cladding must be a more efficient carrier of energy. In a multimode fiber cladding modes are not desirable; a cladding with in efficient transmission characteristic can be tolerated. The diameter of the light appearing at the end of the single mode fiber is larger than the core diameter, because some of the optical energy of the mode travels in the cladding. Mode field diameter is the term used to define this diameter of optical energy. VIII. DISPERSION Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an optical fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fiber. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated. There are three main types of dispersion in a fiber: CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 100 2014 Modal Dispersion. Material dispersion. Waveguide dispersion. Linear Characteristics MODAL DISPERSION Modal dispersion occurs only in Multimode fibers. It arises because rays follow different paths through the fiber and consequently arrive at the other end of the fiber at different times. Mode is a mathematical and physical concept describing the propagation of electromagnetic waves through media. In case of fiber, a mode is simply a path that a light ray can follow in travelling down a fiber. The number of modes supported by a fiber ranges from 1 to over 100,000. Thus a fiber provides a path of travels for one or thousands of light rays depending on its size and properties. Since light reflects at different angles for different paths (or modes), the path lengths of different modes are different. Thus different rays take a shorter or longer time to travel the length of the fiber. The ray that goes straight down the center of the core without reflecting, arrives at the other end first, other rays arrive later. Thus light entering the fiber at the same time exit the other end at different times. The light has spread out in time. The spreading of light is called modal dispersion. Modal dispersion is that type of dispersion that results from the varying modal path lengths in the fiber. Typical modal dispersion figures for the step index fiber are 15 to 30 ns/ km. This means that for light entering a fiber at the same time, the ray following the longest path will arrive at the other end of 1 km long fiber 15 to 30 ns after the ray, following the shortest path. Fifteen to 30 billionths of a second may not seem like much, but dispersion is the main limiting factor on a fiber's bandwidth. Pulse spreading results in a pulse overlapping adjacent pulses as shown in figure. Eventually, the pulses will merge so that one pulse cannot be distinguished from another. The information contained in the pulse is lost Reducing dispersion increases fiber bandwidth. Modal dispersion can be reduced in three ways: Use a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes. Use a graded -index fiber so that light rays that allow longer paths also travel at a faster velocity and thereby arrive at the other end of the fiber at nearly the same time as rays that follow shorter paths. Use a single-mode fiber, which permits no modal dispersion. MATERIAL DISPERSION Different wavelengths also travel at different velocities through a fiber, in the same mode, as n = c/v. where n is index of refraction, c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of the same wavelength in the material. The value of v in the equation changes for each CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 101 2014 wavelength, Thus Index of refraction changes according to the wavelength. Dispersion from this phenomenon is called material dispersion, since it arises from material properties of the fiber. Each wave changes speed differently, each is refracted differently. White light entering the prism contains all colors. The prism refracts the light and its changes speed as it enters the prism. Red light deviates the least and travels the fastest. The violet light deviates the most and travels the slowest. WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION Waveguide dispersion, most significant in a single- mode fiber, occurs because optical energy travels in both the core and cladding, which have slightly different refractive indices. The energy travels at slightly different velocities in the core and cladding because of the slightly different refractive indices of the materials. Altering the internal structures of the fiber, allows waveguide dispersion to be substantially changed, thus changing the specified overall dispersion of the fiber. Non Linear Characteristics Polarization mode dispersion: Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is related to the differential group delay (DGD), the time difference in the group delays between two orthogonal polarized modes, which causes pulse spreading in digital systems and distortions in analogue systems. In ideal circular symmetric fibers, the two polarization modes propagate with the same velocity. However, real fibers cannot be perfectly circular and can undergo local stresses consequently; the propagating light is split into two polarization modes. These two local polarization modes travel at different velocities causing a pulse spreading in digital systems. The so induced DGDs vary randomly along the fiber and in time, leading to a statistical behavior of PMD, both in time and wavelength. At a given time, the DGD values vary randomly with wavelength. The PMD value is the average of the DGD values. While the individual values can shift from one time to another the overall distribution, hence the average is assumed to be fixed. Chromatic dispersion Chromatic dispersion is caused by delay differences among the group velocities of the different wavelengths composing the source spectrum. The consequence of the chromatic dispersion is a broadening of the transmitted impulses. The chromatic dispersion is essentially due to two contributions: material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. The material dispersion occurs because the refractive index changes with the optical frequency. It is generally the dominant contribution, except in the wavelength region in which it vanishes (for silica based material this happens around 1 300 nm). The waveguide dispersion depends on the dispersive properties of the waveguide itself. From a practical point of view, a significant property is that the waveguide dispersion has opposite signs with respect to the material dispersion in the CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 102 2014 wavelength range above 1300 nm. CONCLUSION Fiber optic technology is the new trend in communications industry and is steadily and effectively replacing the old cable system for transmission of signals. Dispersion can be avoided by using smaller core diameters which allows fewer modes. And also usage of single mode fiber permits no modal dispersion. By using a graded index fiber so that light rays that allow longer paths to travel at a faster velocity and there by arrive at the other end of the fiber nearly at the same time. References 1.J. A. Kash, F. E. Doany, C. L. Schow, R. Budd, C. Baks, D. M. Kuchta, P. Pepeljugoski, L. Schares, R. Dangel, F. Horst, B. J. Offrein, C. Tsang, N. Ruiz, C. Patel, R. Hor- ton, F. Libsch, J. U. Knickerbocker, “Terabus: Chip-to- chip board level optical data buses,” in Proc. 21st Annu. Meeting IEEE Lasers Electro-Optics Soc. (LEOS), 2008, Paper WM1, pp. 515516. 2.A. F. Benner, M. Ignatowski, J. A. Kash, D. M. Kuchta, and M. B. Ritter, “Exploitation of optical interconnects in future server architectures,” IBM J. Res. Dev., vol. 49, no. 4/5, pp. 755775, 2005. 3.H. Kogelnik, “On optical communication: Reflections and perspectives,” in Proc. European Conf. Exhibition Optical Communication (ECOC), 2004, Paper Mo1.1.1. 4.S. Abbott, “Review of 20 years of undersea optical fiber transmission system development and deployment since TAT-8,” in Proc. 34th European Conf. Exhibition Optical Communication (ECOC), 2008, Paper Mo.4.E.1. 5.R. E. Wagner, “Fiber-based broadband access technology and deployment,” in Optical Fiber Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. New York: Academic, pp. 401436, 2008. 6.S. K. Korotky, “Network global expectation model: A sta- tistical formalism for quickly quantifying network needs and costs,” J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 703 722, 2004. 7.A. Adamiecki, M. Duelk, and J. H. Sinsky, “25 Gbit/s electrical duobinary transmission over FR-4 backplanes,” Electron. Lett., vol. 41, no. 14, pp. 826827, 2005. 8.P.J. Winzer and R.-J. Essiambre, “Advanced optical modu- lation formats,” in Optical Fiber Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. Academic, pp. 2394, 2008. 9.D. O. Caplan, “Laser communication transmitter and receiver design”, in Free-Space Laser Communications: Prin- ciples and Advances, A. Majumdar and J. Ricklin, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 225362, 2012. 10.J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications. New York: McGraw- Hill, 2011. 11.K. Kikuchi, “Coherent optical communication systems,” in Optical Fiber Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. New York: Academic, pp. 95130, 2008. 12.S. L. Jansen, “Optical OFDM, a hype or is it for real?” in Proc. European Conf. Optical Communication (ECOC), 2008, Paper Mo.3.E.3. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 103 2014 A CERTAIN SUBCLASS OF MEMOMORPHIC CLOSE TO COVEX FUNCTIONS Shashi Kant* and Amit soni P.G. Department of Mathematics, Govt Dungar College, Bikaner 334003 Abstract In this paper, a new subclass MK ( 0 ) of meromorphic close to covex functions defined by means of subordination is investigated. Some results such as inclusion relationships, coefficient inequalities, convolution property, distortion theorem for this class are derived. The results obtained here is extension of earlier known works. Keyword : covex functions, convolution property, distortion theorem INTRODUCTION CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 104 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 105 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 106 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 107 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 108 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 109 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 110 2014 EFFICACY OF EUCALYPTUS (EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS) OIL ON METHANE PRODUCTION AND RUMINAL FERMENTATION (IN VITRO) Taruna Pahuja*, S.K.S. Raghuvansi, Manish Bhati, D.V.S. Shekhawat, R.C. Jakhmola and Prakash Acharya Developmental Biology Lab, P.G. Department of Zoology, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner *Email address: [email protected] Abstract: An experiment was conducted to study the effect of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) oil on methane production and ruminal fermentation (in vitro). Eucalyptus oil has a potential to reduce methane production because it contains tannins, flavonoids and volatile oils. E. globulus decreased total gas production and methane gas concentration (GP; ml/g DM) up to 40.54%, and 56.7%, respectively. Inclusion of E. globulus had drastically decreased true digestibility of dry matter (TDDM; mg/g DM), organic matter (TDOM; mg/g DM) and neutral detergent fibre degradibility (TNDFD; mg/g DM) up to level of 1.0 µl/ml, but did not significantly decrease further at higher levels. The TVFA was almost similar up to level 1.0 µl/ml of E. globulus but at 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level it was reduced significantly (P<0.05). Ammonia nitrogen concentration linearly decreased without significant differences with increasing level of E. globulus. However, protozoa count decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing level of E. globulus. The findings revealed that E. globulus oil could modify the rumen fermentation and has a potential in methane mitigation Key words: Eucalyptus globulus, gas production, methane production and protozoa count. INTRODUCTION Methane is the largest potential contributor to the global warming phenomenon. Enteric methane production from domestic animals is nearly 10% of the total methane emission globally (1). Cattle typically lose 215% of their ingested energy as eructated methane (1) which reduces the potential conversion of feed energy to metabolizable energy. Various feed additives have been used to mitigate methane emission. But in recent years, the forthcoming ban of in-feed antibiotics has driven research activities regarding the potential of plant extracts and oils as alternatives to antibiotics growth promoters. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 111 2014 They are used at lower concentrations to manipulate rumen fermentation (2). Essential oils present in various plant part have in vitro antimethanogenic and antiprotozoal activity (3). The present study was carried out to evaluate the effect of inclusion of Eucalyptus globulus oil on total gas, methane production, degradibilty and rumen fermentation (in vitro). Material and Methods: The experimental diet was prepared by taking sewan (Lasiurus sindicus) as roughage source and concentrate in ratio of 60:40 and was used as substrate for in vitro experiments. The concentrate mixture was composed of maize, groundnut cake (GNC), barley, common salt and mineral mixture. Rumen liquor was collected from four Magra sheep those were maintained on L. sindicus (Sewan)-dominated pasture and each receiving 300 g/d concentrate supplement. The rumen liquor was drawn before feeding using stomach tube. The rumen liquor was transported in insulated flasks under anaerobic conditions to the laboratory. A 0.5g experimental diet (roughage to concentrate ratio 60:40) along with different level of E. globulus and 50ml buffer (inoculums/medium) in each fermentation vessels (patented) were incubated for O 24 h anaerobically at 39 C following method of Menke and Steingass (4). E. globulus oil was added at the levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 μl/ml of incubation medium. The gas production (GP) was measured at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 and 24h interval. The gas production was measured by the displacement of the piston of syringe. A blank was also kept. Methane content in fermentation gas was determined by gas chromatography (GC) using Nucon-5765 gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization detector (FID) and stainless steel column packed with Porapak-Q (length 6';o.d.1/8” i.e. 2 mm; mesh range 80-100). Temperatures were 40, 50 and 500C, in injector oven, column oven and detector respectively and the flow rates of carrier gas (nitrogen), hydrogen and air were 30, 30 and 300 ml/min, respectively. For methane estimation, each gas sample (250μl) was manually injected using Hamilton airtight syringe. Rumen fluid pH was determined immediately after collection using portable digital pH meter (pen type) at the site of collection. After pH determination 1ml of saturated HgCl2 solution was added to each collected sample to kill the microbes and to stop metabolic activity. After fermentation termination, contents of the vessel were filtered through pre-weighed glass crucible. The sub-samples of filtrate were drawn and preserved in deep freeze pending analysis. In vitro degradability was determined (5). The values of Metabolisable Energy (ME) and Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA) of samples were calculated by the equation of ME (MJ kg-1 DM) = 2.20 + 0.136 GP + 0.057 CP + 0.0029 2 -1 CP (4) and SCFA (μmol L ) = 0.0239 GP-0.0601 (6), respectively. CP and XA were crude protein and ash in g/100 g DM and GP was the net gas production (ml/200 mg DM) after 24 h incubation. After termination of incubation, protozoa were counted microscopically (7). Total-nitrogen (Total-N) by kjeldahl method (8), ammonia nitrogen content (9) and total volatile fatty acids (10) were determined in the filtrate. The data were analysed using SPSS version 13.0. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 112 2014 RESULT AND DISCUSSION: Inclusion of increasing level of E. globulus significantly (P<0.05) decreased the total gas production as well as methane gas production (Table 1). The results showed that the increase in concentration of E. globulus resulted in decrease in total GP and methane gas concentration (ml/g DM) up to 40.54%, and 56.7%, respectively. The results of present investigation are in consistent with the earlier reports of Kumar et al. (11), Sallam et al. (12) and Patra and Yu (13). They reported significant decrease in total GP and methane production after inclusion of essential oil specially eucalyptus oil because the essential oils have antimethanogenic agents (14). The characteristic of essential oils to interact with the cell membrane resulting in inhibition of growth of some Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria generated the possibility of exploring some of the essential oils from garlic, hot peppers and clove buds as antimethanogenic agents (14). Eucalyptus leaves have a potential to reduce methane production as well as gas production because it contains tannins, flavonoids and volatile oils. The high degree of unsaturation of E. globulus likely made it toxic to methanogens (15; 12) and resulted in a strong decrease of methane production. Patra (3), Sirohi et al. (16) and Rabah et al. (17) also reported that essential oils supplementation decreased methane production. Wanapat et al. (18) observed that the methane production was decreased due to supplementation of plant oils containing plant secondary metabolites. ME and SCFA production could be predicted from gas values. The results showed that ME (MJ/Kg DM) and SCFA (mMol) were decreased with increasing level of E. globulus. Gas production has indirect relationship with metabolisable energy (19). Gas production is basically the result of fermentation of carbohydrates to acetate, propionate and butyrate (19) and substantial changes in carbohydrates fractions were reflected by total gas produced (20). A shift in the proportion of ME and SCFA will be reflected by changes in gas production. Inclusion of E. globulus had drastically decreased true digestibility of dry matter (TDDM; mg/g DM), organic matter (TDOM; mg/g DM) and neutral detergent fibre degradibility (TNDFD; mg/g DM) up to level of 1.0 µl/ml, but did not significantly decrease further at higher levels (Table 1). The reduction in digestibility might be due to antibacterial effect of essential oils or vegetable oils on ruminal micro flora as observed by Oh et al. (21). Similarly the digestibility of feed reduced significantly up to 1.0 µl/ml level, thereafter no further decrease was observed with increasing dose of eucalyptus oil (11) and peppermint oil (22). Kouazounde et al. (23) also observed decrease in digestibility due to essential oils. The total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) was almost similar up to level 1.0 µl/ml of E. globulus but at 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level it was reduced significantly (P<0.05) (Table 1). Then it again increased at 2.0 µl/ml. The VFA are the end products of rumen microbial fermentation and represent the main supply of metabolizable energy for ruminants.Therefore, an increase in their production would be nutritionally favorable CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 113 2014 for the animal (24). Kongmun et al. (25) also reported that TVFA concentration was increased with increasing level of coconut oil. pH increased significantly (P<0.05) up to 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level of E. globulus then it decreased at 2.0 µl/ml inclusion level. The observed increase in pH reflected the lower concentration of VFA. As pH decreases, acids tend to become undissociated and more hydrophobic, thereby interacting more easily with cell membranes and exerting their antimicrobial effect. Furthermore, bacteria seem to be more susceptible to the effects of essential oils at low pH (26). In this study, the pH of in vitro rumen fluid varied from 6.45 to 6.68 which were within the normal range of rumen pH (6.45-7.00) (27). Rabah et al. (17) also reported increase pH values with higher inclusion levels of essential oils. Ammonia nitrogen concentration linearly decreased without significant differences with increasing level of E. globulus. The total nitrogen concentration significantly (P<0.05) increased after inclusion of E. globulus. Similar result was also reported by Sallam et al. (12) and Rabah et al. (17) with inclusion of E. globulus oil. The addition of E. globulus depressed protozoa count significantly (P<0.05) (Table 1). Inclusion of E. globulus decreased protozoa count up to 86.02%. Kumar et al. (11) and Patra and Yu (13) were found similar results on protozoa count with the addition of eucalyptus oil. Decrease methane production is usually accompanied by a reduction in the number of protozoa resulting from the increased oil concentration. Close association of methanogenic bacteria with protozoa population might have adversely affected methanogenic archaea which resulted in decreased methane production. Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that E. globulus (at 2µl/ml level) have a potential to manipulate rumen fermentation favourably with antimethanogenic and antiprotozoal properties. Acknowledgments: This work was supported by National Fund for Basic and Strategic Research in Agriculture (NFBSRA) and Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute. References: 1.R.C. Jakhmola, Taruna Pahuja and S.K.S. Raghuvansi, Indian J. Small Ruminants, 16(1), 2010, 1-17. 2.N. S. Manh, M. Wanapat, S. Uriyapongson, P. Khejornsart and V. Chanthakhoun, African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(13), 2012, 1997-2003. 3.A.K. Patra, Asian Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 6(5), 2011, 416-428. 4.K.H. Menke and H. Steingass, Anim. Res. Dev., 28, 1988, 7-55. 5.J.M.A. Tilley and R.A. Terry, Journal of British Grassland Society, 18, 1963, 104. 6.G. Getachew, H.P.S. Makkar and K. Becker, EAAP satellite symposium.1999. 7. R.C. Jakhmola, S.K.S. Raghuvansi and Taruna Pahuja, Indian J. Small Ruminants, 18(1), 2012, 69 - 74. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) th Vol 1 (1) 114 2014 8.AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis. (16 Edn. Vol. I ), 1995. 9.A.L. Chaney and E.P. Marbach, Clinical Chemistry, 8, 1962, 130-133. 10. A.J.G. Barnett and R.L. Reid, Journal Agric. Sci., 48, 1957. 315. 11.R. Kumar, D.N. Kamra, Neeta Agarwal and L.C. Chaudhary, Anim. Nutrition Feed Techn., 9, 2009, 237-243. 12.S.M.A. Sallam, I.C.S. Bueno, P. Brigide, P.B. Godoy, D.M.S.S. Vitti and A.L. Abdalla, Options Mediterraneenes, 85, 2009, 267-272. 13.A.K. Patra and Z Yu, J. dairy science, 96(3), 2013, 1782-92. 14.S. Calsamiglia, M. Busquet, P.W. Cardozo, L. Castillejos and A. Ferret, J. Dairy Sci., 90, 2007, 2580-2595. 15. R.A. Prins, C.J. van Nevel and D.J. Demeyer, Ant. Van Leeuwen, 38, 1972, 281287. 16. S.K. Sirohi, Manu Mehta, Navneet Goel and Poonam Pandey, J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour., 2(1), 2012, 73-80. 17. A. Rabah, K. Karima, L. Nassima, Hakim, H. Belaidi, H. Besma and B. Hacene, African J. of environmental sci and techn., 7(4), 2013, 140-144. 18. M. Wanapat, P. Kongmun, O. Poungchompu, A. Cherdthong, P. Khejomsart, R. Pilajun and S. Kaenpakdee, Tropical Animal health and production, 44(3), 2012, 399405. 19. A. Akinfemi, A.O. Adesanya and V.E. Aya, American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research, 4 (4), 2009, 240-245. 20. M. Coelho, F.G. Hembry, F.E Barton and A.M. Saxton, Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol., 20, 1998, 219. 21. H. K. Oh, T. Sakai, M. B. Jones and W. M. Longhurst, Appl. Microbiol., 15, 1967, 777784. 22. N. Agarwal, C. Shekhar, R. Kumar, L.C. Chaudhary and D.N. Kamra, Animal Feed Science and Technology, 148, 2009, 321-327. 23. J.B. Kouazounde, L. Jin, F.M. Assogba, M.A. Ayedoun, Y. Wang, K.A. Beauchemin, T.A. McAllister and J.D. Gbenou, J. of the Science of food and agric., 1, 2014, 13. 24. M. Busquet, S. Calsamiglia, A. Ferret and C. Kamel, J. Dairy Sci., 89, 2006, 761771. 25. P. Kongmun, M. Wanapat, P. Pakdee and C. Navanukraw, Livestock Sci., 127, 2010, 3844. 26. P.N. Skandamis and G. J. Nychas, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66, 2000, 16461653. 27. I.A. Mir, R. Kumar, R.K. Sharma and K. Barman, Indian Journal of Veterinary Research, 19(1), 2010, 13-18. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 115 2014 Table 1: Effect of adding various levels of Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus) oil on total gas production, methane production, degradability and rumen parameters (in vitro). Parameters Gas production (ml/g DM) CH4 production (ml/g DM) CH4% ME (MJ/Kg DM) SCFA (mmol) TDDM (mg/g DM) TDOM (mg/g DM) TNDFD (mg/g DM) Rumen Parameters TVFA (mmol/ dl) pH Ammonia nitrogen (mg/dl) Total nitrogen (mg/dl) Protozoa (105/dl) abcde 0 0.5 1 148.01a 141.34ab 134.67b 1.5 99.01c 2 88.01d 3.026 p value 0.000 121.67a 111.17 b 97.67c 63.83d 52.67e 0.279 0.000 27.37a 7.60a 0.650a 723.07a 645.43a 523.03a 26.07b 7.40ab 0.613ab 657.60b 580.43b 410.27b 24.07c 21.43d 19.87e 7.23b 6.27c 5.97d b c 0.583 0.413 0.360d c c 591.53 590.73 583.47c 515.17c 511.70 c 503.27c 295.10c 296.47c 282.57c 0.041 0.077 0.015 5.403 4.656 9.312 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 7.33a 6.47d 29.27a 6.33ab 6.58c 29.16a 7.33a 6.61bc 28.94a 4.33c 6.68a 28.27a 5.67b 6.64b 26.17b 0.333 0.012 0.469 0.000 0.000 0.005 44.57b 36.40c 46.43b 44.57b 49.47a 0.731 0.000 198.90a 154.07b 37.07c 32.20d 27.80e 1.334 0.000 Eucalyptus oil (μl/ml incubation medium) SEM Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P<0.05). CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 116 2014 ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MILK SAMPLES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS 1 2 2 2 2* N. Khiwani , M.Soni , K. Solanki , Rama Gupta and N. Bhojak 1 P.G. Deptt of Chem., Subodh P.G. College, Jaipur 2 Green Chemistry Research Centre, P.G. Department of Chemistry, Govt. Dungar College (A-Grade), University of Bikaner, Bikaner 334003. Abstract Biologically milk is the normal secretion of mammary glands, dieticians considered it as a complete food. Milk is considered as the most valuable and nutritious product for the human consumption. It is the best nutrient medium for the growth of various organisms from microbes to large animals. Among these, the most important in dairying are bacteria, mould, yeast and virus. In the present paper antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e. buffalo milk , camel milk, cow milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk have been carried out on staphylococcus aureus. Milk samples were subjected for various treatments. Comparable studies between direct milk, ordinary solution of milk and micellar solutions of milk have been carried out. Micellar system of milk shows highest antibacterial activity as compared to other treatments. Keywords : Antibacterial activity, Milk, Staphylococcus aureus. INTRODUCTION Biologically milk is the normal secretion of mammary glands, dieticians considered it as a complete food and also considered as a mine of nutritive chemicals. Milk is considered as the most valuable and nutritious product for the human consumption. It is the best nutrient medium for the growth of various organisms from microbes to large animals. Nearly all the changes which take place in the flavour and appearance of milk, after it is drawn, are the result of the activities of micro-organisms. Among these, the most important in dairying are bacteria, mould, yeast and virus. In the dairy industry considerable effort is expended in controlling micro-organisms which cause spoilage. The greater the bacterial count in milk, i.e. the greater the number of bacteria per ml of milk, the lower is its bacteriological quality. Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular fungi (plants without chlorophyll) which occur principally in the form of spherical, cylindrical or spiral cells and which reproduce by transverse fission. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 117 2014 In milk and its products, the spherical and cylindrical forms are predominant. Bacteria are found in large numbers in the soil, sewage, decaying plants or animals; and are also present in air, water etc. Under favourable conditions, bacteria multiply very rapidly and may double their number in 15 minutes or less. There are many sources of micro-organisms in milk. Unless the producing animal is clean and her flanks, udder, and teats given special sanitary care just before milking, her body can be a source of considerable contamination. The probability of diseases of the udder contaminating the milk is very high. Mastitis is a disease of the mammary tissues. Mastitis results from infections by Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus, Escherichia coli etc and mycobacterium. The sanitary condition of hands and clothing and the personal habits of employees must always be suspected as potential sources of contamination. Utensils and equipments are known to be the source of the greatest proportion of the microflora contaminating milk. Contaminated air may carry micro-organisms directly to the milk or milk product, or to other elements of the environment such as equipment, making them sources of direct contamination of the product (1-6). Dried dirt and filth is picked up by air movements and carried about as dust in the atmosphere. For this reason, dust may be the source of almost every kind of contamination imaginable. Dust should not be allowed to enter the milking area, the collecting or chilling station, or the dairy- processing plant where it might settle on equipment or products. Dust and dirt must not be permitted to enter the dairy water supply. Water supplies need special care or treatment to assure a quality suitable for cleaning and processing operation in a dairy or food processing plant. Two groups of microbiological contaminants may be found in water intended for use in a dairy: those which are pathogenic and those which, although non-pathogenic, actually damage product quality. While suffering an active or latent infection, the human and animal body eliminates the causative organisms in faeces, urine, and/or nasal and oral discharges. Such contaminants find their way into surface and ground water supplies. The contaminants brush off from the body surface or clothing into the water, they are picked up by direct contact of the water with body surfaces, especially the hands, or they are carried by surface water as it percolates through the soil to become ground water. Samples of tap water, for ex- were recently found to contain Pseudomonas fluorescens. Aerobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli and species of Achromobacter, Micrococcus and Bacillus (7-8). MATERIALS AND METHOD In order to investigate the antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e. buffalo milk, camel milk, cow milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk following sample solutions were prepared for each case: CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 118 2014 A. Direct milk : Fresh milk which was collected immediately from the animal and investigated with in half an hour. B. Pasteurised direct milk : Fresh milk used after pasteurization. C. Boiled direct milk : Fresh milk used after just boiled. D. Ordinary solution of milk : One drop of direct milk was diluted upto 10 ml with distilled water and immediately used for antibacterial activity. E. Pasteurised ordinary solution : Ordinary solution used after pasteurisation. F. Boiled ordinary solution : Ordinary solution used after just boiled. G. Micellar solution of milk : One drop of direct milk was diluted upto 10 ml with 1% Triton- X- 100 and immediately used for antibacterial activity. H. Pasteurised micellar solution : Micellar solution used after pasteurisation. I. Boiled Micellar solution : Micellar solution used after just boiled. Antimicrobial activity of various samples of milk have been evaluated by disc diffusion method and Agar gel well method. Disc Diffusion Method: A saturated solution of Nutrient agar was prepared in double distilled water and it was autoclaved for 15 min, than poured in petriplates in the laminar. After its solidification loan of bacteria (i.e Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) against which antimicrobial activity is to be investigated was applied. A separate paper disc was soaked in each solution for 10 minutes. Thus prepared paper disc was placed into petriplate and finally prepared petriplates were kept in incubator at 37oC for 24 hour. After 24 hour, petriplates were removed and checked for measuring zone of inhibition in mm. Agar gel well method:In this method the Nutrient Agar (NA) petriplates were prepared with a height of 5 mm. The organism from broth was spread on NA plates (for the preparation of bacterial lawn) with the help of sterilized swab. In these agar plates the cups of 6mm diameter were dug out with the help of cork borer and the agar was soaked out. The base of cup was sealed with 3% molten agar with the help of capillary tubes. 0 Load the cup with specific sample to be tested. Incubate the plates at 37 C for 24 hrs. Observe the area surrounding each cup which shows the zone of inhibition in mm. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e. buffalo milk, camel milk, cow milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk have been carried out on Staphylococcus aureus. The results of antibacterial activity have given in fig 1. Reasons for the antibacterial activity in milk has not been specified and verified, however one of the probable reason is the presence of different metal ions in milk (8). In order to get correct informations about antibacterial activity of buffalo milk, it was subjected for various treatments and each type of treated milk was tested for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Miceller system of camel milk show highest antibacterial activity as compared to other milk. CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 119 2014 Increase in micellar system provides an evidence in support of metal ions in milk. The investigations using micellar systems for biological activity of milk samples have been reported first time. Acknowledgment Authors are thankful to UGC for financial assistance. References 1.Gupta L.K. and Vyas S..R., Studies on production of diacetyl., Indian J. Dairy Sci., 23, 193 (1970) 2.Marconi E. and Panfili G., Chemical Composition and Nutritional Properties of Commercial Products of Mare Milk Powder., Journal of Food Composition and Analysis., 11(2), 178-187 (1998) 3.Maxcy R.B., Nature and cause of yellow film occurring on dairy equipment., Indian J. Dairy Sci., 56, 164 (1973) 4.Ogra J. L. and Rao Y. S., Studies on clean milk production. I. Role of clean equipment on the bacteriological quality of milk under farm and village condition., Indian J. Dairy Sci., 24, 54 (1971) 5.Rakshy S. E. S. E., Sohir A. R. and Sirry I., The effect of the microbial content of dairy plant water supply on the quality of butter., Indian J. Dairy Sci., 24, 157 (1971) 6.Subrahmanyan V., Chandrasekhara M. R. and Swaminathan M., Buffalo milkIts nutritive value and use in infant feeding., Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 25(5), 173-183 (2008) 7.Tiwari N. P. and Singh I. P., Survival of pathogens in dahi. I. Contamination of milk before the preparation of dahi., Indian J. Dairy Sci., 17, 97 (1964) 8. Garg B.S. , Sharma R.K. ,Bhojak. N. ,Bist J.S. Bist and Mittal S., Separation and preconcentration of metal ions and their estimations in vitamins, steel and in milk samples using o-vanillin immobilized silica, Talanta 48, 49 (1999). 0 2 4 14 m m n i 12 e n o 10 z n o it i 8 b i h n I 6 16 18 20 Direct milk Pasteurized direct milk Boiled direct milk Pasteurized O.S. Boiled O.S. Micellar solution pasteurized M.S. (M.S.) of milk Boiled M.S. Soya milk Cow milk Camel milk Buffalo milk CROSS-SECTIONS Various treatments Ordinary solution (O.S.) of milk Fig : 1 Antibacterial activity of various milk samples against Staphylococcus aureus (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 120 2014 CROSS-SECTIONS (Multidisciplinary International Research Journal) Vol 1 (1) 2014
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