ISSN Applied
CROSS-SECTIONS
(Multidisciplinary International Research Journal)
Vol 1 (1) Quarterly August 2014
ISSN Applied
CROSS-SECTIONS
(Multidisciplinary International Research Journal)
Patron
Dr. Krishna Rathore Tomar
Editorial board
Dr. Ravindra Mangal - Editor in Chief
Dr. D.V. Singh
Dr. S.C. Sharma
Dr. Indersingh Rajpurohit
Dr. Ujjawal Goswami
Dr. Rajesh Bhakar
Dr. Deepak Sharma
Dr. N. Bhojak - Managing Editor
Reviewer Board
Physics - Dr. G.P. Singh
Chemistry - Dr. R.P. Mathur
Zoology - Dr. Meera Srivastava
Botany - Dr. M.C. Mali
Mathematics - Dr. Shashi Kant
Geology - Dr. Satish Kaushik
Geography - Dr. P.S. Shekhawat
English - Dr. Divya Joshi
Hindi - Dr. Shalini Moolchandani
Sanskrit - Dr. Nandita Singhavi
Rajasthani - Dr. Prakash Amrawat
Urdu - Dr. Moinudin
Economics - Dr. N. K. Vyas
Drawing & Painting - Dr. Satish Gupta
History - Dr. C. Kachhawa
Public Administration - Dr. B.S. Rathore
Sociology - Dr. R. K. Saxena
Political Science - Dr. Narendra Nath
Philosophy - Dr. Raj Narayan Vyas
Commerce - Dr. K.K. Sharma
Volume 1 (1)
August
2014
Address for correspondence
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Research Journal)
Government Dungar College
Sagar Road, Bikaner (Raj) 334001
015102528047 FAX-01512528036
Email [email protected] ;
[email protected]
Website
www.dungarcollege.ac.in
Owner - Principal,
Govt Dungar College
Editor in Chief and Printer Dr. Ravindra Mangal
Published and Printed (online) at
Govt Dungar College Bikaner
Publisher & Managing Editor
- Dr. N. Bhojak
All matter, ideas, contents and data
presented in the journal are of the authors.
Editorial board may not be agree with it.
Jurisdiction area for any dispute will be
Bikaner only.
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CONTENTS
S.N.
Title
Authors
1
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS
GIGANTEA (SAFAD AAK) FIBER
REINFORCED PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE
COMPOSITES
ACOUSTICS AND AESTHETICS: MUSLIM
IMPACT ON INDIAN MUSICAL TR ADITION
WITH REFERENCE TO FILM MUSIC
COMPLEXATION BEHAVIOR OF SOME
ANTIOXIDANT FLAVONOIDS (PLANT
PIGMENTS) TOWARDS Pr (III) & Nd (III)
RARE-EARTH METAL-IONS.
SIMULATION MODELING IN HEAVY ION
COLLISIONS
A STUDY ON CERTAIN R UMEN FLUID
PARAMETERS OF CAMEL CAMELUS
DROMEDARIUS MAINTAINED ON DIFFERENT
DIETS
AN OVERVIEW ON THE BAP BOULDER BED
Navneeta Dey,
R.Mangal, G.P Singh
and N.Bhojak
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF WATER
HARVESTING IN ARID REGION: A
GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF BIKANER TEHSIL
(RAJASTHAN)
UTILIZATION OF HUMAN HAIR WASTE AS
SUBSTRATE AMENDMENT IN POT
CULTIVATION OF OKRA (ABELMOSCHUS
ESCULENTUS) PLANT
OPTIMIZATION OF MECHANICAL AND
DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF BIKANER
MINERALS FOR HIGH-STRENGTH
ELECTRICAL PORCELAIN
DISPERSIONS IN AN OPTICAL FIBER
Page
No
5
Divya Joshi
14
R.P. Mathur, Geetanjali
Godara
and Kirti Mathur
33
Abhilasha Saini and Dr.
Sudhir Bhardwaj
Rakesh Poonia, Suchitra
Sena and Meera
Srivastava
42
Karanveer S. Rajvi and
Shishir Sharma
Jai Bharat Singh
62
Suruchi Gupta and
Anshumala Sharma
80
S.K.Tak and R.Mangal
89
Kamal Sardana and G.P.
Singh
Shashi Kant
and Amit soni
97
Taruna Pahuja, S.K.S.
Raghuvansi, Manish
Bhati, D.V.S.
Shekhawat,
R.C. Jakhmola and
Prakash Acharya
110
11
A CERTAIN SUBCLASS OF MEMOMORPHIC
CLOSE TO COVEX FUNCTIONS
12
EFFICACY OF EUCALYPTUS ( EUCALYPTUS
GLOBULUS) OIL ON METHANE PRODUCTION
AND RUMINAL FERMENTATION ( IN VITRO)
13
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MILK SAMPLES N. Khiwani, M.Soni, K.
UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
Solanki, Rama Gupta
and N. Bhojak
52
70
103
116
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From Editor's Desk
We are in the era of energy demand
a n d e l e c t r i c i t y d e f i c i e n c y. T h e
consumption of electricity is being
increased throughout the world and it will
further increase as the process of
development continues. The common
reasons for scarcity in the electricity are
poor management, lack of awareness to
stop the wastage and unnecessary use of
electricity. But another major reason is
related with the production i.e. lesser utilization of non conventional sources of
energy. Later requires the appropriate technology for which fundamental
research in science is essential. Former requires a strong awareness campaign
among intellectuals. To fulfil the need of society, there is a requirement of
common platform where scientists, social scientists, historians, management
researchers and intellectuals from languages can contribute, discuss, suggest
critically for the positive development.
Keeping these facts in mind idea of "Cross-Sections" has been
encapsulated. For the benefit and need of developing society, this will able to
generate issues of common interest, will provide a platform to students and
researches where they can not only contribute for the development of their area of
specialization but they can also peep in other subjects or subject of their interest.
They can utilize their expertise intellectual ability for the development of another
area or vice versa.
"Cross-Sections" is being started from the city of Kapil Muni whose
thoughts were parallel to the modern space science, this city termed as Chhoti
Kashi is also an active site for mythological research. We will try to
accommodate research papers from all areas to prove it truly multifaculty and
interdisciplinary journal. We will also try to publish some theme based issues,
where interest of all subjects may be focused on one topic and researchers from
different areas may contribute for one common cause such as electrical problem,
utilization of non conventional sources of energy like Solar energy etc to fulfil the
need of society. For this a motivating force is required from our researchers,
contributors and readers throughout the globe.
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF Calptropis gigantea
(SAFAD AAK) FIBER REINFORCED PHENOL
FORMALDEHYDE COMPOSITES
Navneeta Dey*1, R.Mangal1, G.P Singh1 and N.Bhojak2
1
Condensed Matter Physics Lab, Dunger College Bikaner
2
GCRC, Dunger College Bikaner
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Thermal properties such as effective thermal conductivity (λ) and effective
thermal diffusivity (κ) of Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) fiber reinforced phenol
formaldehyde (PF) composite have been studied by Transient Plane Source (TPS)
technique. Here the samples of different weight percentage of fiber (5, 10, 15, 20 &
25%) have been studied. It is found that effective thermal conductivity of composite
decreases, as compared to pure phenol formaldehyde, as the percentage of fiber
increase in composite. Thermal conductivity of pure fiber is determine using Y.Agari
model and has been compared with extrapolated experimental value of composite.
Good agreement between the experimental result of thermal conductivity of
composites and theoretical results (obtained from two models Rayleigh-Maxwell
and Meredith-Tobias model) has been found.
Key Words: Fiber reinforced composites, Transient Plane Source techniques,
Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity
INTRODUCTION
Natural fiber reinforced composite have received much attention due to their
distinct advantages such as renewable sources, biodegradability, high filling effect and
cost effective along with the possibility of tailoring their physical properties according
to our specific need (1-5). So scientists and engineers in all part of world are looking for
the inclusion of natural fiber over the synthetic fiber in polymer matrix to form new
composite along with enormous new possibilities (6-8).
Due to easy availability of Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) in western
Rajasthan; our present study is aimed to observe the variation in thermal properties by
reinforcing varying volume fraction of Safad Aak fiber in phenol formaldehyde (PF)
matrix at room temperature and normal pressure using transient plane source (TPS)
technique (10).
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MATERIAL PREPARATION
Calotropis gigantea (Safad Aak) fibers reinforced phenol formaldehyde (PF)
composites were prepared by hand layup technique followed by compression
moulding. After removing the pithy material of Safad Aak stem by retting process,
fibers were extracted and chopped to desired length of 1mm to 4mm approx and
randomly oriented mats were prepared. Composites having weight percentage of 5, 10,
15, 20 and 25% have been prepared.
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
Transient plane source technique has been used for the simultaneous measurements of
thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat of all the composites at room
temperature and normal pressure. The sample size used for the study is of average
diameter 2 cm. Thickness of the samples is approximately 0.25 cm to 0.5 cm.
Fig.1
The TPS technique has proven to be a precise and convenient method for measuring the
thermal transport properties of electrically insulating materials. The TPS method
consists of an electrically conducting pattern (Fig. 1) in the form of a double spiral,
which also serves as a sensor of the temperature increase in the sample and heat source.
In figure 1, K-4521 is the design no. of the sensor and K stands for kapton. The sensor is
sandwiched between the thin insulating layers of kapton. A constant electric power is
supplied to the sensor and increase in temperature is recorded from variation of sensor
resistance which is related to desired parameter as follows.
Assuming the conductive pattern to be in the Y-Z plane of a co-ordinate system,
the rise in the temperature at a point Y-Z at time t due to an output power per unit area Q
is given by (9)
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Where ρ is the density of composite, "c" is the specific heat and κ is the thermal
diffusivity.
If one of the integration variables in equation (1) is transformed by assuming
κ(t-t') = σ2 a2 equation (1) can be written as
2 1/2
Where κ =λ/ρc, τ = (tκ/a ) , "a" is the diameter of the hot disc which gives a
measurement of the overall size of resistive pattern, σ is a constant variable and λ is the
thermal conductivity in the units of W/mK.
For our experimental work the approximate solution of equation (2) assuming
that the disc consist of certain (m) number of concentric ring source, the average
increase in temperature
Where
Where L is the modified Bessel function and P is the total output power. This
increase in temperature ΔT(τ) changes electrical resistance ΔR(t) which disturbs the
balance of the bridge in the circuit. Transient calculations are done using a computer
program. Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat of all the samples
have been measured using the TPS method (10), which are reproducible within
2
2.5%.
MODELS USED
The thermal conductivity of Safad Aak fiber has been calculated using Y.Agari
model (11-13). According to this model the logarithm of thermal conductivity of the
composite and the volume percentage of the fiber in it are linearly proportional as
Log λ = A V + B
(5)
Where A = Cf log [λf/(CP . λm)]; B = log (CP . λm)
Here λf and λm are the thermal conductivity of fiber and matrix respectively. Cf
and CP are constants and V is the volume percentage of fiber in the composite. The
thermal conductivity of fiber and pure matrix has been obtained by extrapolating the
experiments value i.e. plotting a graph between volume fraction of fiber and log of
thermal conductivity, therefore using eq. (5) evaluating thermal conductivities at zero
volume fraction of fiber (i.e. thermal conductivity of matrix) and at one volume fraction
0
O
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of fiber (i.e. thermal conductivity of fiber).
The effective thermal conductivity of two-phase composite has been explored
by using two different theoretical approaches. In the first approach, we used Rayleigh
and Maxwell (14-15) model, for effective thermal conductivity (λeR) of a composite, for
a two-phase dispersion of spherical particle in the continuous medium is given as
(6)
V is the percentage of the filler in the composite and λf is the thermal conductivity of the
fiber and λm is the thermal conductivity of the matrix.
According to Meredith and Tobias (16) effective thermal conductivity (λeM) of
two-phase materials can be calculated by the following expression
(7)
Where A = (2+K)/(1-K); B = (6+3K)/(4+3K); C=(3-3K)/(4+3K) and K = λf/λm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The volume percentage of fibre or volume fraction of fibre V has been
determined using the formula
w1ρm
V = --------------(8)
w1ρm + w2ρf
Where w1 and w2 are the weight percentage of fiber and matrix and ρf and ρm are the
densities of fiber and matrix respectively, as given in table (1).
Fig. 2 shows that as the volume fraction of Safad Aak fiber increases the thermal
conductivity of the composite decreases. This behavior is also explained using Y.Agari
model, plotting graph between logarithmic of experimental values of thermal
conductivity of composite and volume fraction of fiber V, and obtaining a straight line
(fig.3). Thermal Conductivity of PF matrix has been calculated using this model and
found to be 0.377W/mK, which has also been obtained by extrapolation of
experimental value and found to be 0.371W/mK.
Fig.2 and 3 also shows that as we go on increasing the fiber contents in the
composite the thermal conductivity goes on decreasing, these thermal conductivity
values of composites remain in between the values of phenol formaldehyde and Safad
Aak fiber. This behavior seems to be justified as the fiber fillers in the PF matrix have
lower thermal conductivity, thus the effective thermal conductivity of composite
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becomes less and compared with the thermal conductivity of PF matrix. Effective
thermal conductivity of composite obtained using models and through experiment is
given in Table 2. Here we have used Rayleigh-Maxwell model and Meredith-Tobias
model.
Table 1: Volume fraction of fiber at different weight fraction
Weight frac. of
fiber
Volume frac. of
fiber V
Volume frac. of
Matrix
0.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
1.00
0.0
0.033
0.067
0.102
0.138
0.18
1.00
1.00
0.967
0.933
0.898
0.862
0.82
0.00
Density of
Composite in
gm/cc
1.323
1.359
1.396
1.432
1.468
1.505
2.05
Table 2: Experimental and theoretical model results of thermal conductivity,
thermal diffusivity and specific heat
Volume
frac. of
fiber V
0.033
0.067
0.102
0.138
0.180
Thermal
Thermal
Thermal
conductivity conductivity conductivity
λe (w/mk)
λeR (w/mk)
λeM (w/mk)
0.360
0.356
0.356
0.347
0.341
0.341
0.332
0.326
0.327
0.32
0.312
0.311
0.300
0.294
0.294
Thermal
diffusivity
κe (wm2/s)
0.180
0.162
0.154
0.137
0.121
Specific
heat Cp
(MJ/m3k)
1.966
2.09
2.21
2.30
2.42
The observed deviation in the values obtained from Rayleigh-Maxwell model may be
due to the fact that in this model shape of the filler is considered to be spherical, where as
in our composite fibers have cylindrical shape. Model of Meredith-Tobias does not
consider the size and shape of the filler particles. Table 2, shows close agreement
between the values of Thermal conductivity obtained from both the models and
experimentally measured values (fig.4). Fig.5 shows the variation in thermal diffusivity
with volume fraction of fiber V, which is found of similar trend as obtained in the case of
thermal conductivity. Similarly fig.6 shows the dependence of specific heat on volume
fraction of fiber, specific heat values show a weak dependence but increasing trend with
volume fraction of fiber.
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Fig.2
Fig.3
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Fig.4
Fig.5
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Fig.6
CONCLUSIONS
Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of Safad Aak fiber reinforced
phenol formaldehyde composite decreases as we go on increasing fiber percentage in
the matrix, thus, enhancing thermal insulation and heat resistive property of this
composite, which may be due to the fact that increase in fiber concentration in the
composite help in increasing the phonon scattering in it, thus forming a loose structure.
Fiber concentration does not provide the conductive path to the heat energy in the
composite for better thermal insulation.
REFERENCES
1.
Cheng SC& RI Vachon, Int J Heat MASS transfer, 12(1969)249
2.
Budiansky B, J Comp Mat, 14(1980)120.
3.
Nomura S&T W Chou, J Comp Mat, 14(1980)120.
4.
Ma Chen-Chi M, Tseng Man-Thing et al., J Appl Polym Sci, 68(1998)1119.
5.
M. S. Sreekala, Journal of Applied Poly. Science 66 (1997) 821-835
6.
Stephen G K, John A H & Phillip A W, J Appl Polym Sci, 67(1998)349.
7.
Bishop G R& Sheard P A, Compos Struct, 21(1992)85.
8.
Vinson R Jack & Chou Tsu-Wei, Composite materials and their
uses in structures, (Applied Science Publishing Ltd, London), Chap. 2, 1975,
p.35-46.
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
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Carslaw H S, Jaeger J C, Conduction of heat in solids, (Oxford University
Press).1950, p. 510-514.
Gustafson S E, Rev Sci instrum, 62 (1991) 797.
Agari Y, Ueda A et al., J appl Polym Sci, 49 (1993) 1625.
Agari Y&Tanaka M, J Appl Polym Sci, 34 (1987) 1429.
Agari Y&Uno T, J Appl Polym Sci, 32 (l986) 5705.
Rayleight L, Philos Mag, 34 (l 892) 481.
Maxwell J C.A treatise on electricity and magnetism, 3rd edition, (Oxford
University Press), 1904, p. 435-440.
Meredith R E&Tobias C W, J Appl Phys, 31 (1960) 1270.
R.Mangal, GP Singh, NS Saxena, S. Thomas and M.S. Sareekala;
Crystallization kinetics of pineaple leaf fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde
composites IJPAP Volm. 41 June 2003 pp 470-473
G.P. Singh, R. Mangal, N. Bhojak, N.S. Saxena and Manasui Dixit; Thermal
properties of capparis deciduas fiber reinforced phenol formaldehyde composites
R. Mangal, N.S. Saxena, M.S. Sreekala, S. Thomas and Kadar Singh; Thermal
properties of pineapple leaf fiber reinforced composites, Material Science and
Engineering, A 339 (2003), p.281-285.
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ACOUSTICS AND AESTHETICS: MUSLIM IMPACT ON
INDIAN MUSICAL TRADITION WITH REFERENCE TO FILM
MUSIC
Dr. Divya Joshi
P.G. Department of English,
Govt. Dungar College Bikaner 334003.
Abstract:
This paper focuses on an ethno-musicological approach towards the musical
tradition in India. It attempts to explore the impact and contribution of Muslims and
Muslim culture on Indian classical music .The first part of the paper traces the basic
underlying principles of Indian Classical music and the various styles and forms of
vocal performances, with particular emphasis on Khayal, Thumri, Ghazal, Qawwali
and Sufi music. It also discusses the novelization, modifications and extensions done
under the Muslim impact. The second part explores the heterogeneous nature of
Indian cinema, the place of music in cinema and exploitation and exploration of art
music in the hands of cinema.
Key Words: Culture, Music, Aesthetic experience and unity, Muslim influence.
Music is a personal expression yet social and public in bringing people together
under the sway of a common emotion more effectively than other art forms. In its
temporal aspect, music has two chief characteristics, rhythm and melody. In our music
these are inseparable; yet they can be separated for the purposes of analysis; and a
rhythmical roll of drumbeats or a spontaneous succession of tones harmonically related
proves that each may produce an aesthetic effect without the other. Melody depends on
a definite scale and on certain relations between the tones of the scale. These relations
illustrate three modes of aesthetic unity. First, there is harmony. Tones are harmonically
related when they belong to the leading chords of the key. The tones of such chords,
when sounded together, are consonant. Harmony, which is an aesthetic feeling,
although not identical with consonance, (which is a purely sensory relation between
tones) depends nevertheless upon consonance. Consonant tones have identical partial
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tones and are caused by vibration rates that stand in relation to one another in simple
ratios. The second of the tonal relations upon which melody depends is contrast. First,
there is the contrast between the high and the low; even when notes are harmonically
related, as a note and its fifth, they are in contrast, in so far as the one is measurably
higher and more distant than the other. A tone that did not belong to any harmony would
not be a dissonance, but a discord, a tone without musical meaning. Dissonances, like
other contrasts, enrich the melody by establishing rival harmonies; discords destroy
melodies. Just as the drama has little significance without conflict, so melodies are
uninteresting without dissonances.
The orderly beauty which the tonal relations confer upon music is further
enriched and complicated by rhythm. Rhythm in music is of two sorts: a rhythm of time
and a rhythm of accent, or increased loudness. Through the one, the duration of a
musical composition is divided up into approximately equal parts filled by notes and
rests of definite length, and through the other, the light notes are subordinated to the
heavy notes. The two, however, are interrelated; for the bars are divided from each other
by the accents, and the accents recur at approximately equal intervals. The pleasure in
rhythmical arrangement is derived from two sources: first, from the need for perspicuity
which is fulfilled through the regular grouping of the tonal elements in the bars, their
length being adjusted to the average length of an attention wave, and the number of
tones that fill them to the number of items which can be taken in at one act of attention,
and through the subordination of the light to the heavy within the bars, the bars to the
measures, and the measures to the periods.
The second source of satisfaction in rhythm is the combination of feelings of
balance and harmony aroused. The full significance of both melody and rhythm
depends, however, upon their interrelation, the concrete musical structure, the motive
or melody in the complete sense, being an indissoluble unity of both.Musicology as an
academic discipline studies music in its historical, social, and cultural contexts. It is
usually divided into two main approaches: historical musicology and ethnomusicology.
While historical musicology focuses on art music and often examines music from a
historical perspective, ethnomusicology is a branch of musicology defined as the study
of social and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts.
This paper focuses on an ethno-musicological approach towards the musical
tradition in India. It attempts to explore the impact and contribution of Muslims and
Muslim culture on Indian classical music .The first part of the paper traces the basic
underlying principles of Indian Classical music and the various styles and forms of
vocal performances, with particular emphasis on Khayal, Thumri, Ghazal, Qawwali
and Sufi music. It also discusses the novelization, modifications and extensions done
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under the Muslim impact. The second part explores the heterogeneous nature of Indian
cinema, the place of music in cinema and exploitation and exploration of art music in
the hands of cinema.
Throughout the Middle Ages the only non-European music with which that of
Christendom had come into contact was Islamic (Abraham 190-91). But the roots of
Islamic music were in the music common to all the Middle East until the Christians
gradually evolved their own ritual dialects. The Umayyad Caliphs (661-750), under
whom the Maghrib (the West) and Spain were conquered, were great lovers of music.
Court music which is Central Asian in origin began to be adopted under the early
Abbarids; and is still the most important 'form' of Islamic music. The basis of the
classical system had already been established under the Umayyads. Arabic/Persian
music had a long relationship with that of Greece, Byzantine and Alexandria. But in
practice, profusion of ornament and improvisation always has been a prominent feature
of Islamic music.
Since 16th century, India had numerous European contacts with the Portuguese,
Dutch, French and English, but none of them were interested in its music. The
differences between the music of North India and South India flowed from the Islamic
conquest of North India (Abraham 562-63). During the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
Persian became the official and literary language, and unconverted Hindus used the
Persianized form of their own language known as Urdu or Hindustani, whereas the
South was conquered later and even the Mughal emperors failed to establish a long
ascendancy there. But music of North India underwent deep, slow changes under the
Muslim impact. With the coming of the Muslims around the 13th Century, momentous
changes took place in the style, spirit and word-content of music in North India. For the
five and a half centuries following, Islam's cultural influence steadily dominated the
aboriginal musical forms till their very character was changed and, it may be added,
basically improved. What passes for classical Indian music today is, properly
speaking, a re-creation of the ancient Hindu system under the influence of dynamic
Islamic culture. The impact of the Muslim influence brought music out of the temples
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into the courts and chambers of royal families as well in North India. Some of the
Muslim Mughal rulers, who loved music and helped it grow, enriched North Indian
music by incorporating Persian elements into it. New melodies and new types of music
like the Khayal, Thumri and Tarana were introduced so that by the 15th Century,
Carnatic and Hindustani systems had evolved as two distinct streams of music.
The medieval Middle Eastern system of music was a synthesis of ancient
Iranian, Iraqi, Arabian, Egyptian, and Greek systems. As geographical and racial
limitations transcended, a happy interfusion of different cultural values was brought
about. The ancient Hindus of the subcontinent had migrated from the common home of
all the Aryan peoples, probably to the north or north-west of Afghanistan. Like all the
Aryan people, a form of music was an essential part of their rituals. Thus the roots of the
so-called Hindu music of ancient India lay outside the geographical boundaries of the
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, in that very territory which later came under Islam's
cultural influences. When the Muslims came to the subcontinent they found in its
northern parts a system of music in fundamentals much like their own but still in the
diatonic stage of development and suffering from a kind of culture stagnation. The
Southeast Asian influence which had affected progress had worn away.
In the Middle East countries, however, music had reached an advanced stage of
development. Chromatic scales had already evolved and were part of the Middle
Eastern music system. One can therefore well believe that when the famous South
Indian musician, Gopal Naik, sang a classical song in the court of Alauddin, Amir
Khusro was not only able to reproduce it but actually improve on it probably by
incorporating some extempore variations. The words of Gopal Naik's song were
unintelligible to Amir Khusro. He therefore resorted to the expedient of using short
musical syllables - sounds without meaning. He called it a tarana. The tarana or tilana
was probably the first innovation introduced by the Muslims. In imitation of Amir
Khusro's vitalizing improvement, the slow Hindu ritual music began to be in faster
tempos. Intermezzos of syllables without meaning were composed and interposed in
the set pattern. A later development was the chaturang, a composition in four parts, one
part being a slow movement and having words; another part was sung in a different
tempo with meaningless words, generally a mixture of Persian and Hindu songs; the
third part in very fast tempo was a short tarana; the finale was in syncopated time with
syllables which normally denote drum beats. This form, though little popular, survives
to this day. Together with the Ragmala (the 'rosary of melodies') wherein several
melody-types are used in one composition by modulation, the chaturang offers
considerable possibilities of developments. Some extremely beautiful Taranas of the
Mughal period are still in existence today. The first improvements were the introduction
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of mishra (mixed) diatonic melody-types wherein transient modulation was effected
between two or more melody-types. Some of our most characteristic melody-types are
of this kind.
Later, melody-types were developed using augmented and diminished intervals
and some very characteristic use of, what is called in Europe, chromatic harmony, was
made. These are the real classical melody-types of the subcontinent writes Chagla, and
many of these are Middle Eastern in origin (02). The principle was applied to even the
pentatonic and hexatonic scales, resulting in some of the most beautiful translucent
scales of chromatic derivation. There is no evidence whatsoever to show that these
melodies of chromatic derivation, which now bear purely Hindu names such as Bhairav
and Ramkali were known before the advent of the Muslims. According to Milind
Malshe:
The plural, multicultural nature of the traditions of classical music
in India invites a dialogic perspective. From the ancient Vedic
chants to the modern day 'Khayaal' the musical traditions have
been multi-religious, multi-lingual and multi-cultural. The
traditions have developed dialogically, developing through many
languages like Sanskrit, Urdu, Braj and Punjabi; through many
religious such as Hinduism and Islam; through many religious
sub-sects such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Sufism; through
many castes like Brahmins and the non-Brahmins (Malshe 126).
This Bakhtinian principle of 'dialogue', applied by Milind Malshe in his article
in the context of Indian Classical Music opens up the discourse at two levels, the
dialogic development of Indian tradition and the dialogic aspect of culture as well.
Before understanding the Indian musical tradition in the context of dialogue between
Muslim culture and Indian tradition, it is essential to trace the history of Indian Classical
Music and its various forms.
Indian classical music distinguishes itself between two broad categories, the
open and the closed forms. The former known as anibaddha having no rhythmic
accompaniment or well defined parts (alap is an important example), the latter called
nibaddha, which refers to compositions having a fixed beginning and definite end and
is set to tal. It consists of three basic elements- Bhava (emotions), Raga (particular
combination of musical notes and tals (rhythm). Raga literally means the colour, seven
basic notes that form the body of Ragas are Shadja, Rishabha, Goudhara, Madhyama,
Panchma, Dhaivate and Nishada (Bandopadhyaya 28). There are ragas with minimum
5 notes (Adava Ragas), 6 notes (Shadava Ragas) and all the seven notes called
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Sampurna Raga. Raga gives a melodic structure through which a comprehensive
emotional ethos is presented. Earlier there were 12 shrutis (microtonal intervals) in the
ragas; it was Amir Khusro who is given the credit of changing it to 22, based on 22 Irani
Mukaams. The inter-relationship of notes and their fragmentary graces (Shrutis) with
the permanent invariable notes, and further their relationship with each other undergo a
detailed improvisation in the course of performance. The basic principles in the
development of raga depend upon the combination and structuring of melody and
rhythm, and these principles are applied in specific forms in actual performances. The
most distinguishing feature of Indian music is that it frees itself from rigidity and
permits deviations and thus the composition is used in conjunction with the musical
knowledge and skills improvised during the performance. As a performative art, music
with its cultural manifestations attempts to locate the performance vis a vis its result like
the construction of identity, enunciative use of language, and its social, cultural impact.
According to Amartya Sen, 'The cultural inheritance of contemporary India combines
Islamic influences with Hindu and other traditions and the results of the interaction
between members of different religious communities can be seen plentifully in
literature, music, painting, architecture and many other fields' ( 314-15).
The contribution and influence of Muslims in the field of music is noteworthy
due to integration and interaction between the two styles rather than individual
contribution. Interactions of culture and music not only modified and improvised but
also contributed greatly in the enrichment and popularity of musical tradition in India.
Music in Muslim India projected itself as a true celebration of diversity and cultural
association between Hindus and Muslims. It thrived at the imperial courts of Muslim
kings in Delhi and Agra and provincial kingdoms like the Sharqui kingdom of Jaunpur,
the Khilji kingdom of Malwa and Bahman kingdom of Bijapur and Golcunda.
Amir Khusro is credited for inventing four styles of singing:(a) Qaul- in which
words were Indian and Persian, singing style was Indian.(b) Tarana- Persian couplets,
sung in one rhythm.(c) Qawwali- Indo-Persian style(d) Khayal- songs from Hindi
language, sung in a simplified style The greatest influence on Hindustani classical
music is said to have started from 1290 onwards i.e. from Alaud-din Khilzi's reign and
the coming of Amir Khusro. During Lodhi reign, the desire to colour Hindustani music
into Arabic music, gave birth to popular forms like ghazal, khayal, Qawwali and
thumri. Focus shifted from grammar to performance, pleasure and execution.
Dhrupad's devotional singing which sounded dry and technical stood in contrast to
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khayal and thumri which thrived on an extrovert, sensual inspiration, hence gained
more popularity. Although there were similarities in note composition, sthayi, and
embellishments of dhrupad and khayal, yet what distinguished them was the unique
extension and tan of khayal. Today khayal style of singing even includes thumri and
regional folk music like Mand, Pahari, Bihari, and Rag. Dhrupad was treated as cold
and intellectual and the embellished prose poems (Khayals) which mirrored the courtly
lives of the times became popular. Sultan Husain Shurquee (1458-1499) invented
khayal along with Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairvi, Rasool Todi, 12 types of Shyam,
Jaunpuri, Sindoora etc. Khayal's subject is generally a love tale uttered by a female in a
graceful style, replete with elegance and embellishments.
The khayal form of vocal music is one of the most important genres of
Hindustani classical music. The term khayal comes from a Persian word meaning
'thought', 'idea', 'conception', 'imagination'. The form is often conjectured to have
arisen as a result of the mixing of the qawaali and the dhrupad styles of singing. The
prominence of this musical form is generally attributed to Amir Khusro, some others
suggest that Khusro used the term in the normal Persian sense of a figure of speech, not
for a song form. Mughal king Mohammed Shad 'Rangeela's' (1719-1748) name is also
associated with the form.The textual content of khayal covers diverse topics as divine
love, separation of lovers, the seasons, praise of kings and pranks of Lord Krishna,
unlike dhrupad which focuses largely on religious themes. It also differs from dhrupad
in singing and presentation style. The manner of producing notes and embellishments
used for melodic movements influence the nature of khayal because its nature is
influenced by its singing techniques. The use of tan in khayal gayaki is one of its major
features and there is also greater use of ornamentation like sargam-s, murki-s and
khatka-s. (Bagchee 120-22)
Khayal, as it is sung now, owes its existence to sources not earlier than the early
eighteenth century. This style of musical composition is only a natural development of
sadharan geets which used the exquisite features of all the styles. It is this sadharan
geets with the predominant use of Bhinna and generous plentiful use of gamaks in it that
became the khayal. It exploited all the famous features without bothering about their
names- khatka, murki, meend, kamp, aandolan- everything was beautifully woven into
its structure. In the hands of Muslim Sufis it developed it into a form of considerable
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aesthetic appeal. The old musical forms of khayal were influenced by Qaul or
Qawwali. Later thumri made the inherent conceptual structure simpler.
When the glory of the Mughal regime was at its peak, both music and dance
were moulded to please princes and lavish patrons. Classical music started borrowing
from folk; thereby thumri and dadra were created both of them sweet evocative
melodies which could freely express sensuality in the spirit. Thumri was created to give
greater freedom and simplicity in technique and the treatment of ragas, than the
khayal.. Greater emphasis was laid on sentiments and moods through varied
interpretation of words, effectively accompanied by gestures (abhinaya). Thumri was
created in Lucknow under courtly patronage and was imaginatively shaped out of a
mixture of classical khayals with folk songs indigenous to Awadh (UP) and its
neighbouring areas. Kajari, Chaiti, and Sawan are strong examples of its allied folk
varieties. Thumri and dadra are invariably sung in rural dialects such as Awadh, Brij
bhasha, Bhojpuri and when adopted into semi-classical music, the musical part became
highly embellished and refined, while words dealing with day to day themes acquired
unprecedented mass appeal.
The credit for creation of thumri goes to Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan, who was
patronized by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and some claim it to be Ghulam Nabi. This light
classical variety is sung in ragas like Piloo, Kafi, Khamaj, Barwa, Zila, Gara, Bharavi
etc., and even in heavier ragas like the Desh, Bihag, Yaman, and Jogiya as well .Thumri,
in the form we knew today, somewhat influenced by khayal, became an independent
vocal form by the beginning of 1800. However the 'uchchaas' i.e. the musical
pronunciation of thumri, is totally different from that of khayal. Its theme is invariably
romantic and features Nayikabhed in stereotype phrases. Teen tal ki thumri also known
as bol-bant ki thumri as distinct from the slower versions i.e. bol banao ki thumri,
evolved out of kathak dance in Lucknow. Originally bol-bant ki thumri in drut teentaal
was sung as an accompaniment to kathak dance before it was taken up seriously by
vocalists at a later stage. Both Hindustani Music and the kathak dance style owe much
to the tawaifs of Lucknow says Manuel (74-6). Drut thumri belonging to Kalka
Bindadin Gharana, constitutes an important expressional element of kathak. Thakur
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Prasadji (kathak master) was an outstanding exponent of the Natwari aspect of kathak
and thumris like batana or bhav-batana an emotional interpretation of the bols (texts),
was taught by him. The very name thumri reveals close affinity with dance because
thumak (thum) means a dance step and thumak also suggests a small size or small
structure. Thus the etymology of thumri indicates "a short-song associated with
dance". Although Urdu, Persian and Hindustani were widely known languages, the
thumri was a mixed jargon of Brajbhasha, interspersed with the rural jargon of
Lucknow and of the eastern districts (Pant 32).
Tarana, is another vocal genre usually sung in a fast tempo using vocables such
as na, ta, re, da, ni, odani, tanom, yalali, yalalom and so on. There is no text as such in
the tarana and the emphasis is on producing rhythmic patterns with vocables. The
inherent layakari that emerges from manner of delivery of intricate consonant pattern
gives pleasure to the listener. This genre had a great impact on the Indian style of
performance.
From around 800 the term Sufi (from the Persian for coarse wool, denoting the
kind of garment worn) was applied to Islamic mystics who adopted ascetic practices as
a means of achieving union with God. Contrary to the spiritual mission of Sufism, the
cult was primarily introduced in India for the spread of Islam with a view to help the
Muslim rulers for political domination under the patronage of the state under Muslim
rulers. The Sufi mystics while offering spiritual guidance and support to the Hindu
subjects allured them for adoption of Muslim identity by emphasizing superiority of
Arbo-Persian-Turkish tradition and accordingly transplanted them in the cultural
tradition of India. Sufi movement became dormant with the decline of Muslim power
in India with the failure of armed resistance against the British and Sikh-Hindu
combined, the followers of hard line Sufism were forced to adjust with the ground
reality of non-Muslim occupation of the Indian subcontinent but did not reconcile with
it. Hindus for centuries have accepted Sufism as a symbol of communal harmony. Sufi
saints did a commendable job by bringing music closer to the masses.
Sufi music as a genre of music has been inspired by Sufi philosophy and works
of Sufi poets like Waris Shah, Bulleh Shah, Faiz, Hafez, Rumi, and even Kabir ,Nanak,
Mira etc. Sufi love songs are often performed as ghazal and kafi, a solo genre
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accompanied by percussion and harmonium, using a repertoire of songs of Sufi poets.
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, sprang up largely in reaction
against the worldliness which infected Islam when its leaders became the powerful and
wealthy rulers of multitudes of people and were influenced by foreign cultures. The
spread of Sufism has been considered as a definitive factor in the spread of Islam and in
the creation of integrated Islamic culture particularly in Africa and Asia.
Of the different types of North Indian song, Qawwali most closely fits the rubric
of 'light classical' along with other supra-local song genres that are the preserve of
specialist performers. Qawwali thus shares with other light classical songs a certain
musical flexibility that allows for musical enhancement by means of techniques of
classical music, but also for adaptations from popular and folk song. The texture of
Qawwali has three components- the melodic line, musical meter, and the pitch outline.
The dual requirement of a strong rhythmic framework and an emphatic stress pattern
affects both duration and acoustic presentation. The form prospered because of its
poetic quality. Traditional Hindustani music shackled by Shastrakars and
Grammarians developed into a form of considerable aesthetic appeal in the hands of
Muslim Sufis. Qawwali, a religious song in which more than one person joins in the
chorus was prepared in the hands of the Muslim Sufis.Qawwali shares general traits
with the light classical music of North India and Muslim traits but has unique
characteristics (Indo-Islamic) related to its religious function. The term Qawwali
applies both to musical genre and to the occasion of its performance. To a Sufi
participant, Qawwali is a method of worship and a means of spiritual advancement.
Today various dimensions of context are incorporated into it.
Another form ,ghazal defined by Aqil Ahmed , ' a unique form of poetry, a blend
of rhyme and rhythm, compressed and capsule thoughts conveyed through the medium
of metaphors and imagery, delicate sensitive, and sometimes, sensuous', also had a
remarkable impact on musical tradition in India.. He adds that, “Ghazal is a form of
poetry so closely identified and linked with a culture that unless one could define
culture, one cannot define ghazal. A culture has to be experienced, to be lived with, to be
felt”(Ahmed34).
It is said that the earliest mehfils of ghazals in India were held
about 700 years ago in the Khanquah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti Ajmeri
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Rahmatullah Aliah. At that time it was based on Iranian music and the singers were
Iranian. Later on in the thirteenth century, it was Hazrat Amir Khusro who Indianised
and popularized the Mehfil Sama.There are two branches of Ghazals; the
Sufiana(devotional) type sung like Qawwalis in Sama Mehfils , and the
Ashiqana(romantic) ghazals about love and wine(shabab and sharab) popularized
chiefly through the tawaifs in their colourful kothas. The first variety was sung by the
Sufis in their Sama Mehfils in a deeply devotional mood, while the second variety was
available only to rich patrons. With the manufacture of gramophone records and the
setting up of various broadcasting stations in India, ghazals became available to the
masses and won country wide popularity.
Ghazal is perhaps the best mirror of Urdu culture which took firm roots in
Lucknow and blossomed into full glory during the Nawabi regime.Begum Akhtar took
Lucknow ghazal to the peak of its glory and reigned supreme as the “Queen of Ghazals”
for many decades. The records of Begum Akhtar, Mehendi Hasan, Chote Ghulam Ali,
Jagjit and Chitra Singh, Farida Khanum, Iqbal Bano,Talat Aziz,Talat Mahmud,Shobha
Gurtu,Lata , Asha and Hariharan immediately make their huge presence felt. Ghazal
Gayaki, the art of singing or performing the ghazal in Indian classical tradition, is very
old. Singers like Ustad Barkat Ali and many other singers in the past used to practice it,
but due to the lack of historical records, many names are anonymous. It was with
Begum Akhtar, and later on Ustad Mehdi Hassan, that classical rendering of ghazals
became popular amongst the masses. The categorization of ghazal singing as a form of
light classical music is a misconception. Classical ghazals are difficult to render
because of the varying moods of the shers or couplets in the ghazal.
The poetic arrangement of the ghazal is precise. The ghazal is based upon a
series of couplets which are woven together by a rhyming formation. The first couplet is
called matla and is the most important one. At times there are two matlas, where the
second one is referred as matla-e-sani. The last couplet is vital and is called the maqta.
The maqta usually contains the pen name of the poet. The maqta is generally different
from rest of the ghazals as it is a personal statement. The ghazal music revolves usually
around a few common themes. They are woven around unreciprocated love, madness,
mystical reflection and even social commentaries ridiculing and highlighting religious
orthodoxy. But the most important theme of ghazals is unrequited love. The traditional
ghazals are similar to the Hindustani classical music forms such as dadra and thumri.
Then there are some ghazal forms that are similar to qawwali.
So far we have traced the various styles and forms of vocal performances,
extended and modified under the Muslim influence. The small variations in the
microtonal changes of the swaras (notes) in the ascent and descent came under Islamic
influence. The vocal music of North India is influenced by the technique of the bowed
Sarangi with its glissandi of nail on string and its sympathetic strings in contrast to the
music of South India which is intimate and expressive on the plucked veena.
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Double reed pipes (Shahnai), Surna, Sitar, Tanbur (tambura), Rahab (Sarod) are
instruments developed under the Persian influence. Urdu as a language helped in
preserving cultural relationship between Hindus and Muslims above religion and class.
According to Geert, 'Culture is a collective phenomenon, partly shared with people who
live or lived within the same social environment, which is where it was learned' (05).
Music in Muslim India was not identified with the Muslim minority in the first instance,
but was thought reminiscent of Muslim traditions equally acceptable by Hindus.
II
In a culture, which mixes up characters, mythological 'actions' and
the daily problems of contemporary life, the substrata of Indian
cinema is founded on a very strong, artistic, moral and religious
tissue, which has not been dislodged by post-industrial modernity
(as often the case in western society), and, in fact, regards with a
rather confused apprehension the advent of this modernity
generated by increasing industrialization. That is why popular
Indian cinema gives the impression of functioning like a myth,
which reinforces the structure of belief, considered necessary by
the cinema industry and by politicians for the existence of homo
indicus, a typically Indian myth-related image (Thoraval 117).
The element of myth that Thoraval talks about is in fact attributed to the
heterogeneous nature of Hindi Cinema. Films act as a strong medium of representation
of a nation and its culture. It lives in the psyche of the masses and serves as a powerful
image of collective consciousness as cultural products because culture and religion
have always been important for an individual. Indian (Bombay) cinema has always
acted like a fusion institution of Indian mass culture carrying the implications of
immense social, cultural, and religious diversities. This is what makes it one of the
finest examples of heterogeneity dialogic tradition. Popular cinema today stands as an
evidence of unbroken continuity of Indian culture, the dominant textual forms being
social and cultural.
Both films and music are beyond the definition of a nation . Indian nationstate was thus created in the process of the establishment of a colonial relationship
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around 1850.It was during British India that the growth of Indian cinema created
conditions for the growth of Muslim sensibility. Film displayed a national as well as
cultural symbiosis to show the deep Indianness of Muslims living in India. Films that
exaggerated the splendours of the Mughal period, the glory of India under the Mughals
vis a vis colonial power before the arrival of British were like affirmative narratives of
national glory. But after Independence the need was to create a national awareness and
Mughal grandeur became a platform for the fusion of both the cultures.1920 onwards
films dealing with culture, preoccupations from a shared culture common to majority of
the population, and emerging nationalist movement was an important factor in the
growth of indigenous cinema. The intention of film makers became a cultural tract, a
sort of reviving of culture through indigenous themes, motifs, music etc.
Since the beginning of sound film in India in 1931, virtually all Indian
commercial films have had a musical format. The enduring presence of songs in Hindi
films has been identified with history, society and culture. Film music or popular music
has always been prominent in commercial cinema, unlike art (cinema of intelligentsia).
A Hindi film is conceived as an assemblage of pre-fabricated parts, like the story, dance,
song, comedy scenes, fights etc. making it heterogeneous though non-linear,
melodramatic and so unrealistic in character (Prasad 43).The Hindi cinema inherited its
musical format from the urban theatrical traditions of the nineteenth century, such as the
Parsi Theatre, Marathi theatre and Bengali Jatra. The coming of sound made it
possible for Hindi cinema to tap into the tradition of music and song as a part of
dramatic expression that reaches back as far as around two thousand years to Sanskrit
theatre, observes Ranade (295). The presence of songs in the Hindi film narrative can
also seen in terms of the reality of most Indian drama. Film songs developed form
sources of light classical and theatre music, and emerged in the 1940s into a distinctive
'filmi' style. This is so because film songs have always interacted with the context of
Indian culture and society, as any tradition of music does, but in terms of music, they do
not directly interact with the film narrative. They are like gratuitous insertions into the
plot, to be enjoyed for their own sake. Songs are like para-narrative units, emanating
from their own traditions, therefore less cinematic in the narrative context. The power
of songs in creating an ambiguous aura is what has made them indispensable because
the parallel world created through songs and music remain entrenched in memory for
long.
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While concerts help us understand musical texts and performance in their own social
and cultural context, music in a film is a process within larger social and cultural
practices. In the latter case, music helps us to understand the processes (what it does);
whereas in the former, processes help us to understand music. Music as performance
takes into consideration three main disciplines viz. linguistics, anthropology and
theatre. As one of the members of performing triumvirate (other two being dance and
drama) it forms an integral part of cinematic art which comes under the category of
composite art. A fusion of different art forms produce aesthetic results and hence
constant attempts have always been made to maintain proper balance between the
operating forces of both.
These bi-polar elements combine to create a musical structure with certain
identifiable qualities. The songs initially were activated by a dramatic impulse (theatric
tradition) but deeper cultural needs shifted the focus from music proper to more semiclassical and popular songs. Efforts were made in such a way that communicative
channels are not disrupted or broken, thus except in rare cases carrying significance but
no meaning. The relationship of correspondence between words, lines, motifs, symbols
and music, along with the language used creates an impression that music is matched
with the non-musical stimuli in action. The non-musical stimuli in a song sequence are
suggestive and help in making the whole act more accommodating.
Music has offered many things like form, technique, style to cinema and cinema
has reciprocated by putting music to numerous new uses. Interchange of influences
between the two; have generally taken place under the shadow of circumstances
identified as 'considerations of the industry (business, popularity, trends…). Reasons
and process of bringing the two together are claimed and contested on the grounds of
aesthetic requirements and Indian cultural behaviour. Since earlier times cinema has
explored and exploited all the five categories of Indian music and musical experience.
The different categories of music correspond with the kind of experience. The variety
of music categories in India defines the socio-cultural diversity in the society, primitive
(tribal) exhibiting an ethnological basis, folk, having sociological churnings, art
(classical) related to value experience, popular, produced by cumulative operations of
mass media, and devotional. The experiential content imparts distinctiveness to these
categories (Ranade 04). Primitivity in the case of music is related to and directly linked
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to human experience in which dance, instrumental music and vocal expressions are
closely woven together, relying more on rhythm than on melody. Collectivity emerges
as one of the important characteristics of folk as well as popular music. Folk songs are
created by a cultural group, and regional, religious and linguistic orientations of folk
music stress its culture bound character. The determining factor in bringing about
changes in folk music is its proximity to art music at various periods and points in
history. Unlike folk, art music is more homogenous and therefore common and similar
music forms that exist for culturally diverse groups and communities. The term art
(classical, as it is generally called) is generally thought of as a product of philosophizing
a particular kind of value experience. The most significant feature of art music is its
aesthetic intention to concurrent operations in which performative and scholastic
(codification) are prominent. Pertinent rules, methods and techniques are systematized
in accordance with established practices. It provides maximum scope to soloists.
Apart from non musical factors, it also displays technical competence. A highly
structured teaching-learning process is also a remarkable feature of art music, projected
in the establishment and tradition of Gharanas. A total aesthetic experience is created
by linking (with other art forms) and delinking (for establishment of an independent
aesthetic control) method in the process of performance. Ballet, Opera, Raga Mala
Paintings are some examples of its being versatile and all pervasive. Art music allows
abstraction at every possible level. It creates its own universe of reference and proposes
to adhere to a contextual framework built of only musical elements. The beauty lies in
total dependence on musical parameters yet giving/extending total freedom for
interpretation.
Indian cinematic tradition, unlike west, is known by its musical dimensions
because music and dance has always been assigned a primordial place. The musical
elements form an integral part of the film narrative either as mainspring of the action,
extra embellishments or visualization of the story. Despite this, music and songs are
independent and autonomous within the general structure and so when performed
describe a kind of subjective state. The inter-relatedness and distinctiveness in respect
of the issue of rasa, creates identical aesthetic experience between the aesthetic object
and aesthete. Life phenomenon itself is abstracted into the principal categories of love,
pathos, heroism, fierceness, laughter/humour, jealousy, disgust, fear, wonder etc., all
ultimately leading to harmony. The experience is manifested through abstract emotive
categories. The dancer and the singer communicate the idea and evoke a similar
experience in the viewers.
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Even though music as a component is created in a certain tradition, it has a separate
existence in the context of the film and is also significant in determining the form of the
text. In the case of Indian films, music is relatively independent yet woven into the
structure with its autonomous existence. Music in Indian films has served as a signifier
for aesthetics, which also helps in blending cinematic and narrative context. It has also
acted as an agency of construction of cultural identity and served as a negotiating
medium between history/culture and society. Numerous films have recaptured the
ambience of feudal and princely courts of North India and of Bengal, films have also
been made on musicians or on celebrating a particular form of music, on tawaifs
(courtesan, dancing/singing girls) etc. Satyajit Ray's Jalsa ghar (The Music Room,
1958) deals with kathak dance form of Mughal origin and music, Wara Mendel (The
Dance of the Wind, 1997), by Rajan Khosa is about a classical thumri singer.
From 1960-1990, under the influence of western music, classical and semiclassical music was replaced by light music as box office formula films, sentimental
comedies and romantic films dominated the scene. A qualitative revival was needed
around 70s and films were now made more on social issues which had less or no place
for music. Today Indian cinema is increasingly using Sufi songs. The tradition goes
back to Begum Akhtar, Ghulam Ali, Farida Khanum, Jagjit Singh, Hariharan to name a
few. Abida Parveen and late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are renowned sufi artists who have
taken Sufi music to great heights. Qawwali and ghazal are also well known forms of
Sufi music. The decline in the feudal society at the end of the 19th and early 20th
century brought with it a decline in the tawaif tradition. This change in culture also saw
a change in the performance of ghazal. It continued to build upon its musical
component, and began to be heard more and more in the concert hall. The job of
converting ghazal to a musical form was finished in the 20th century. The development
of the recording and film industries created a mass media that was well suited to the
musical ghazal. They also created an environment where it was convenient to treat the
ghazal as though it were a mere geet. All of this had tremendous economic advantages
for performers and producers alike. Unfortunately, it also created economic pressures
to lower the standards for the lyrical content.
Simplified forms of classical music based on styles like Thumri, Tappa, Dadra,
and Ghazal have also been beautifully used in film music. (Mishra, “Thumri songs in
the Hindi films") The music directors of Hindi films composed thumri songs whenever
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they got a proper situation in the story. Thus a rich heritage of thumris is available, if we
reinvestigate the songs composed for Hindi films. The talent of many reputed vocalists
like Ustaad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar,Birju Maharaj, Nirmala Devi,
Parveen Sultana, Shobha Gurtu and many others of Hindustani Classical style were
occasionally also used by film makers. Many composers came to the film industry from
the theatre, and used existing theatre songs, or songs of a similar style, containing a
mixture of classical, light-classical and local folk traditions for the films. The dhrupad
texts which usually cover themes such as religious or philosophical views of life,
devotion and praise of deities including Sri Krishna, celebration of seasons, particularly
Basant and Hori are in the dhamar variety. All these themes and texts have always been
a favourite with film makers, though the form and singing style modified.
Hindi film songs developed from their sources of light-classical and theatre music, and
emerged in the 1940s into what has become a distinctive filmi style. To some extent,
Indian film music assumed a life and significance of its own that was independent of
cinema', but the significance of film songs has always remained allied to their cinematic
context.
The musicians/composers of the earlier Indian cinema (Alamara onwards) were
disciples of musical Gharanas. For example, Ravindra Sangeet dominated New
Theatres, Saraswatidevi and S.N. Tripathi composed compositions based on pure ragas
at Bombay Talkies, Marathi Natya Sangeet was popular at Prabhat. In Bombay cinema
ghazals, Qawwali, thumri and tunes inspired from the Parsi theatre dominated.
Qawwali from the Sufi tradition and ghazal (love poetry in Arabic-Persian) introduced
by the elite of the Turkish and Afghan Muslim conquerors and cultivated in the courts of
Indian Muslim rulers, were the two important genres that were integrated into film
music under the Muslim influence. The decline of Delhi and emergence of Lucknow as
the capital of the kingdom of Avadh, led to consequent shift in cultural activities.
Singers from Mirasi families, Abdul Karim Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan are well
known names.
Glimpses of Lucknow and her Nawabi culture have been projected in a large
number of films and all along lured away writers, lyricists, singers, actors etc. in
Bollywood. Film makers have captured the tehzib (manner), music, mujras (dance of
tawaifs) in films like Sangram, Sheesh Mahal, Palki, Chaudvi Ka Chand, Mere
Mehboob, Mere Huzoor, Bahu Begum, Mehndi, Benazir, Junoon, Gaman, Aagaman
and many others. Lucknow was an important cultural centre during eighteenth and
nineteenth century with a reputation for Urdu poetry, music and dance that combined
elements of both Hindu and Muslim tradition. The stories related to tawaifs enabled
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film makers to portray all facets of femininity. Films made on great composers and
musical genres like Kumar Sahni's Khayal Gatha (The Saga of Khayal, 1988) and Mani
Kaul's The Dhrupad Singer are examples of Hindu Muslim cultural symbiosis. Some
of the great composers like Ghulam Mohammed, Sajjad Hussain, Kazi Nazrul Islam,
Zahur Mohammed Khayyam, Naushad were all trained in classical music.
Aesthetic requirements and cultural needs are the two important factors
responsible for a deeper and extensive exploitation of music by film makers. Thus we
can conclude that music has always complemented cinema and cinema in return has
explored almost all the categories of music. The journey of music and cinema together
has been a wonderful one, moulding, modifying, accommodating and combining
together and changing as per cultural and aesthetic needs. To have more songs, and less
music, was a cultural prompting which took care to introduce novelty of expression
without sacrificing the nourishment offered by an oral tradition writes Ranade (294).
Three phases are discerned in musico-cultural movement in India and they are
approximations to melody-making, creation of songs and finally movement away from
songs to music. Songs tend to envelope the entire communicative act in a haze-at once
welcome, unsettling and attractive. The greatest quality of art music is its homogeneity
in a vast country like India with too much diversity. And therefore it has and will always
emerge as a strong cultural expression/ medium.
References:
Abraham, Gerald, "Music in the Islamic world", The Concise Oxford History of Music,
Oxford University Press, 1979.
Bandopadhyaya, S. The Origin of Raga, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1977.
Chagla ,Ahmed Ghulamali, "Muslim Contribution to Indo-Pakistan Music",
http://akchagla.com.updated 14 Jan 2004.
Dhareshwar, Vivek, 'Our Time': History, Sovereignty and Politics", Economic and
Political Weekly, 11 Feb., 1995.
Geert, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Hammersmith,
London; Harper Collins, 1994.
Malshe, Milind, "A Bakhtinian Perspective on Indian Classical Music", Journal of
Contemporary Thought, No. 30, Winter 2009.
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Vol 1 (1)
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Mishra, Ramesh, "Thumri songs in the Hindi films", Life and Music: A Comprehensive
List of thumri compositions in Hindi Cinema posted on his blog.
http://mishraraag.blogspot.in/2009/02/thumri-songs-in-hindi-films.html.
Peter, Manuel, "Courtseans and Hindustani Music", Asian Review, Dec. 1992.
Prasad, M. Madhava, "The Economics of Ideology", Ideology of Hindi Film: A
Historical Construction, Oxford University Press, 2008.
Ranade, Ashok D, "Cinematic Structure and Music in India", Essays in Indian
Ethnomusicology, Munshiram, Manoharlal Pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1998.
Said, Edward, "Representing the Colonized Anthropology's Interlocuters", Critical
Inquiry, I 5.2., 1989.
Sen ,Amartya, "Secularism and its discontents," The Argumentative Indian, Penguin
Books, 2005.
Thapar, Romila, ''Imagined Religious Communities, Ancient History and the Modern
Search for a Hindu Identity”, Kingsley Martin Memorial Lecture, University of
Cambridge, I June 1988, Published in School of Social Sciences Working Paper
Series, New Delhi : Jawaharlal Nehru University, 1988.
Thoraval ,Yves, The Cinemas of India (1896-2000), Macmillan, 2001.
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COMPLEXATION BEHAVIOR OF SOME ANTIOXIDANT
FLAVONOIDS (PLANT PIGMENTS) TOWARDS Pr (III) & Nd
(III) RARE-EARTH METAL-IONS.
R.P. Mathur* and Geetanjali Godara
The Werner Lab, Department of Chemistry, Govt Dungar College, BIKANER- 334
001(INDIA),
Kirti Mathur
Department of Physics, M.S. College, BIKANER-334 001(INDIA).
Abstract
The interaction of some antioxidant flavonoids (plant pigments) namely, 3hydroxyflavone (MHF), 5,7-dihydroxyflavone (DHF), 5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone
(THF), 3,4,7,3′-tetrahydroxy flavones (QHF) & 3,5,7,3′4′-pentahydroxyflavone
(PHF) with Pr (III) & Nd (III) metal ions have been studied. The electronic spectra of
rare-earth metal complexes in solution have been recorded & analyzed to determine
complexation behavoir of rare-earth metal ions. To record the spectra solutions were
prepared by taking metal and ligand solutions (0.01 M) in stiochiometric- ratio (M:
L) of 1:2.The spectra consist of narrow bands that undergo changes in the energies &
intensities due to the immediate ligand fields. These changes are though very small
but are very interesting & important. On complexation, spectral band shifts towards
the longer wavelength region i.e. the red shift and is known as nephelauxetic effect &
regarded as a measure of covalence. The intensity of each sharp band of the f-f
electronic transitions in the spectra have been individually analyzed in terms of
various energy and intensity parameters such as Racah (Ek), Slator-Condon (Fk),
Lande (ζ4f), Oscillator strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt (T) parameters etc. These
parameters have been computed using partial & multiple regression methods. The
bonding parameter (b½) & nephelauxetic ratio (β) have also been evaluated. The
metal binding sites are preferentially at the oxo and hydroxyl groups in the
flavonoids. Two binding sites have been expected in these complexes, the first one is
the 3-hydroxy & the second one is the 5- hydroxy groups, which are strongly
dependent on the medium and pH. In these complexes, complexation behavoir is
enhanced by the presence of hydroxyl group(s) in conjugation with the carbonyl
group.
Keyword: Pr (III), Nd (III), Racah (Ek), Slator-Condon (Fk), Lande (ζ4f), Oscillator
strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt (T) parameters
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INTRODUCTION
A considerable interest has grown dramatically in the potentially important role
of flavonoids in maintaining human health in the last two decades. A considerable
number of phytomedicines contains the flavonoids which have been reported as having
anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-mutagenic, anti-viral etc activities.
1-10
. As the totality of the available evidences on the flavonoids suggest that the
pharmacological effects of these are related to antioxidant properties through
complexation with metals. The metal- flavonoid complexes are considerably more
potent free radical scavengers than the parent flavonoids and play a prominent role in
protecting from oxidative stress11. The aim of this paper is to give the structure of the
complexes, metalligand complexation sites , stoichiometric ratio and different energy
& intensity parameters.
In all the cases, the complex formation involved 1:2 Pr (III) and Nd (III) metalions to flavonoids ratio. It is probable that the groups 3- or 5-OH and 4-C=O of a
1
flavonoid take part in the binding with a rare-earth ion in the complexes . The
coordinating behavior is enhanced by the presence of hydroxy groups in conjugation
12
with the carbonyl group . The complexation of these flavonoids with rare-earth metal
ion may be as uni-dentate or bi-dentate ligands. This leads to the formation of
complexes that contains protons in addition to metal ion and the ligand, which tend to
dissociate at higher pH values. The bathochromic shift observed in the absorption
spectra of metal-flavonoid complexes at higher pH values can be endorsed to the
dissociation of the protonated complex, rather than the formation of complexes with
13-14
different stoichiometric compositions .In the present study routine solvents were
used but in future green solvents19 will be used and data will be compared.
Experimental
All the reagents were of analytical grade and were used without further
purification. The rare-earth metal salts and the ligands used were in the powder form.
Preparation of Stock solutions
The stock solutions (0.01 M) of the namely, 3-hydroxyflavone (MHF), 5,7dihydroxyflavone(DHF), 5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavone(THF), 3,4,7,3′-tetrahydroxy
flavones (QHF) & 3,5,7,3′4′-pentahydroxyflavone (PHF) were prepared by
dissolving the calculated mass of dry ligand by dissolving each of them in water or
mixture of water & alcohol. The stock solutions of metal ion (0.01 M) were prepared by
dissolving metal salt of Pr (III) and Nd (III) in double distilled water and were
standardized complexometrically with EDTA.
Recording the Spectra
The sample solutions were prepared by taking metal and ligand solutions in
16
stiochiometric ratio (M: L) of 1:1, 2:3, 1:2, & 1:3 to record the spectra . The electronic
absorption spectra of these sample solution have been recorded on a spectrophotometer
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(Beckman DU-600) in the range of 200-1200 nm. It has been found that the absorbance
of the sample solutions having 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry is maximum and hence
this is the metalligand stoichiometry for the complexation in the solution.
Results and Discussion
The analysis of the obtained spectra has been carried out by evaluating various
k
energy and intensity parameters such as Racah (E ), Slator-Condon (Fk), Lande (ζ4f),
Oscillator strength (Posc) and Judd-Ofelt parameters (T) etc, using partial and multiple
regression methods.
Energy Parameters:
The energy level structure of 4f-configuraitons arise as a result of columbic and
k
spin-orbit interactions, which is expressed as electronic repulsion (Fk, E ) and Lande
parameters (ζ4f) respectively.These parameters can be evaluated by solving Taylor
11, 19
series expansion equations
Ej (Fk, 4f) = Eoj (F k, 4f) +
Ej / Fk . Fk + E j / 4f. 4f
k=2,4,6
where Eoj = the zero order energy of level j.
Fk = F0k + Fk
0
4f = 4f + 4f
Fk << F0k 4f << 04f
The difference between the observed Ej values and zero order ones, Ej can be
expressed as Ej = Ej Fk .Fk+ Ej 4f 4f
k=2,4,6
The magnitude of parameters F2, F4, F6 and 4f were computed using regression
analysis and refined by the least squares technique.
For all the complexes of Pr(III) and Nd (III) metal ions the order of Slater-Condon
parameter is found to be F2>F4>F6 with each ligand, respectively, and values are
summarized in Table-3.
In rare-earths, the 4f-orbitals are deep seated and thus are less available for
bonding and ligand field stabilization energy effect is also negligible even then there is a
contraction or expansion of wave function on the complexation. This indicates mixing
of metal-ligand orbitals and covalency of the bond. This is also reflected by the changes
in values of Fk and 4f parameters as compared to the corresponding free ion values. This
phenomenon is known as nephelauxetic effect and can be expressed by the
17
nephelauxetic ratio
β= Fkc/Ffk
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where 'c' and ' f ' refer to the complex and free ion ,respectively.
The values of nephelauxetic ratio for all the metal-complexes were found to be less
than one (1> β), indicating that the metal-ligand interaction is not ionic but there is a
mixing of metal and ligand orbitals i.e. the metal ligand bonding in these chelates is not
18
mere ionic but there is a covalency in them.
The bonding parameter is related to nephelauxetic ratio (β) by the relation
½
b½ = [1/2 - (1-β)]
The values of energies (E) for peaks of various transitions of all the metal-ligand
complexes are summarized in Tables-1 & 2 and all other parameters in the Table-3.
The changes in values of all the parameters of these complexes in various metalligand ratio(1:1,1:2,2:3,1:3) is not very large indicating that the ligands have a little
effect on the spectral pattern.
Intensity Parameters:
The intensity of each absorption band was measured in terms of oscillator strength
(Posc). The oscillator strength of each band has been computed using the following
equationPocs= 4.6x10-9 x max x ½
½
Where
= half band width and
max = molar extinction coefficient
The r.m.s deviation (σ rms) between experimental and calculated values of oscillator
-6
-6
-6
-6
strength is in the range of 0.281 x10 to 0.935 × 10 & 4.26 x 10 to 5.57 x 10 , for
Pr(III) & Nd(III) complexes, respectively, and these values are listed in Table-1 & 2
indicating the suitability of of the relation used. The low values of r.m.s. deviation
(σrms) for all the complexes support the applicability of Judd-Ofelt theory.
The Judd-Ofelt intensity parameters T (=2,4,6) for Pr(III) and Nd(III)
complexes with the flavonoids ligands have been determined to demonstrate the
sensitivity of these parameters to the ligand environment (Table-4). The values of T
,parameters are too low and this shows largely outer sphere or high spin
complexation.There are much variation in Judd-Ofelt parameters (T2, T4 and T6) and
these values follow the order T2<T4<T6 for Pr (III) and Nd (III) metal complexes. The
higher values of T6 for Nd(III) metal chelates than Pr(III) metal chelates. The ratio of
Judd-Ofelt parameters T4/T6 of Pr (III) complexes and Nd (III) complexes have been
9
9
9
found in the range of (0.291 x10 to 0.33x10 ) and ( 0.560 x10 to 0.747
x109),respectively, suggesting that complexation is through the oxygen donor atoms.
This indicates that there is a very slight change in the symmetry around Pr (III) and Nd
(III) in this case.
Conclusions
The metalflavonoids bonding is not just ionic but the various parameters
evaluated advocate covalency in the bonding. In case of both the Pr (III) and Nd (III)
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metal ion complexes, the absorption was highest for 1:2 metal ligand stiochiometric
ratio. This indicate highest molecular stacking around the central metal ion in almost
neutral medium (pH 7.8) .On the basis of various parameters, molar extinction
coefficient and molecular weight the order of covalency of the Pr (III) and Nd (III)
metal ion complexes with these ligand is follows L5 >L4>L3 >L2>L1.
The complexation and covalency have been related to spectral intensity i.e.
oscillator strength. The metal-ligand stoichiometry affects the oscillator strength:
higher the value of oscillator strength, higher will be complexation and covalency. This
is in an agreement with earlier findings. 19
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (GG) is thankful to CSIR, New Delhi for providing a fellowship
(Senior Research Fellow) and the financial assistance. Thanks are also due to the
Principal, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner-334 001(INDIA).
References
1. D. Malesev and V. Kuntic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc 72,921 (2007)
2. M.L. Neuhouser; Nutr. Cancer, 50 ,2004,1.
3. N. Schmiedebergs; Arch. Pharmacol, 370,2004,290.
4. R.R. Huxley, H.A. Neil; Eur. J.Clin. Nutr., 57, 2003,904.
5. W. Rem, Z.Qiao, H.wang; Med. Res. Re. 23 ,2003,519.
6. V. Kuntic, I.Filipovie, D. Malesev; Med. Biochem; 18,1999,167.
7. M.Katan; Am. J.Clin. Nutr; 65 ,1997,1542.
8. P.Knekt, R.Jarvinen, A.Reunamen, J.Maatela; Br. Med. J. ,312,1996,478.
9. M.G.L. Hertog, E.J.M. Feskens, D. Kromhout; Lancet, 349, 1997,699.
10. N.C. Cook and S.Sammn; J.Nutr. Biochem. 7 ,1996,66 .
11. G.T. Castro, S.E. Blanco; Spectrochim. Acta 60,2004,2235.
12. M. Aleksic, S. Blagojevic, D. Malesev, Z. Radonic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc.,
65,2000,631.
13. N. Pejic, V. Kuntic, D. Malesev; Pharmazie, 57,2002,216.
14. R.C. Mathur, S.S. L Surana and S.P. Tandon; Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys. ,17,
1979,452.
15. N. Bhojak, Rashmi Jain, H.S. Bhandari; Intl J Chemistry,8,2010,42.
16. M. Aleksic, S. Blagojevic, D. Malesev, Z. Radonic; J. Serb. Chem. Soc.,
65,2000,631.
17. S.N. Misra, N. Kiran and G.G. Talale; Indian, J.Chem. ,26 A, 1987,309.
18. R.C. Mathur, S.S. L Surana and S.P. Tandon; Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys. ,17,
1979,452.
19. S.S.L Surana, M. Singh and S.N. Misra; J. Inorg Nucl. Chem, 42, 1980,61.
THF
QH(L4)
(L3)
-
Oscillator strength
and energy, wave
length
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
 max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
 max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
 max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
 max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
D2
590
3.562
3.562
16949
17125
590
3.43
3.43
16949
17113
589
3.111
3.111
16977
17122
589
3.166
3.166
16977
17143
590
3.298
3.298
16949
17111
1
Pσ
3
P1
468
3.004
3.404
21367
21219
468
3.831
3.774
21367
21197
469
3.617
3.520
21321
21200
467
3.542
3.533
21413
21235
468
3.313
3.447
21367
21180
Energy Levels
485
3.716
3.325
20618
20619
486
3.622
3.679
20576
20579
487
3.336
3.431
20533
20534
486
3.428
3.437
20576
20580
488
3.477
3.347
20491
20497
3
P2*
443
10.045
10.045
22573
22453
444
10.365
10.365
22522
22443
443
10.432
10.432
22573
22474
443
10.568
10.568
22573
22500
444
10.666
10.666
22522
22464
3
127
0.935× 10-6
127.08
0.65 × 10-6
106.77
0.682× 10-6
124.86
0.412 × 10-6
129.88
0.281× 10-6
± σ r.m.s.
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PHF (L5)
4’,5,7
5,7-DHF(L2)
3-MHF (L 1)
Ligand
Table : 1:Observed and computed values of Oscillator strength(P), Energy(E) and wave length (max.) of
various transitions of Pr (III)- 3-MHF (L1) 5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4) ,PHF (L5) chelates in
1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry
(Multidisciplinary International Research Journal)
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38
Oscillator
strength and
energy, wave
length
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
max.(nm)
Pexp × 106
Pcal×106
Eexp(cm-1)
Ecal (cm-1)
F3/2
868
1.072
1.151
11520
11452
868
1.072
1.221
11520
11471
868
1.072
1.152
11520
11463
869
1.287
1.337
11507
11469
868
1.074
1.156
11520
11477
4
F 5/2
802
3.576
3.580
12468
12466
803
3.571
3.673
12453
12468
802
3.583
3.581
12468
12473
802
3.573
3.661
12468
12477
803
3.572
3.572
12453
12475
4
F 7/2
747
3.423
3.251
13386
13294
749
3.410
3.192
13351
13291
748
3.412
3.256
13368
13298
748
3.418
3.127
13368
13304
750
3.390
3.234
13333
13296
4
F 9/2
682
1.492
3.481
14662
14762
681
1.492
3.451
14684
14754
681
1.491
3.492
14684
14769
682
1.490
3.428
14662
14770
681
1.492
3.485
14684
14772
4
G 5/2*
581
5.461
5.473
17211
17251
579
5.502
5.431
17271
17283
578
5.502
5.441
17301
17273
580
5.481
5.405
17241
17277
576
5.563
5.492
17361
17296
4
G 7/2
522
2.742
1.681
19157
19256
521
3.251
1.753
19193
19287
522
2.714
1.683
19157
19294
521
3.252
1.857
19193
19278
521
2.724
1.691
19193
19334
4
Energy Levels
G 9/2
513
8.764
2.323
19493
19589
511
8.792
2.385
19569
19599
512
8.791
2.334
19531
19615
511
8.794
2.472
19569
19604
511
8.831
2.345
19569
19637
2
G 9/2
469
3.651
8.841
21321
21260
469
3.672
9.124
21321
21279
468
3.682
8.880
21367
21302
469
3.672
9.581
21321
21275
467
3.682
8.893
21413
21351
4
G 11/2
462
2.703
1.290
21645
21539
463
2.681
1.382
21598
21523
462
2.691
1.291
21645
21546
461
2.704
1.338
21691
21549
461
2.714
1.292
21691
21539
4
P 1/2
430
2.481
2.693
23255
23257
429
2.491
2.972
23310
23309
430
2.490
2.731
23255
23258
429
3.002
3.402
23310
23301
429
2.513
2.724
23310
23306
2
81
4.29× 10-6
70.29
5.35× 10-6
74.6
4.27× 10-6
53.27
5.57× 10-6
76.86
4.26× 10-6
± σ r.m.s.
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PHF (L5)
QH(L4)
4’,5,7THF (L3)
5,7DHF(L2)
3-MHF
(L1)
Ligand
Table : 2:Observed and computed values of Oscillator strength(P), Energy(E) and wave length (max.) of
various transitions of Nd (III)- 3-MHF (L1) 5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4) ,PHF (L5) chelates in
1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry
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5,7-DHF(L2)
3-MHF (L 1)
Ligand
PHF (L5)
5105
5114
5090
23.59
22.88
23.53
23.39
493
494
492
493
331
329
330
330
52.10
53.47
51.95
52.59
5.36
5.31
5.33
5.36
861
853
864
854
0.9999
0.9941
0.9974
0.9989
0.0064
0.0542
0.0357
0.0225
0.0522
0.9945
861
5.3
52.63
329
493
23.17
5091
5115
0.1636
0.1496
0.1600
0.9464
0.9552
0.9487
0.1561
781
741
773
0.9512
4.69
4.64
4.61
767
42.08
42.47
42.18
4.62
304
307
305
42.29
0.1537
452
456
453
306
0.9527
23.41
23.62
23.46
454
749
Lande
Bonding
parameter(ζ4f)
Nephelauxetic
parameter (b
(in cm-1)
ratio(β)
1/2)
4475
4517
4486
23.53
4.63
42.36
306
455
23.56
4505
4498
F6
F4
F2
E3
E2
Slater-Condon
-1
parameters (Fk) (in cm )
E1
k
Racah Parameters (E )(in
-1
cm )
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QH(L4)
Nd(III) metal 4’,5,7THF(L3)
5,7-DHF(L2)
3-MHF (L 1)
PHF (L5)
QH(L4)
Pr(III) metal 4’,5,7THF(L3)
Metal ion
Table:3: Racah(Ek),Slater-Condon (Fk),Lande parameter (ζ4f), and Bonding parameters
[Nephelauxetic ratio(β),Covalency parameter (b ½ )] of Pr(III) & Nd(III) ion with 3-MHF (L1) 5,7DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4), PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry .
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Nd(III) metal
Pr(III) metal
Metal ion
5.12
0.747
5.4
0.56
5.41
0.56
0.63
0.56
T4/T6
3.83
3.06
3.04
3.35
3.05
T4
5.28
1.55
1.92
1.91
1.77
1.9
T2
5.41
0.291
0.30
0.30
0.3
0.33
T4/T6
T6
3.24
3.03
3.15
3.2
9.45
9.33
9.67
9.67
1.03
T4
3.12
3.81
-1.4
-1.1
-1.47
-8.67
T2
T6
PHF (L5)
QH(L4)
4’,5,7THF(L3)
5,7DHF(L2)
3-MHF
(L1)
Judd-ofelt
9
Parameters(Tλ×10 )
Table:4: Computed values of Judd-Ofelt parameters ( Tλ ) for Pr(III) & Nd(III) ion with 3-MHF (L1)
5,7-DHF(L2) 4',5,7-THF (L3) QH(L4), PHF (L5) chelates in 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry .
(Multidisciplinary International Research Journal)
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SIMULATION MODELING IN HEAVY ION COLLISIONS
1
2
Abhilasha Saini and Dr. Sudhir Bhardwaj
1
Department of Physics, Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur, India
2
Associate Professor, Govt. College of Engineering & Technology, Bikaner, India
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
In current epoch, it is mandatory to develop a system with prior project management
consisting high-quality estimation, prediction and prototype creation of the entire system
and its components, stating their work flow and all the major mechanisms. Simulation
modeling is one of the procedure which helps in development and analysis of a digital
prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real scenario. Simulation is
also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be accessible or it may
simply not exist. Involvement of Computer and various programming languages plays a
major role in simulation and hence, has become a useful part of modeling many natural
systems in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Human Systems, Economics, Social-Science as
well as in Engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Here, in this work,
we have attempted to use simulation study and programming language FORTAN 77, to
describe quark gluon plasma (QGP) state, the new state of matter which can be created in the
laboratory by colliding two nuclei at relativistic energies. It is expected that such high
temperature can be achieved in the laboratory by colliding nuclei at relativistic heavy ion
collider (RHIC) and large hadrons collider (LHC) energies. This phase undergoes a
transition to hadrons, which carry information about the state of the QGP. Measuring these
hadrons and their features is the only way to study the properties of the high density state. In
this work we will study how the properties of QGP can be extracted by analysing the
signatures like J/ψ production, Dilepton production, Strangeness production, Collective
flow etc. For this work, two methods could be followed. First method involves the collection
of above mentioned signature through experimentation done with RHIC and LHC collider,
and the other method involves simulation techniques, implemented with the help of event
generators like HIJING (Heavy Ion Jet INteraction Generator), AMPT (A Multi Phase
Transport Model). In this work, we will generate events for different energies and will
produce the results for global variables using this data and then the experimental and
simulation results will be compared. HIJING is written in FORTRAN 77, consisting of
subroutines for physics simulation and common blocks for parameters and event records.
This simulation study will help us to understand the reaction mechanism of heavy ion
collisions and is highly significant for the search of QGP state, by the study of global
variables for the signature of the quark gluon plasma. This work will help scientific society
to understand theoretically as well as practically, those parameters which are not yet
explored in depth.
Keywords - Heavy Ion collisions, Quark Gluon Plasma, Simulation Modeling, Fluctuation.
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INTRODUCTION
The quantum chromo dynamics calculations on lattice predict that if the heavy nuclei
are collided at extremely high energy densities and temperature the matter would
undergo a phase transition and the temperatures are so high that protons and neutrons
split into their constituents, the quarks and gluons.This state of matter is defined as the
quark gluon plasma (QGP). The electron collision experiments on proton indicate the
internal structure of nucleons as they are built of quarks and gluons. This quantization is
described by quantum chromo- dynamics (QCD) field theory, and this tells that quarks
and gluons cannot be found freely as they are confined by strong interaction which
binds them to each other. This tie is defined by a quantum number called color. At high
energy density the quark gluon plasma state can be expected in laboratories at projectile
energies of the order of 10-100A.GeV. This is the only possibility to produce unbound
quarks and gluons, in a small volume and in a large number in the reaction zone.
The nature of the phase transition the temperature and the energy density depend upon
the quark flavors. This new state of the matter existed in the universe after few micro
seconds of the big bang [Fig. 1]. And as the universe is cooled down further in
subsequent phases the quarks and gluons combined to form hadrons resulting in the
baryonic matter that we observe today.
Figure 1: The quark gluon plasma state and the hadronization.
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This state of matter can be created in laboratory by colliding nuclei at RHIC and LHC
energies and the long range properties of nuclear matter for comparatively small
systems can be studied. By changing the bombarding energy as well as the projectile &
target nuclei combinations, the systems of different energies and baryon density can be
created in laboratories.
The major curiosity associated with the transition from the QGP to baryonic matter is
the experiments which are going on in this field to study the observable phenomena
associated with the dynamics of this interface. These experimental programs involve
the collision of relativistic heavy ions that produce (relatively) small drops of QGP.
Large particle detectors are able to analyze and study systems the products of these
collisions, which provide description and information about the transition to the
baryonic phase and the QGP itself.
From the last few decades the high energy physics has changed revolutionary as we
have many accelerators like Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) at Brookhaven
National Laboratory (BNL) and Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at CERN (European
Center For Nuclear Research) etc. which can accelerate heavy ions at large energies.
The measurement of these hadrons and their features is a very good tool to analyze
the properties of this highly dynamical and dense state. This quark to hadron transition
is called chemical freeze out. The measurement of the various particle ratios (which is
fixed in this stage) provides the information about the conditions at this transition point,
within the framework of some statistical models. Further evolution reaches to the
kinetic freeze out stage, beyond which particle stream freely to the detectors.
Bulk Properties: Soft Physics
The major bulk of the particles produced in heavy ion collisions are with transverse
angular momentum 1.5GeV/c. The determination of identity of these particles and
their kinematic variables enable us to determine most of the global variables, of heavy
ion collisions (to reflect the properties of the matter produced in heavy ion reactions.)
Energy density:
The measurements by experiments reveal that the transverse energy per particle
produced is independent of colliding energy, so the measured particle energy directly
determines the energy density for a given collision.
Chemical Freeze-Out:
Since the energy density is large enough to support to the formation of
extremely dense matter i.e. the quark gluon plasma, so now it's imperative to estimate
the temperature at which the matter hadronizes. That point in the collision is called the
chemical freeze-out. The measured ratio of yields of hadrons put limits on the values of
system temperature and baryon chemical potential at chemical freeze-out. For example
in Cu-Cu collision the chemical freeze-out is estimated at 155MeV (temperature
estimated).
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Kinetic Freeze-Out:
At chemical freeze out the particle produced interact to each other and the space time
evolution of these particles can be modeled using hydrodynamics because in this state
the matter behaves like a fluid. This hydro dynamical modeling is able to predict the
transverse momentum distribution of particles called the spectra. So the hadron spectra
reflect the integrated effect of expansion from the beginning of the collision and to the
later conditions. This indicated more rapid expansion of collision after chemical freezeout, called the kinetic freeze-out.
Collective Flow:
The meaning of collective flow in heavy ion reactions is the emission of same
type of particles or emission of many ejectiles with a common velocity field or into a
common direction. There are several collective phenomena in heavy ion collisions.
1. The longitudinal flow, which describes the collective motion of particles along the
original beam direction.
2. The radial flow means the flow of particles with common velocity field with the
spherical symmetry.
3. The transverse flow represents the flow when the velocity field is independent of
azimuthal angle.
4. The impact parameter vector orientation defines a specific azimuthal direction in
nucleus-nucleus collision and a large emission is observed experimentally in this
direction called the “elliptic flow”.
Figure 2: Left: Schematic of the collision zone between two incoming nuclei and x-z
is the reaction plane. Right: Initial-state anisotropy in the collision zone converting
into final-state elliptic flow, measured as anisotropy in particle momentum.
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Azimuthal anisotropy (the elliptic flow):
One of the major experimental evidences for the existence of thermalized
system is the observation of large anisotropic flow of hadrons.
The emission of particles correlated with the reaction plane is termed as anisotropic
flow. Azimuthal asymmetry in the overlap region increases with increasing impact
parameter. The yield of various hadrons with respect to the reaction plane can be
characterized by Fourier expansion, where the different coefficients measure different
anisotropies present in the system. The first coefficient is known as the directed flow ()
and the second coefficient is the elliptic flow ().
The elliptic flow measures the effect of unequal pressure gradients, along and
perpendicular to the reaction plane, and the extent of thermalization of the system. Its
value increases with particle density and the large values observed experimentally,
indicates that the thermalized system behaves like ideal fluid. So the hydro dynamical
models are adapted for the explanation of radial and elliptic flow.
The bulk properties discussed above indicate that hadrons are emitted from a
thermalized and strong and collectively expanding source, after reaching to chemical
equilibrium.
Hard probes:
There are some other signals and probes for gaining the information about the
state of matter in heavy ion collisions like:
(i) Dileptons:
This is an electromagnetic probe i.e. the photons and lepton pairs (dileptons) do not
participate in the strong interaction and can therefore mediate important information on
the electromagnetic current correlated in the interior of the hot and dense matter. These
are the important tools to study the heavy ion collisions at ultra-relativistic energies. So
they carry the signature of primordial state of the matter produced, and their spectra are
nearly unaffected by the final state hadronic interactions.
(ii) J/ψ Suppression:
In the search for quark-gluon plasma (QGP), J/ψ suppression is proposed as one
of the important signals [1] of the deconfinement in high-energy heavy-ion collisions
when the matter is in the deconfined state of quarks and gluons the colour charges of
quarks are screened in colour plasma. This is similar to what is seen in electromagnetic
plasma. The screening of colour charges is characterized by Debye screening. In normal
circumstances the linear confining potential in vacuum binds two heavy quarks to form
a quarkonium but in the presence of Debye screening the strength between quarks is
effectively decreased, and does not allow the formation of bound state. Thus causes the
suppression of J/ψ production.
(iii) High hadron yields & Jet Quenching:
When the scaling behaviour is investigated in different regions, it is observed
that the yield of high hadrons is suppressed in central collisions. This suppression
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interactions of hard scattered partons. Due to the large bombarding energies at RHIC,
high transverse momentum () particles become statistically abundant in heavy-ion
collisions. High particles come predominantly from jets emerging from initial hardscatterings between partons. They require sufficient time to go away from the collision
zone, and mean while a dense medium is formed. The partons and fragmented hadrons
are expected to lose energy via interactions with the medium (mostly by gluon
radiation), and the high particles are quenched. This is called the jet quenching
phenomena - suppression of yield and angular correlation strength at high [5]. The
larger the medium gluon density, stronger the interaction and the larger the suppression
magnitude. Thus, high particles and jet quenching provide a powerful, direct tool to
measure the density of the medium created in ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions.
So by studying these signatures at high energies we are in search of the features of this
deconfined state of matter i.e. the quark gluon plasma. There are some theoretical
models which are used to understand the situation theoretically, and they provide a very
good agreement with the experimental results.
The theoretical models:
In heavy ion collisions when the system reaches to the hydrodynamic regime,
this state can be well described by the theoretical simplification and provides a quasimicroscopic description, with the help of hydro dynamical models. This was actually
the first approach to predict the behaviour of the system and their collective behaviour
[2, 3]. But soon it was observed that the assumption of instantaneous local equilibrium
in ideal fluid hydro dynamics is not fulfilled in heavy ion collisions, when compared
with actual data, even the viscosity and freeze out concepts were also introduced [6].
To overcome these complications, the models based on superposition of
individual N-N collisions were developed. In the starting the simple concept of
overlaying independent N-N collisions were considered [7, 8], because the collective
side flow effects were missed in the early cascade models.
Further they were refined by introducing collective mean fields i.e. the particles
propagate in their common nuclear mean field and experience hard two body collisions,
when their distance in space & time is small enough. Further they were divided into two
different program classes: (a) RBUU, for relativistic Boltzmann Uhiling Uhlenbeck ,
the approach which was limited to single particle distributions because it propagates
test particles in the common mean field of several parallel collisions [9, 10].
(b) RQMD, for relativistic quantum molecular approach in which the individual
collisions and the fluctuations are described by the treatment of particles as classical
wave packets [4, 11, 12]
The transport models provide the study of influence of different EOS (equation of
state), different momentum dependences of the interactions and in medium crosssections on all observables. With these inputs the results from different models are
generally in agreement with the real data.
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But still the proper strategy to describe the Ultra-relativistic energy range collisions is
not yet established.
The Simulation Techniques :
For a long time the simulation techniques in heavy ion collisions are rather more
phenomeological in nature. As experiments became more sophisticated and inclusive,
the need for the advanced simulation models appeared. The transport models are one of
those microscopic models which are able to dynamically simulate the collisions
without any assumption to thermal equilibrium. Like RBUU is a semi-classical
simulation techniqe (theoretical model as mentioned above). The semiclassical
transpot code can work reliably at energies beyond 100 MeV. Per nucleon. Transport
models have sucessfully described many aspects of intermediate energy heavy ion
collisions.
Event Generators:
Event generators are aimed to describe the heavy ion collisions deeply by
making use of physics known from p-p scattering.So the dynamics of A-A collision can
be considered as particles produced in initial binary binary collisions and subsequent
rescattering produces the secondaries. In order to include these rescattering, particles
are used as expicit degree of freedom and individual particle trajectories and reactions
are followed through the evolution. This can be done when the particles are treated as
localized wave-packets, also the reaction cross-sections are implemented by purely
geometricalcal considerations. Observables are then calculated by Monte-Carlo
simulation of a large sample.
We have a variety of event generators which are dependent on degrees of
freedom employed, the way of hadronization and the use of additional physics which is
not considered in p-p collision. Most prominantly used are, HIJING [20] tracking hard
partonoic evolution and hadronization. RQMD [18], & UrQMD [19] tracking hadronic
degrees of freedom, and LUCIFER [21] etc. Once the transition to hadronic degrees of
freedom from either strings or partons has been made, measured hadron-hadron cross
sections enter the simulation and the model dependencies greatly reduced.
To understand experimental results of these global variables, we required simulations
study for the same. For Simulations: We will generate events using HIJING and AMPT
event generator for different energies. We will produce the results for global variables
using these data. We will compare these results with experimental data. Provided by
various experiments and also explain these results by putting a suitable theoretical
explanation.
HIJING (Heavy Ion Jet Interaction Generator.), the Monte Carlo Model
:
It is expected that hard and semi-hard parton scattering with transverse momentum of a
few GeV, dominate high energy heavy ion collisions. The HIJING model was
developed by M. Gyulassy and X.N. Wang with special emphasis on the role of minijets
in pp, pA, AA reactions at collider energies.
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The systematic comparison of results with HIJING, with a very wide range of data
demonstrates that a quantitative understanding of the interplay between soft string
dynamics and hard QCD interaction has been achieved. In particular, HIJING
reproduces many inclusive spectra two particle correlations, and can explain the
observed flavor and multiplicity dependence of the average transverse momentum. It is
basically designed to simulate multiple minijets and particle production in pp, pA, &
AA collision HIJING is written in FORTRAN 77, consisting of subroutines for physics
simulation and common blocks for parameters and event records.
The main features added to HIJING are:
1. The modeling of soft beam jets using the Lund FRITIOF and the dual parton model
DPM [13]. In addition multiple low exchanges among the end point constituents are
included to model initial state interactions.
2. Multiple minijets production with initial and final state production is included, along
the lines of the PYTHIA model.
3. The impact parameter dependence of the number of inelastic processes is calculated
by exact diffuse nuclear geometry.
4. A model for jet quenching and an impact parameter dependent parton structure
function are introduced.
AMPT (A Multi Phase Transport Model.)
AMPT is a Monte Carlo transport model for hardon-hadron, hadron-nucleus and
nucleus-nucleus heavy ion collisions at relativistic energies. This model has four main
parts: the initial conditions, partonic interactions, the conversion from partonic to
hadronic matter and hadronic interactions. It uses the Heavy Ion Jet Interaction
Generator (HIJING) for generating the initial conditions which include the spatial and
momentum distributions of minijet partons and soft string excitations, the Zhang's
Parton Cascade (ZPC) [14]( includes only two-body scatterings with cross sections
obtained from the pQCD with screening masses) for modeling partonic scatterings, the
Lund string fragmentation model or a quark coalescence model for hadronization, and
A Relativistic Transport (ART) model for treating hadronic scatterings, are improved
and combined to give a coherent description of the dynamics of relativistic heavy ion
collisions [15, 16, 17, 18]. At present, this model includes only gluon-gluon scatterings.
Summary & Conclusions
The information collected till today about the field of heavy ion collisions is still far
away from the complete exploration. The important developments are expected in this
direction like up gradation of RHIC detectors which can provide more precise results
about anisotropic flow, strangeness production, J/ψ production, strangeness and other
important features. Moreover the important thing is to search the critical point of QGP
state. The RHIC beam energy scan would cover the region from top AGS energies, over
CERN & SPS energies and higher.
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The main difficulty of event generators is found in the initial multi-particle production.
Because of the contribution of both soft and hard processes, the choice of the correct
degrees of freedom is therefore not obvious. Usually, soft particle production is
calculated in the framework of the Dual Parton Model or the Lund string model it
describe the particle production as the of color strings stretching breaks between the
scattered partners. For the hard particle production, partonic degrees of freedom have to
be employed along with the fragmentation functions known from e.g. deep inelastic
scattering experiments. If there is any QGP phase, its properties are encoded in
nontrivial physics of particle production within event generator type models. Suggested
concepts involve interactions or fusion among color strings ('color ropes', implemented
in RQMD and UrQMD), percolation of strings and modifications of the string tension
(HIJING). In general, the implementation of these additional mechanisms allows no
straightforward connection to equilibrium properties of the QGP extracted from the
lattice, which makes it difficult to make use of this information.
These days we have detailed simulation studies of such collisions with the methods
developed for desired geometry of the collisions. The results from different simulation
models are providing good agreement with the experimental results at low energies and
relativistic energies as well as at high energies.
References
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(1987); B. Nilsson- Almaqvist and E. Stenlund, Comp. Phys. Commun. 43, 387 (1987)
[14] B. Zhang, Comput. Phys. Commun. 109, 193 (1998).
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[17] X. N. Wang and M. Gyulassy, Phys. Rev. D 45, 844 (1992).
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83, 307 (1994).
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Greiner, Phys. Lett. B 471 (1999) 89; M. Bleicher, M. Belkacem, S. A. Bass, S. Soff and
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A STUDY ON CERTAIN RUMEN FLUID PARAMETERS OF
CAMEL Camelus dromedarius MAINTAINED ON
DIFFERENT DIETS
Rakesh Poonia*, Suchitra Sena** and Meera Srivastava*
*Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner
334001, Rajasthan, India
**National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The camel Camelus dromedarius, is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and
arid environment. More than 70% and often as much as 95% of the feed selected by camel is
composed of dicotyledons (plants with broad leaves including browse and legumes).
Clusterbean (guar) is an important drought resistant leguminous crop most suitable in arid areas.
Camels, under conditions of scarcity of grazing, especially in summer, are fed roughages and
concentrates. The proportion of the concentrate and roughage in the complete ration is expected
to change the microbial population in the rumen, which in turn may affect their capacity to
colonize feed particles and may influence the nutrient utilization from the feed. In developing
countries like India where economy is growing, the supply of well established diet to the cattle is
not possible for poor animal holders especially to the camel because it needs so much dry matter
and concentrate to fulfill its daily feed requirements. So common keepers most often do not feed
concentrate to their camels unless they become rundown. In that case they feed some millet flour
or barley flour and gur (molasses) 1g/kg body weight for a few days till the camel regains his
condition. If this molasses is given in excess amount, it causes gastro-intestinal disorders. These
have been used widely to identify problem and to indicate dietary causes of diseases or low
production. Due to introduction of new feed resources, this study was an attempt to investigate
the rumen fluid parameters of camels maintained on different diets. Group 1 camels were given
guar phalgati (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba) and ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) chara in 1:1 ratio.
Group 2 camels were given ground nut chara alone while in Group 3 camels jaggery 50%w/v
was administrated as a single dose orally @15g/kg body weight apart from feeding of ground nut
chara. Among the physical parameters, in Groups 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic odor,
brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency, whereas in Group 3, the rumen fluid
exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency. The cellulose
digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2 while in Group 3 camels it exceeded more
than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and
18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating highest SAT in Group 3. The methylene blue
reduction time (MBRT) was normal in both the Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02), while in Group 3
there was a reduction in MBRT 3.00±0.40. It could be concluded that in Group 3 camels which
were given jaggery in addition to groundnut chara showed a significant change in the digestive
pattern leading towards acid indigestion and it could be envisaged that there exists a significant
role of plan of nutrition on digestive pattern.
Key words: Camel, rumen fluid, physical parameters, biochemical parameters, diet
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INTRODUCTION
The camel Camelus dromedarius, is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to
hot and arid environment. Although camelidae are ruminating animals, they are
classified as pseudo-ruminants because they differ from true ruminants in structure of
their compound stomach. The camelid stomach is considered two-chambered, with a
fore stomach (comprising the reticulo-rumen) and a tubular stomach. The most striking
feature differentiating it from the appearance of the true ruminant stomach is the
presence of glandular sacs. Rumen fermentation can supply 70-100% of ruminant
animals amino acid supply and 70-85% of the energy supply can be absorbed as volatile
fatty acids, the main end product of microbial fermentation. More than 70% and often as
much as 95% of the feed selected by camel is composed of dicotyledons (plants with
broad leaves including browse and legumes). Clusterbean (guar) is an important
drought resistant leguminous crop most suitable in arid areas. An appreciable amount of
edible biomass is obtained as waste or byproduct after screening of seeds popularly
known as guar phalgatti which includes stem and empty pods of the plant. Camels,
under conditions of scarcity of grazing, especially in summer, are fed roughages and
concentrates. Dry roughages consist of bhoosa (straw), tree leaves and pods collected in
rainy season. Bhoosa (straw) is chaffed into small pieces. Chaffed grass mixed with
straw of one or two different crops is also used for feeding camels. The proportion of the
concentrate and roughage in the complete ration is expected to change the microbial
population in the rumen, which in turn may affect their capacity to colonize feed
particles and may influence the nutrient utilization from the feed. The nutritional value
of feed is influenced by the feed characteristics, and their influence on rumen microbial
characteristics, knowledge of both, and their interaction can contribute to a better
understanding of the nutritional qualities of ruminant feedstuffs.
In developing countries like India where economy is growing, the supply of well
established diet to the cattle is not possible for poor animal holders especially to the
camel because it needs so much dry matter and concentrate to fulfill its daily feed
requirements. So common keepers most often do not feed concentrate to their camels
unless they become rundown. In that case they feed some millet flour or barley flour and
gur (molasses) 1g/kg body weight for a few days till the camel regains his condition. If
this molasses is given in excess amount, it causes gastro-intestinal disorders. The rumen
fluid profiles can be considered important in evaluating the health status of animals.
These have been used widely to identify problem and to indicate dietary causes of
diseases or low production. Due to introduction of new feed resources, this study was an
attempt to investigate the effect on certain rumen fluid parameters of camels maintained
on different diets.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The present investigation was carried out in three groups of four camels each, at
National Research Center on Camel, Bikaner, maintained on different diets. Group 1
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given guar phalgati (Cyamopsis tetragonaloba) and ground nut (Arachis hypogaea)
chara in 1:1 ratio. Group 2 camels were given ground nut chara alone while in Group 3
camels jaggery 50%w/v was administrated as a single dose orally @15g/kg body
weight apart from feeding of ground nut chara. In all the three groups de-worming was
done with a broad spectrum anti-helminthes prior to the start of the experiment and all
the camels were in clinically healthy condition. All three groups of camels were given
ad lib water.
Collection of rumen fluid
Rumen fluid was collected from camels by using rumen fluid extraction unit through
suction by using stomach tube specially designed for camels. The camels were
tranquilized before rumen fluid collection using 3-4 ml of xylazine.100 ml of the
collected rumen fluid was filtered/ strained through 4 layer muslin cloth and used for
analyzing physico-chemical parameters immediately. The parameters studied
included:
I. Rumen fluid physical parameters
1. Color: The visible color of the rumen fluid was noticed and recorded. Color of the
rumen fluid varies depending on the diet given.
2. Odor: The odour/smell was recorded which also depends on the type of feed and
clinical condition.
3. Consistency: The consistency was recorded which also varies from viscous to
watery depending on the diet.
4. Sedimentation activity time (SAT): The strained rumen fluid was kept in a small
beaker at room temperature in incubator. Time required for floatation of particulate
material (SAT) was noted. It has been expressed in minutes.
5. Cellulose digestion time (CDT): The thread of cotton with known diameter was
kept suspended with a metal bead in 50ml strained centrifuged rumen fluid and kept at
37°C temperature and glucose solution @ 1-2 ml per 5 ml rumen fluid was added. The
result (CDT) was observed at one hour interval, at least for 30 hrs.
6. Methylene blue reduction time (MBRT): It was carried out by adding 1ml of
0.03% aqueous solution of methylene blue to 20 ml of strained rumen fluid. A second
tube was filled with rumen fluid for comparison. The time was measured until the
contents of the first tube were discolored and expressed as MBRT in minutes.
II. Rumen fluid biochemical parameters
1. pH: The pH of strained rumen fluid was estimated with the help of electrical digital
pH meter.
2. Total acidity: 10ml of strained rumen fluid was taken in a beaker and two drops of
phenolphthalein were added and this was titrated with N/10 NaOH until pink color
appeared. The amount of N/10 NaOH utilized was measured (total acidity) directly
from biuret and expressed as units.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Among the physical parameters, in Group 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic
odor, brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency whereas, in Group 3 the
rumen fluid exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency.
The cellulose digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2, while in Group 3
camels it exceeded more than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT
were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and 18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating significant
(P<0.01) variation among Groups 1, 3 and 2, 3. The mean methylene blue reduction
time (MBRT) was normal in both the Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02) while in Group 3 there
was a significant (P<0.01) reduction in MBRT 3.00±0.40 in comparison to Groups 1
and 2. The result of SAT and MBRT is presented in Fig 1. The results of rumen
physiological parameters in different groups of camels are presented in Table 1.
The rumen fluid biochemical changes viz., pH and the total acidity in the rumen fluid of
Groups 1, 2 and 3 revealed a mean pH of 7.1±0.05, 7.1±0.06 and 5.00±0.8 as well as
total acidity of 43.50±3.09, 30.00±0.81 and 67.75±1.54 units respectively. The results
of rumen fluid pH and total acidity are presented in Table 2 and Figs. 2 and 3. The results
showed highly significant changes among groups.
The physical parameters of rumen fluid viz., color and odour revealed that in camels fed
on diet groundnut chara and guar phalgatti (Group 1) as well as on groundnut chara
alone (Group 2), there was normal brownish gray color with aromatic odour and slight
viscous consistency. In the camels administered jaggery @ 15g/kg body weight, orally
(Group 3), after 24 hours the rumen fluid was collected which showed milky gray color,
pungent/sour odour, and porridge consistency revealing the changes towards acid
indigestion. The similar findings in acidosis were also reported by Garry (1990), Basak
et al., (1993), Miranda et al. (2005), Kumar & Verma (2005), Shihabudheen et al.
(2006) and Darwin et al. (2007b).The changes in the color and odour of Group 3 camels
are attributed towards the increased concentration of lactic acid in the rumen liquor. The
consistency was changed from viscous to watery in acidosis which might be due to
passage of fluid from vascular bed to rumen as a result of increased osmolality of rumen
content as envisaged by Kumar & Verma, (2005). The physiological changes of rumen
liquor have direct relationship towards change in feed offered to the animals (Dash et
al., 1972; Rosenberger, 1979).
The mean cellulose digestion time (CDT) and sedimentation activity (SAT) showed a
slight increase in Group 3 in comparison to Groups 1 and 2 which were in normal range
depicting normal rumen fluid. The mean values of methylene blue reduction time
showed a decrease in Group 3 camels in comparison to Groups 1 and 2. The rumen fluid
physiological parameters of SAT, CDT and MBRT showed highly significant (P<0.01)
variation between the three groups based on ANOVA. The statistical significance based
on paired t-test showed a non-significant (P>0.05) variation among Groups 1 and 2,
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whereas highly significant variation (P<0.01) was observed between Groups 1 and 2 as
well as Groups 1 and 3, except for the MBRT values which showed significant
difference at 5% level (P<0.05) among Groups 1 and 3. Randhawa et al. (1980) and
Braun et al. (1992) revealed absence of floatation or prolonged sedimentation activity
during acid indigestion which also supports the findings of present study. They also
mentioned that the destruction of cellulolytic bacteria and the increase in number of
gram positive organisms contribute to the increase in SAT. On the contrary Basak et al.
(1993) observed a significant (P<0.01) reduction in sedimentation activity as well as
MBRT in rumen fluid of goats affected with acidosis, whereas Miranda et al. (2005)
reported reduction in sedimentation activity. The present findings were similar to that of
Randhawa et al. (1980) and Braun et al. (1992). This effect of changes in the
physiological parameters may be contributed towards change in pattern of
microorganisms in rumen fluid (Randhawa et al., 1989). On the contrary few reports
suggest an increase in MBRT (Braun et al., 1992; Shihabudheen et al., 2006;
Kasaralikar et al., 2007) in acid indigestion.
On the whole the animals maintained on sole ration of ground nut chara and on guar
phalgati and groundnut chara revealed almost similar changes in the rumen fluid
physiological parameters but when jaggery was fed i.e., a shift towards energy rich
carbohydrate there was change in rumen fluid physical parameters which are more
likely towards acidosis of rumen fluid.
The mean values of rumen fluid pH and total acidity showed a significant (P<0.01)
reduction in both these parameters of Group 3 camels where as there was a significant
increase (P<0.01) in total acidity in Group 3 in comparison to Groups 1and 2. The
rumen biochemical parameters viz., pH and total acidity showed highly significant
variation (P<0.01) among Groups 1, 3 and 2, 3 when analysis of these values were
performed by paired t-test. The reduction in rumen fluid pH of Group 3 camels is in
close correlation of the previous observations made by Afonso et al. (2002), Karaca et
al. (2003), Hajikolaei et al. (2006), Kasaralikar et al. (2007) and Lila et al. (2007). This
drop in pH of rumen fluid might be due to the rapid utilization of carbohydrate rich diet
by amylolytic bacteria (Streptococcus bovis) which leads to production of large
quantity of lactic acid in rumen (Patra et al., 1993; Martin et al., 2006). Specific diet,
such as wheat straw + concentrate mixture having mustered cake treated with
formaldehyde @ 2g/100g crude protein also causes drop in ruminal pH (Madan et al.,
1997). A low rumen fluid pH was also due to production of large quantities of lactic acid
and volatile fatty acids in rumen of acidosis ruminants was reported by Nikolov et al.
(2003), and Dunlop (1972). The present study also envisaged that decline in pH and
increase in total acidity is attributed towards rapid utilization of jaggery in the rumen
leading to large production of lactic acid.
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CONCLUSION
Among the physical parameters, in Groups 1 and 2 the rumen fluid showed aromatic
odor, brownish grey color and slightly viscous consistency, whereas in Group 3, the
rumen fluid exhibited pungent/sour odour, milky grey color and porridge consistency.
The cellulose digestion time was >36 hrs in Group 1 and Group 2 while in Group 3
camels it exceeded more than 48 hrs. In Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 the mean SAT
were 4.25±0.47, 5.25±0.47 and 18.75±1.49 minutes respectively indicating highest
SAT in Group 3. The methylene blue reduction time (MBRT) was normal in both the
Groups 1 and 2 (6.25±0.02), while in Group 3 there was a reduction in MBRT
3.00±0.40. It could be concluded that in Group 3 camels which were given jaggery in
addition to groundnut chara showed a significant change in the digestive pattern leading
towards acid indigestion and it could be envisaged that there exists a significant role of
plan of nutrition on digestive pattern.
Acknowledgement
The Principal, Govt.Dungar College, Bikaner and The Director, NRCC, Jorbeer,
Bikaner is thankfully acknowledged for providing facilities and extending their cooperation in carrying out this work. References
Afonso, J.A.B., Ciarlini, P.C., Kuchembick, M.R.G., Kohaya Gawa, A., Fettrin, L.P.Z.,
Ciarlini, L.D.R.P., Laposy, C.B., Mendonca, C.L.and Takahira, R.K. Pesquisa
Veterinaria Brasileira. 22(4), 2002, 129-134.
Basak, D.N., Pan, S. and Chakrabarti, A. Indian Journal of Animal Science. 63, 1993,
263-267.
Braun, U., Rihs, T. and Schefer, U. Veterinary Rec. 130, 1992, 343-349.
Darwin, L., Suresh, R.V., Thangathurai, R. and Dhanapalan, P. Indian Veterinary
Journal. 84 (8), 2007b, 882-883.
Dash, P.K., Misra, S.K. and Mohanty, G.P. Indian Veterinary Journal. 49, 1972, 672677.
Dunlop, R.H. Adv.Vet. Sci.Comp.Med. 16, 1972, 259-302.
Garry, F. Veterinary Medicine. 85, 1990, 660.
Hajikelaei, M.R.H., Nouri, M., Afshar, F.S. and Dehkordi, A. J. Pakistan Journal of
Biological Science. 9(10), 2006, 2003- 2005.
Karaca, M., Ceylan, E., Akkan, H.A. and Kelees, I. Indian Veterinary Journal. 80(12),
2003, 1245-1247.
Kasaralikar, V.R., Singari, N.A., Hafiz, M., Parsad, E.P. and Kumar, S.P. Indian Journal
of Veterinary Medicine. 27 (2), 2007, 111-114.
Kumar, A. & Verma, S.P. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 25 (2), 2005, 100-101.
Lila, Z.A., Mohammed, N., Khanda, S., Kurihara, M. and Itabashi, H. AsianAustralian Journal of Animal Sciences. 18 (12), 2007, 1746-1751.
Madan, J. & Puri, J.P. Indian Journal of Animal Science. 67(8), 1997, 709-711.
Martin, C., Brossard, L. and Doreau, M. INRA productions animals. 19(2), 2006, 93107.
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MirandaNeto, E.G., Afsono, J.A.B., Mendonca, C.I. and Almeida, M.Z.P.R.B.
Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileria. 25(2), 2005, 73-78.
Nikolov, Y. Indian Veterinary Journal. 80(1), 2003, 36-39.
Patra, R.C., Lal, S.B. and Swarup, D. Res.tet. Science. 54, 1993, 217-220.
Randhawa, S.S., Seita, M.S. and Mishra, S.K. Current Science. 49, 1980, 82-83.
nd
Rosenberger, G. Clinical examination of cattle. 2 edition. Verlag Parey, Berlin and
Hamburg, 1979.
Shihabudeen, P.K., Pillai, U.N., and Kumar, S.A. Indian Veterinary Journal. 83(3),
2006, 267-270.
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Table 1. Rumen fluid physical parameters (*) in different groups of camels fed
with different diets
Parameters
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Color
Brownish grey
Brownish grey
Milky grey
Odor
Aromatic
Aromatic
Pungent/sour
Consistency
Slightly viscous
Slightly viscous
Porridge
CDT
>36
>36
>48
SAT**
4.25±0.47a
5.25±0.47b
18.75±1.49a,b
MBRT**
6.25±0.62a
6.25±0.62b
3.00±0.40a,b
*values given are Mean± SE.
** (P<0.01: significant at 1% level; Figures with similar superscripts reveal significant
difference between groups).
Table 2. Rumen fluid biochemical parameters (*) in different groups of camels fed
with different diets
Parameters
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
pH**
7.1±0.05a
7.1±0.06b
5.00±0.8a,b
Total acidity**(units)
43.50±3.09a
30.00±0.81b
67.75±1.54a,b
*values given are Mean± SE.
** (P<0.01: significant at 1% level; Figures with similar superscripts reveal significant
difference between groups).
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Fig 1. Rumen fluid physiological parameters SAT & MBRT
(min) values in camels fed with different diets
Fig 2. Mean rumen fluid pH values in different groups of
camels fed with different diets
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Fig 3. Mean rumen fluid total acidity (units) values in
different groups of camels fed with different diets
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AN OVERVIEW ON THE BAP BOULDER BED
Karanveer S. Rajvi and Shishir Sharma
Department of Geology, Government Dungar College, Bikaner
Email: [email protected] and [email protected]
Abstract
After the deposition of the Nagaur Group (Proterozoic) there was a break in
sedimentation in this part of the state. Upper Carboniferous glaciation is represented
in the Nagaur basin by the NE-SW trending remnants of the Bap Boulder Bed-an
assortment of pebbles and cobbles with occasional boulders and a few erratics
exhibiting well-marked glacial striations. Bap Boulder Bed is a spread of rocks of
different sizes and composition. The spread covers an area of about 68 square
kilometers from Nokhra to Khirwa. The Spread is not continuous and is in the form
of isolated patches as most of the part of the spread is covered with recent alluvium.
The land is not fit for farming but the part of covered area is being farmed at some
places. Glacial striations and ventifacts are clearly seen on the pebbles and boulders
found there. There was a huge controversy in the age determination of Bap boulder
bed, Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh (1976) suggested it is to be of Post-Eocene and
possibly Pleistocene age- the only Post-Eocene glacial period. According to
Faruque and Ojha (1970) these boulder beds are of Upper Carboniferous age. The
determination of age of Bap boulder bed is based on various correlation and fossils
contents. The age of Bap boulder bed was suggested to be of Eocene by some
workers and Permo-Carboniferous by others.
The criteria for determining the age of the formation is different. On the basis
of different correlations and fossils content the age of Bap boulder bed is concluded
to be of Permo-Carboniferous.
Keyword: Proterozoic, Bap Boulder Bed
INTRODUCTION
After the deposition of the Nagaur Group (Proterozoic) there was a break in
sedimentation as a result of which sediments of most of Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous periods are not represented in Rajasthan.
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Upper Carboniferous glaciation is represented in the Nagaur basin by the NESW trending remnants of the Bap Boulder Bed-an assortment of pebbles and cobbles
with occasional boulders and a few erratics exhibiting well-marked glacial striations,
spread over 68 sq km extending in a NW-SE direction from Khirwa to Nokhra. These
are referred to either as Bap Boulders (Mishra et al.,1962; Shrivastava, 1971;
Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh,1976) or Bap Boulder Spread (Pareek and
Sinha,1978),Bap Boulder Bed (Pareek, 1981). However, earlier workers have
assigned the name Bap Boulder Bed (Oldham, 1886; La Touche, 1902; Heron, 1932).
Bap Boulder Bed is overlain by a very small remnant of the marine Badhaura
sandstone of 30 m computed thickness. Extending from northwest of Badhaura up to
Harbans, these marine sediments, designated as the Badhaura Formation, comprise
medium- to coarse- grained brownish-yellowish and ferruginous sandstone, clay, shale
and siltstone containing Permian fauna and flora.
Location
Bap Boulder Bed lies in the vicinity of Village Bap (27.3867°N 72.3518°E) which is
situated in North of Jodhpur district and at 130 kilometers on Bikaner- Jaisalmer
highway. These Early Permian marine sequences exposed in and around Bap in the
nearby areas of Khirwa, Bhartasar, Bap, Badi-Dhani, Badhaura, Gunget ka Magra and
Bhimji Ka Gaon area of Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The Badhaura Formation is well exposed
as isolated patches in the area bounded by Badhaura in the south, Gadna in the north,
Bhimji ka gaon in the west and just west of Bap in the east (Fig. 1). It is comprised of
yellow calcareous sandstone inter-bedded with friable sandstone, ironstone and
ferruginous clay. The Badhaura Formation is underlain by the Bap Formation. The Bap
Formation occurs from Khirwa in the south-west to Nokhra in the north-east covering
an area of about 68 square kilometers. The Spread is not continuous and is in the form of
isolated patches as most of the part of the spread is covered with recent alluvium. The
land is not fit for farming but the part of covered area is being farmed at some places.
Lithology
Bap Boulder Bed is basically a spread of pebbles, cobbles and boulders having a
great variation in the composition of rocks. The rocks range in size from 1 cm to some
boulders of even 80 cm in dimension. etc. Ventifacts are also seen on the pebbles and
boulders found there. The rock types include gravel/boulder, 5 cm to 25 cm across in
size, of rhyolite, tuff, granite, basalt and dolerite of the Malani Igneous Suite; granite,
syenite, dolerite, quartzite, porphyritic granite, syenite, phyllite, slate amphibolite and
basic rocks, and limestone, dolomitic limestone and sandstone of the Marwar Super
group and other older rocks. The thickness of the bed as recorded by Ranga Rao et al.
1977 is 50-160 m.
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Fig.1. Geological Map of Bap and Badhaura area, part of topo sheet No. 45 A/7,
district Jodhpur, Rajasthan. (After Jain and Kumar, 2010)
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Permo-Carboniferous
Bap and Badhaura
Formation
Photo: p38-39, Geol ogy of Rajasthan
A.B.Roy, S.R.Jakhar
Fig 2: Location of Bap Boulder Bed in the Geological Map of Rajasthan
Fig 3: Spread of Boulders near Badi sid Village on NH-15
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Bap Boulder Bed is also known as Bap Boulder Spread as it is a conglomeritic
bed in which the matrix has eroded and a spread of rocks of different sizes can be seen.
As the spread have a wide variation in rock type and its sizes, it can be said a polymictic
conglomeritic bed.
Fig 4: Bivalves collected from the Badhaura Formation exposed in Badi-dhani
village on Bikaner- Jaisalmer National Highway (NH-15).
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Origin
Bap boulder bed is a result of glacial deposition. When glacier moves it plucks
rocks from the strata which are in its contact, these rock particles thus travels with the
movement of glacier and when the glacier melts the rock particles are dropped. Glacial
striations are clearly seen on the rock type of the area which indicates its formation to be
of glacial origin. Ventifacts are flat surface on a rock. As the area is arid, so the
windblown here carries sand particles with it and these sand particles make abrasion
action on the rocks and forms these ventifacts. Ventifacts also indicate that after the
deposition of Bap boulder bed, it has not suffered any depositional phase.
Geological Age
There was a huge controversy in the age determination of Bap boulder bed,
Mukhopadhyay and Ghosh (1976) suggested it is to be of Post-Eocene and possibly
Pleistocene age, the only post-eocene glacial period. The stratigraphical position and
the field evidences tend to indicate it to be post- Marwar Super group and pre-Badhaura
in age. They are Upper Carboniferous in age (Faruque and Ojha, 1970). The
determination of age of Bap boulder bed is based on various correlation and fossils
contents. The Bap boulder bed could be correlated with the Talchir boulder bed of
Madhya Pradesh (La Touche, 1902) and many with the Umarian marine bed of Madhya
Pradesh (Narayanan, 1964; Pareek and Sinha, 1977; Shrivastava, 1971; Faruqi
and Ojha, 1970). Different fossils of Eurydesma sp., Polypora sp., Ambikella sp., and
Neosprifer sp., have been reported from the Bap boulder bed by Ranga Rao et al.
(1977). Etherilosia, Lamniplica and Arctitreta; a bryozoan genus Polypora and oysters
were reported from the Bap boulder bed by Jain and Kumar (2010). Foraminifers are
also known from the Bap Formation (Shah and Mehrotra, 1985).
The Bap boulder bed is conformably overlain by the Badhaura formation which
is rich in its marine fauna and flora fossils. Bap boulder bed is unconformable with the
overlying Tunklian formation of Nagaur group (Marwar Super group). Bap boulder bed
does not contain rocks younger than those of Bilara group (Marwar Super group). The
presence of Permian fossils from the overlying Badhaura formation indicates Permian
age of the Badhaura formation.
The Similarity in the Rock type & fossil content of Bap boulder bed and Talchir
boulder bed, Umarian marine bed, and boulder bed of Salt range of PermoCarboniferous age is suggestive of Permo-Carboniferous age of Bap boulder bed. It can
be assumed that in the Late Carboniferous time glacier at the Western flank of india,
with the upliftment of Aravalli started drifting in two opposite directions, The part of
glacier going NE formed the Bap boulder bed and the boulder bed of Salt range and the
part going SW formed the Talchir Boulder Bed and Umarian Marine Bed. The palaeogeographical reconstruction suggests that the Indus basin was connected through the
North-Western Rajasthan and Gujarat, to Narmada Valley and then extending as far as
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Umaria, by the Permian transgression (Pareek, H.S., 1979). The connection of the Salt
Range through the Aravallis could not have been probable because of the uplands., and
hence the arm of the Permian sea penetrated from Salt Range through Rajasthan, and
Narmada to Umaria (Ghosh and Bandopadhyay,1967; Sastry and Shah, 1964). The
marine transgression took place wherever a route had been formed by an extensive
glaciations. The occurrence of solitary patches of these sedimentaries at all the places
mentioned above indicates extensive erosional agencies have reigned during the postPermian, to the pre-Jurassic period, leaving only traces of these sedimentary deposits.
On the basis of field observations, presence of boulders of the older rocks i.e. of
Malani Igneous Complex, Delhi Super group and Marwar Super group only, complete
absence of boulders of rocks of Mesozoic age, relation of Bap Boulder Beds and
overlying Badhaura Formation, presence of fossils characteristics of Permian age, it is
concluded that the Bap Boulder Beds are of Permo-Carboniferous in age.
References
Ahmed, N.; Hashimi, N. H. & Ghauri, K. K. 1974. Middle Carboniferous fossil bed from
western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci.,43 (16): 512513; Delhi.
Bharti, S.K.,2013. First record of foraminifera from the Badhaura Formation,
Rajasthan. Paleontology Div. I, CHQ, GSI, Kolkata.
Faruque, N.H. and Ojha, B.K., 1979. Report on the age relationship of the Bap
Boulder Bed and Badhaura Formation, dist. Jodhpur and Bikaner,
Rajasthan.Unpublished Report, Geol. Surv. India.
Heron, A.M. 1932. The Vindhyans of Western Rajputana. Rec.Geol. Surv. India,
v.65(4), p.457-489.
Jain, R. L. and Kumar, R., 2010, Palaeontological study of Permian fossils from the
Bap and the Badhaura Formations exposed in the Jodhpur and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan,Unpublished report, GSI FS 2007-09.
La Touché T.D.H., 1902, Geology of Western Rajputana. Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of India, Vol. 35, pt.1, 18 pages.
Mishra, J. S., Srivastava, B.P. and Jain, S.K., 1961, Discovery of marine PermoCarboniferous in Western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci., vol. 39 (7), p. 262-263.
Mishra, J.S., Srivastava, B.P. and Jain, S.K., 1962. Discovery of marine PermoCarboniferous in western Rajasthan. Curr. Sci., Vol.30.
Mukhopadhyaya, A.K. and Ghosh, R.N., 1976. The problem of the stratigraphic
position of the Bap Boulders, Rajasthan. Ind Jour. Earth Sci., 3 (2).
Oldham, R. D. 1928. Prospects of finding coal in Western Rajputana. Rec. Geol. Surv.
Ind.,19: 122127; Calcutta.
Oldham, R.D., 1886. On probable changes in the geography of the Punjab and its rivers
a historico-geographical study. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 55:322-343.
Pareek, H.S. 1981. Basin configuration and sedimentary stratigraphy of Western
Rajasthan. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, v.22,pp.517-527.
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Pareek, H.S., 1978, New evidence on the age relationship of Bap boulder spread and
Badhaura formation, N-W, Rajasthan
Pareek, H.S.1984. Pre-Quaternary geology and mineral resources of Northwestern
Rajasthan. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, v.115,pp.1-99.
Pascoe, E. H. 1975. A Manual of the Geology of India and Burma, 23rd Ed. Repr. Geol.
Surv. India, IX- XXII: 485-1343; Calcutta.
Ranga Rao, A.;Dhar, C. L. & Obergfell, F. A. 1977. Badhaura Formation of Rajasthan its
stratigraphy and age. Fourth Intern. Gondw. Sympos. 1977,2: 481490; Calcutta.
ROY, A.B. and JAKHAR, S.R. 2002. Geology of Rajasthan (northwest India),
Precambrian to Recent. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, 421p.
Shah, S. C. and Mehrotra, D. K., 1985, Early Permian foraminifera from the Bap
Formation,Jodhpur, Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min.Met. Soc. India, no. 52, p.311-318.
Shah, S. C. 1963. Marine Permian fauna from Bap Boulder Bed, Rajasthan. Ind.
Miner.,17: 195197; Calcutta.
Shah, S. C. and Mehrotra, D. K., 1985, Early Permian foraminifera from the Bap
Formation, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min.Met. Soc. India, no. 52, p.311-318.
Shrivastava, B.P. 1971. Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of West
Central Rajasthan. Bull. Geol. Min. Met.Soc. India, No.44, pp.1-19.
Sinha, A.A.K., 1977, New evidence on the age relationship of Bap Boulder Spread and
Badhaura Formation, Northwestern Rajasthan , Curr. Sci., 47, No.1.
Srivastava , B.P. 1971, Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of west
central Rajasthan. Bull. Geo.Min. Met.Soc. Ind., 44.
Srivastava, B.P., 1971, Rock stratigraphic nomenclature for the sedimentaries of westcentral Rajasthan, Bull. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India., vol. 44, p.1-19.
Waterhouse, J. B. & Ranga Rao, A. 1977. Early permian brachiopod and molluscan
species from the bap formation of peninsula India. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, June
1989, Volume 63, Issue 1-2, pp 25-39
Waterhouse, J.B. and Ranga Rao, A., 1989, Early Permian brachiopod and molluscan
species from the Bap Formation of Peninsular India. Palaeotologische Zeitschrift,
Band 63, Heft ½, p.25-39, 7 figures.
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TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF WATER HARVESTING IN
ARID REGION: A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF BIKANER
TEHSIL (RAJASTHAN)
Dr. Jai Bharat Singh
Lecturer in Geography, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner (Rajasthan)
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Rainwater harvesting is not new to India. The art and science of collecting water
where it falls is ancient and needs to be revived to meet our modern freshwater needs
adequately, equitably and sustainably.1 Our aim and in fact, our responsibility is then
to revive and modernize this traditional method which holds key to our water future.
The water is becoming source commodity from day by day and will be difficult to
cope up with the demand of the population constantly increasing, it is necessary that
every individual citizen should work to harness rainwater and conserve for his own
use. Therefore, the first and foremost need for today is to create awareness amongst
the people in both rural and urban masses for revival of old water structures.
Keyword: Rainwater harvesting, Old water structures.
INTRODUCTION
Water harvesting can be defined as the process of concentrating rainfall as runoff from a
larger catchment area to be used in a smaller target area. This process may occur
naturally or artificially. The collected runoff water is either directly applied to an
adjacent agricultural field or stored in some type of storage facility for domestic use and
2
as to supplement irrigation.
It is primarily of two types (i) roof water harvesting, and (ii) in situ water harvesting.
Roof water harvesting has traditionally comprised of collection of
precipitation falling on the roof or terrace of a building and storing it in a waterproof
sump at ground level for year round use. While in situ water harvesting is, a type of
rainwater harvesting in which the rainfall on a plot of land is harvested there itself by
storing it in a pit or trench. In modern time, the rainwater from rooftop on plot of land
may be stored in a sump, pit or trench, or discharged into the immediate local aquifer
through an existing open well or tube well, or a recharge shaft or recharge well.
Objectives: To evaluate the significance of traditional techniques of water harvesting
in the present context.
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Hypothesis: There is shortage of both ground and surface water in the desert tehsil of
Bikaner. The increasing pressure of population and livestock, expansion of agricultural
activities, extraction of groundwater to irrigate water loving crops, supply of drinking
water by government are some of the factors responsible for extinction of ancient
traditional practices of water harvesting in the study area. As the inadequate supply for
drinking water and irrigation reducing with the decreasing groundwater level, people
have started adopting the traditional systems to mitigate the water problem. Thus, the
movement of water harvesting traditions will be a positive factor for revival of these
age-old practices and constructions of new structures.
METHODOLOGY
A schedule was prepared to collect the primary data and information from 10
households of each sample 13 villages and 2 urban centres of the study area. The sample
water structures were surveyed to investigate their historical background and
environmental impact in the local area. The local people have been asked about the need
of water harvesting structures (WHS) at domestic and community level, other methods
of water harvesting, supply and quality of drinking water, means and methods of
irrigation, methods used for roof and field water harvesting etc. With this, secondary
data and information have been collected from various
governmental and semi-governmental institutions. Then the
collected data and information have been analysed to obtain
the objectives of the study and to test the hypothesis. The
tables, maps, charts and graphs have been prepared to
conclude the study. This study is an important attempt to
give a clear perspective of small water harvesting structures
in the study area.
Study Area: Bikaner tehsil is located in the western part of
Rajasthan and has extreme climate with a hot, dry and long
summer, a cold winter and a short monsoon. The maximum
temperature in the summer season reaches up to 48C and in
winter season, the minimum temperature goes to freezing
point. Normal annual rainfall in the tehsil is 23.37 cm and
the average humidity percentage is 45. The rainfall is
irregular and uncertain. Soils comprise 90-95 percent of
sand. The depth of ground water varies 90-130 m. The
continuous failure of monsoon and inadequate supply of
water from Indira Gandhi Canal has caused the scarcity of
water resources at a critical level. The study area spreads
over an area of 3192.52 sq km lying between 27°40' and
28°22' north latitudes and 73°06' and 73° 52' east
longitudes.3
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Status of groundwater: There are three stages of groundwater availability in Bikaner
tehsil. The tehsil was under safe zone in groundwater until 1998. However, as the
exploitation of groundwater increased with the growing number of public and field
tube-wells since last fifteen years, the tehsil has reached in critical and very critical
stage. The exploitation of groundwater for irrigation and adoption of commercial and
water loving crops has put the area in very critical zone.
Water Harvesting Structures: The followings are main techniques of rainwater
conservation in arid zones.
1. Tanka: It is a small circular or square underground tank constructed with lime mortar
or cement plaster. It is constructed normally on fallow ground where surface runoff can
be diverted to the structure by creating a
clean catchment all around. It is
constructed on individual family basis and
it provides drinking water for 4-8 months
depending upon the total storage, water use
and other losses.
2. Kuin: it is a very narrow, shallow,
vertical and cylindrical structure. It serves
to slowly convert the moisture in the sand
into water. In a very slow process, the kuin
converts the conserved moisture of the
sand to water and is employed particularly
in those areas where ground water is saline
and no other source of drinking water is
available. Saline ground water is
commonly found in all those areas where a hard stratum of gypsum or chalk exists.
Kuins are mainly constructed on this hard strata which checks the percolation of
rainwater.4
3. Kund: Older communities in desert settlements used the roofs of their houses and
courtyards to serve the same purpose as the
catchment areas of the ponds to collect rainwater
Field Kund Bambloo
on the rooftop and courtyard of the houses. These
are called kunds or tankas. Rainwater collected in
this way assumes greater significance when we
realise that ground water in some areas is saline and
unsuitable for drinking.
Almost every rooftop has a gentle slope so that
water can flow from here into a pipe and through
that to an underground tank. The pipe has a
provision for straining out dirt and grains of sand.
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The size of the underground storage tank depends on the average quantity of rainfall in
that area. Normally the capacity of these tanks varies from 50,000 lt to 500,000 lt. In the
older days, their capacity was determined according to the size of ghadas (earthen pots
for storing water) and there was a standard size for these ghadas.5
It is also constructed at a slight incline with a mixture of sand and limestone. The
incline could be from one end of the courtyard to the other. If it is large, the incline could
be from all corners towards the centre of the courtyard and in this central point a kund is
made. The kund is constructed in such a manner that no water can seep through its base.
Throughout the year the water remains intact and clean.
4. Beris: They are shallow and small diameter percolation wells. These occur in two
situations. In one case they lie close to the bed of a nadi or khadin, and the deeply
percolated water is drawn till the nadi has dried out. The other situation is the sandy
terrain in the highly desetic part.
These structures of 1-2 m diameter are dug in the bed or in the vicinity of a
khadin or naadi to extract deeply percolated water long after the surface storage has
dried out. The depth varies a deal. Whereas, the temporary structures in a khadin to last
for a season may be only 2-3 m deep, the permanent ones are of 7-10 m depth. The wall
of the hole in later case is usually lined. The opening is covered with a stone slab or
twigs to prevent birds from nesting and also prevent evaporation or accidental fall of
animals. Those beris, which are more productive, have a concrete or stone slab platform
with an opening for convenience of drawing water. During period of persistent droughts
and consequent lowering of water table, the beris are deepened to restore water supply.
5. Talab: It is the name given to big pond or tank generally found in cities or towns. If a
bigger space is found where rainwater can be received and held, then, a talab is made.
These can retain the rainwater till the following rainy season. It is true that some ancient
talabs have been damaged: however,
even today, there is no dearth of talabs
that can retain water for a whole year.
Harsolao talab
In the city of Bikaner itself, there
were about sixty talabs but most of
them are non-functional and
abandoned. The functional ones are
also having problem of reduction in
runoff water from their respective
catchments due to urbanization and
unchecked encroachment. If the
existing talabs are renovated and
maintained properly, water scarcity
problem in cities, towns and villages
may be minimized substantially.
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6. Bawri: It was constructed to
mitigate drinking water supply,
particularly in cities and towns.
Though both of these are neglected,
the bawris (step-wells) were simply
made pucca providing pulley to draw
the water through rope and bucket.
However, it has been seen that in
general ground water aquifers of
bawri and step-well were essentially
sweet water aquifer and not saline.
These systems are used to get very
regular heavy recharge every year to
meet the society's requirement. Thus,
the site selections for these essentially have been based on sound scientific line of
exploring ground water with high and regular recharge source of high quality water.
7. Jhalra: It was given much more importance with reference to religion, art, culture
and economics also, by making not only the
huge investment required for making the
step alone but incurring still higher
investment in a way of making these spots
the site of religion. For instance, the stepwells are often example of beautiful
mansion, delicately carried embroidery in
stone covering on large areas and giving a
look of temples. Historically, many of these
step wells carry the name of either important
social or royal personalities or the holy
sites. It has been seen that in general
groundwater aquifers of step-wells were
essentially sweet water aquifer and not
Old well at temple in Bikaner
saline. These systems used to get very
regular heavy recharge every year to meet
the society's requirement. Thus, the site selections for these must have been based on
sound scientific line of exploring ground water with high and regular recharge
source of high quality water.
This is the most prevalent rainwater harvesting structure in the form of an underground
cistern. It is a small circular or square underground tank constructed with lime, mortar
or cement plaster. It is constructed normally on fallow ground where surface runoff can
be diverted to the structure by creating a clean catchment all around.
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8. Khel/Thala: The small open
tanks are built outside of varying
heights are called khel, thala, arada
or ubara. They contain water for
camels, cows, goats or other animals
that are passing by especially during
summer months. The animals get
water outside and there is no need to
go inside the kund for water.
9. Nadi/Johad: It is an open tank
Nadi - Jaitsar
constructed for storing water
available from an adjoining natural
catchment during the rainy season. In this arid tehsil, construction of nadi is one of the
oldest practice and is still the common source of water for conjunctive use the capacity
of nadi generally ranges from 1200 to 15000 cubic mt. depending upon physiographic
conditions and rainfall pattern. At present, most of the villages in the area have one or
more nadis.
It is a small traditional rainwater harvesting structure, constructed at an
appropriate site to harness the surface runoff water of relatively impervious non-arable
uplands for drinking water for animals and ground water recharge, or for increasing the
yield of open wells in the lower reaches.
These are also constructed to store water in
the monsoonal nallas in the upper reaches for
various purposes, primarily for recharge of
ground water aquifers. The depth of such nadi
generally does not exceed 3 m.
10. Khadin: It is a system basically
innovated for runoff farming area. This
system was developed way back in the 15th
century in the extreme desert. It is a sitespecific system, needing a large, natural,
Khadin - Godu
high-runoff potential catchment in the
proximity of a plain valley land with deep
soils. Rocky terrain around a valley slope, constitute the catchment area of a khadin.
Stony gravels, wasteland with gentle slope in the form of valley can also form the
catchment area or such structures. At the lower point of the valley, earthen bund is
constructed to arrest the runoff. The stored water helps the crops as well as recharging of
ground aquifer. Spillway of stone masonry is provided in the bund to let out the excess
runoff. A sluice is provided a bed level to drain out standing water, if any at the time of
bed cultivation.
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Structures for Rainwater Harvesting: The following table shows proposed
Structures for rainwater harvesting based on rooftop area
Table 1: Proposed Structures for Rainwater Harvesting
Rooftop
Surplus run - Type of recharge
Dimensions of the Anticipated rate
area
off available structure
structure
of recharge
(sq km)
for recharge recommended
(m3/h)
3
(m /year)
100
43.52
200
87.04
300
130.56
400
174.08
500
217.60
600
261.12
700
304.64
800
348.16
900
391.68
1000
435.20
Recharge pit wit
inverted filter
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
h 0.5 x 0.5 x 2.0 L x
WxD
3.5 m x 0.60m
depth x diameter
5.0 x 0.60 m depth
x diameter
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
Recharge shaft
(7f x 7f x 1.5m)
6.0 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
7.0 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
8.0 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
8.5 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
9.0 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
9.5 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
10 x 0.60 depth x
diameter
2.80
5.90
10.20
13.97
17.94
22.41
26.01
27.70
29.79
33.50
Source: CGWD, Jodhpur
Status of WHS in Bikaner Tehsil: It has been analysed by the data given in table 2 that
in Bikaner tehsil; 75.94% of talabs, 33.3% of bawries and 32.25% of wells have become
extinct since the electrification of wells and tube-wells started in the study area. The
percentage extinction of talabs is greater than bawries and wells as they have been
constructed outside to the settlement area while bawris and wells are mainly located
inside in the rural and urban settlements. The catchment areas of talabs are encroached
due to expansion of cultivable land.
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The number of wells is also influenced by government supply since last two
decades. The drinking water is supplied by PHED who never preferred to initiate
awareness programme for water conservation and revival of old structures.
Table 2: Bikaner Tehsil: Water Structures in Sample Villages
Village/town
Deshnok
Raisar
Talriabas
Palana
Barsingsar
Lalamdesar
Udairamsar
Bhinasar
Gadwala
Himtasar
Napasar
Seenthal
Moondsar
Ranisar
Bikaner city
Total
Talab (Pond)
Bawri
Kua (Well)
Extincted Existing Extincted Existing Extincted
Existing
Nil
Nil
2
1
1
4
1
Nil
Nil
Nil
1
3
1
Nil
Nil
Nil
1
1
2
1
Nil
Nil
2
5
1
Nil
Nil
Nil
1
3 (1) DCBW
1
1
Nil
Nil
Nil
2 (1) DCBW
2
Nil
Nil
3
3
4 (2) DCBW
2
1
Nil
2
2
3
3
Nil
Nil
Nil
2
1 DCBW
Nil
2 (1)*
Nil
Nil
1
3 (1) DCBW
2
3
Nil
Nil
2
4
Nil
Nil
2
2
3
4
1
1
Nil
Nil
1
2 (1) DCBW
1
2 (1)*
Nil
Nil
Nil
3 (1) DCBW
43
8(6)*
Nil
Nil
Nil
67
17
11
4
8
20
109
Source: Field Survey 2010-1013 * Revived
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
1. Factors responsible for extinction of old water harvesting structures: The
sample households 150 (10 each from 15 villages) of Bikaner tehsil both in rural and
urban areas answered that there are many factors behind the extinction of traditional
water harvesting structures. The main factors are increasing population and livestock in
the study area. It further accelerated shrinking of catchment 43 (28.66%), expansion of
agriculture and industrial activities 32 (21.33%), increase in settlement 25 (16.66%),
government supply 22 (14.66%), change in life style and economic status 16 (10.66%)
and negligence of old structures 12(8.03%).
2. Views about traditional structures: The old aged respondents of both rural and
urban areas complained about the government policy and encroachment of agors of old
water structures. They have also replied that the consumption-ratio of water has
increased due to economic and social improvement. They strongly recommended 124
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(83%) that the old structures should be revived by the government for the proper
utilization of water and efficient supply for the increasing population and livestock.
The respondents 116 (77.33%) have also replied that kundi and tanka are
essential for storing water in every household but these small structures are used to store
tap water only. Even today, there are many kuin, bawri, talai, talab, tanka etc. in every
village and at temples and palaces in Bikaner tehsil. But their catchment areas (agors)
have been shrinking due to population pressure in the form of encroachments,
increasing settlements, agriculture and industrial activities.
3. Views about revival of old water harvesting structures: The respondents of the study
area replied about the revival and construction of traditional water structures and gave
many suggestions. Most of them 84 (56%) have stressed for removal of encroachment
on agor (catchment) that may be by government or individual. It is the main reason for
low amount of rainwater supply. There is large areas under WHS in the study area which
is either encroached for agriculture or for settlement, construction of government
buildings, allocation of land to landless farmers and settlement purposes etc. Secondly,
these old structures 53 (35.33%), should be maintained and they should be cleaned and
dugged well before onset of monsoon rain. Therefore, the agor area should be
demarcated and fenced well and the stored water should optimally be used.
Construction of new water structures 21 (14%), model village development 54
(38.57%), control over population and livestock 23 (15.33%), adoption of rainfed crops
40 (26.66%), rational supply of water 12 (8%) are suggested for revival of traditional
methods of water harvesting in this arid area.
When the respondents have been asked who should take responsibility for care
of this age old technique, the majority 110 (73.5%) of them replied that the government
should take care of these water structures with the participation of local people while
others responded for village panchayat, committee members etc.
4. Views about water conservation: The responses of farmers as well as households
analyse that shortage of water during summer season 144 (33.48%), inadequate supply
of water in the Indira Gandhi Canal 44 (29.33%), low and decreasing water level 36
(24%), loss of soils and natural vegetation etc. 70 (46.66%) are some of the factors
motivating water conservation in this arid tehsil. Some of the respondents (mainly old
farmers) replied that the time has come when we will have to adapt the age-old methods
of water harvesting. They also replied that expansion of cultivable land along with
mechanization in agriculture is losing natural habitat of wildlife, vegetation and
livestock. All these factors are not ecologically feasible in the arid region.
5. Site Selection for construction of water harvesting structures: The rural people
mainly old farmers are well aware about the sites of water harvesting structures (WHS)
construction. They replied 47 (31.3%) that it is necessary to revive the existed structures
which are sufficient to fulfill the demand of drinking water. They suggested that low
land with good drainage having hard and rocky surface is suitable for construction of
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new water structures. They also suggested that surface of both small and large
structures are already very hard to control over seepage of water. The small structures
i.e. tanka, kui, bawri, kundi etc. should be roofed well to protect evaporation 22
(14.66%) and the large structures like talab, talai, johad etc. should be de-silted before
monsoon rains. The respondents 31 (20.66%) have advocated to construct the new
structure to meet out the increasing demand of water in rural as well as urban areas.
Suggestions: In Bikaner tehsil, land is easily available for construction of WHS at both
individual and public levels. Therefore, it is suggested to take the following measures to
motivate traditional water harvesting structures.
1. Revival of existing water harvesting system,
2. Adoption of water harvesting measures in independent houses, flats and campuses,
3. Removal of encroachments in the catchment areas of WHS,
4. Ban on cultivation of water loving crops,
5. Effective regulation of laws related to water conservation,
6. Long-term planning,
7. Formation of Jal Samitis, and
8. Organizing training programmes.
References:
1.Water Harvesting Management, Practical Guide Series-6, Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation, April, 2003, SDC/Inter-cooperation Coordination
Unit, Jaipur, Rajasthan, pp. 1-23, 58-87.
2.Theib Oweis, A. Hachum and J. Kijne (1999): Water Harvesting and Supplemental
Irrigation for Improved Water use Efficiency in Dry Areas, ICARDA SWIM paper,
International Water Management Institute, PO 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka. T. Oweis, A.
Hachum and J. Kijne (1999) pp. 1-41.
3.Economic Review 2004-05, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of
Rajasthan, Jaipur.
4.Rainwater Harvesting in Industrial Areas, RIICO, Udyag Bhawan, Tilak Marg,
Jaipur, pp. 1-16, June 2005.
5.Harvesting the Rains in Thar, Gramin Vikas Vigyan Samiti, 3/458, Milk Man Colony,
Pal Road, Jodhpur, pp. 1-97.
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UTILIZATION OF HUMAN HAIR WASTE AS SUBSTRATE
AMENDMENT IN POT CULTIVATION OF OKRA
(ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS) PLANT
Suruchi Gupta and Anshumala Sharma
Deptt. of Chemistry, Dungar College, Bikaner (Rajasthan) 334004.
Abstract
Recent agricultural practices i.e., the use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and
biocides etc. are employed to increase the soil fertility and crop production. These
fertilizers crowed out essential nutrients present in top soil layers and initiate plant
growth but fertilizers enriched soil can not support microbial flora. Hence there
remains poor humus and fewer nutrients while the soil can readily become eroded by
wind and water. To avoid the use of these chemical fertilizers, number of waste
materials and by products (such as animal manure, municipal solid waste compost
and sewage sludge) are used currently in agricultural crop production. This study
utilized hair waste as nutrient source for crop and observed the effect of these waste
materials on soil microbial community. In the pot experiment, the addition of
uncomposted hair waste to soil not only increased the yield in Okra plant but also
increased macro and micro nutrient concentration in plant tissue and stimulated soil
microbial biomass. Its addition in soil increased NH4-N, NO3-N, organic carbon and
microbial biomass in soil and total N in plant tissue. Besides this it also increased Na,
S, Ca, Fe, Zn and Mn concentration in soil as well as in plant tissue. The study suggest
that the addition of 6.6 g/kg or 14784 kg/ha of hair waste is sufficient for Okra crop
and this can support at least 2-3 harvest of crop without the addition of chemical
fertilizer.
Key words: Uncomposted hair waste, Okra, Mineral elements, Microbial Biomass.
INTRODUCTION
The mad race among nations over the globe for development jeopardized the health of
man itself. Progress in agriculture and industry is taken a general criterion of
development of any country. This craze resulted into unlimited exploitation of every bit
of natural resources. Unlimited exploitation of nature by man disturbed the delicate
1
ecological balance between living and non-living component of the biosphere . Further
to meet the food requirement of the ever increasing population modern agricultural
practices are carried out which in turn pollute the soil to a large extent.
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On the other hand barber shops situated at every corner of the city generate a significant
amount of human hair waste that is usually put to garbage and ultimately ends up in
landfills which are creating severe environmental problem because nitrate leaching
from hair can contaminate the ground water as nitrogen is one of the components of hair
composition.
Hair is made of protein which originates in the hair follicle. As the cell mature they fill
up with a fibrous protein called keratin. Approximately 91% of the hair is protein made
up of long chains of amino acids. There are various elements found in the hair and they
are used to make amino acids, keratin, melanin and protein. The average composition
of normal hair is composed of 45.2% carbon, 27.9% oxygen, 6.6% hydrogen, 15%
nitrogen and 5.2% sulphur. The keratin found in hair is called “hard keratin” this type of
keratin does not dissolves in water and is quite resilient. Keratin is made from 18 amino
acids. The most abundant of these amino acids is cystine which gives hair much of its
strength. Property of hair as a source of slow releasing organic nitrogen is a valuable soil
conditioner.
It has been proposed that body stores of minerals may be estimated from hair analysis
because growing hair is metabolically active and is a sequestering tissue2.
It has been also found that sweat secreated by sebaceous glands may be an important
source of minerals in hair and that fatty secretions of apocrine glands may provide
physical or chemical means by which exogenous minerals may bind to hair. Hair is
made up of keratin and keratin contains disulphide bonds that may be major binding
3
sites of minerals in hair .
Above discussion suggest that protein of hair can be utilized as natural fertilizer and
farmers are escaped from using expensive and harmful chemical fertilizer. With the use
of composted hair as fertilizer there is considerable loss of nitrogen4. So this study
utilized uncomposted hair waste as a nutrient source for high value plants.
The objective of the study was to examine the effect of uncomposted hair waste as
nutrient source for Okra plant. Okra is also known as Lady's finger, in Hindi it is termed
as 'Bhindi'. It is a flowering plant in the Malvaceae famiy. It is valued for its edible
green seed pods. The species is an annual or perennial and is cultivated through out the
tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Okra requires adequate amount of N,
P, K for its proper growth.
MATERIAL & METHODS
The samples of hair waste were collected from two local shops of Mukta Prasad Colony,
Bikaner. These wastes were cleaned by hand picking the polythenes, matchsticks and
other types of wastes.
Experimental pots were prepared by adding 6 kg of soil to each pot along with 300 g of
cow dung compost. Treatment consisted of 0 g, 20 g, 40 g and 80 g of hair waste addition
to the prepared pots. Okra seeds were sown in these pots. The experiment had a control
with same treatment but with no plant to evaluate the effect of nutrient availability on
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plant. Okra was fully developed in one and a half month with a 14 hr. day and 10 hr.
night photoperiod, with an average day temperature of 280C. These were irrigated
carefully and evenly once a day with sufficient water. The plant species were harvested
when they were fully grown.
After the harvest, the plant species were washed under running tap water to remove soil
particles and then spread on newspaper for drying. After sun drying the plants were
0
weighed and oven dried at 70 C for 72 hrs. The herbage was ground using a Wiley Mill
to pass through a 1.0 mm screen. The powdered form was kept for mineral and trace
element analysis.
Fresh soil samples from all experiments were taken at harvest and kept in a cooler at 40C
for microbial biomass and NH4-N and NO3-N analysis. Additional soil samples for
0
nutrient and trace element analysis were taken at harvest, air dried (at 20 C), and ground
with a mortar and pestle to pass through 2.0 mm screen.
For tissue and soil trace element analysis, plant tissues were digested in the diacid
5
mixture of 20 ml conc. HNO3+2-3 ml conc. HClO4 and extract was prepared. For soil
6
sample extract, DTPA method was used . Parameters like pH is determined by pH
meter, EC is determined by electroconductivity meter, Organic carbon by Walkley and
Black titration method, Phosphorus in soil by Olsen's method and in plant tissue by
titrametric method, K and Na by flame photometer, Ca & Mg in soil by Versenate
(EDTA) titration method and in plant tissue by AAS, Sulphur estimation in soil and
plant tissue in CaCl2-extractable S by Williams and Steinbergs, 1969 in
spectrophotometer, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn in soil and plant tissue by AAS and microbial
biomass of soil by fumigation-incubation method.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Result from this study suggests that hair waste is an excellent soil amendment and
nutrient sources for high value crops. The soil used in the pot was sandy soil with very
low nitrogen content and other minerals as shown in table 1. Analysis of hair showed
that it contain good amount of all nutrients required by plants ( table 2) and almost all
nutrients showed their positive effect except few like Phosphorus and Potassium. It also
introduces a significant amount of Na into the soil.
Table 1. The initial physical and chemical characteristics and the concentration
of plant available nutrients of soil used in the pot experiments.
Parameter pH
Zn
OC
EC
P
K
Ca&Mg
(%) millimhos/cm Kg/ha ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
Conc.
in soil
8.72 0.13 0.17
24
187 8.5
0.788 2.036
S
me/L
0.055
Na
Fe
ppm
750.2 0.638
Mn
ppm
1.6
Cu
ppm
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Physico- Chemical and Biological parameters of soil
NH4-N and NO3-N of Okra increased with increase in conc. of doses in control as well as
with plant experiment (table 3). NH4-N ranges between 0.512-18.02 ppm in control and
between 0.27-10.63 ppm in with plant soil. NO3-N ranges between 0.054-32.5 ppm in
control and 0.42-22.14 ppm in with plant soil. The increase in NH4-N and NO3-N in soil
is due to mineralization of N in wool rather than mineralization of soil N.
pH of soil decreases with the addition of high doses of hair in soil and this is good for
arid and semi arid regions where soil is mostly alkaline in nature. The optimum range of
pH for plants is between 5.5-7.0 7. pH decreased from 8.78 to 8.50 (table-3) in control
experiment. The decrease in pH helps in the availability of nutrients in soil to plants.
Organic carbon is a measure of organic matter which is the seat of nitrogen in soil and
8
the permissible limit is between 0.20%-1% .Our experiment showed an increase with
increase in dose i.e. from 0.14%-0.18% (table-3).
EC also increased with increase in dose but all values are with in permissible limit
which is below 0.75 millimhos/cm9. The range found is between 0.12-0.40
millimhos/cm (table-3). The increase is because of liberation of sodium which
increases the salinity of soil.
Calcium and Magnesium content in soil as well as in plant tissue increases with increase
in dose. This is because hair contains a good amount of Ca & Mg. The range found of Ca
& Mg in soil is 8.9-13.0 me/l (table 4). In plant tissue the maximum conc. of Ca & Mg is
found at 40 g dose after that conc. decreases because excess ammonia induces Ca
10
deficiency
Sulphur content increases in both soils as well as in plant tissue. Sulphur present in our
soil is very low i.e.0.055 ppm and with addition of hair it's conc. increases but still
below the permissible limit i.e. 10-20 ppm 11.The value increases from 0.055 to 0.605
ppm (table 4) and in plant tissue it increased from 32.5 to 62.0 ppm and values are below
12
permissible limit of 0.05%-1.5% . The increase in S value is due to mineralization of
wool.
Experimental soil is rich in sodium content i.e. 750.2 ppm and is not required further
and with the addition of hair it's conc. further increases from 750.2-890.4 ppm but not
13
beyond the critical level of 5 % . In plant tissue also it increases from 121.0-429.0 ppm
(table 4).
Soil used in experiment is deficient in iron content i.e.0.638 ppm and is below the
permissible limit of 2.5 ppm14. So the addition of hair is beneficial as it enrich the soil
with iron content from 0.638-1.380 ppm (table 4). In plant tissue the maximum value
comes at 80 g dose i.e. 26.80 ppm. Values of plant tissue are within permissible limit i.e.
12
from 10-250 ppm .
Manganese content in soil is found to be 1.6 ppm (table 4) which is above the
14
permissible limit of 1.0 ppm ,hair waste addition further increase it from 1.6-27.74
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ppm and it is a good increase. In plant tissue the increase is from 10.86-14.54 ppm but
the values are within the permissible limit i.e.10-1000 ppm 12.
Copper conc. increases in soil but in plant tissue it decreases i.e from 0.788-0.816 ppm
in soil and 3.81-2.32 ppm in plant tissue (table 4). All the values are within permissible
14
12
limit i.e. 0.2-10 ppm in soil and 1-50 ppm in plants .
Zinc conc. increases with increase in dose from 2.036-3.726 ppm in soil and values are
15
above the critical level of 0.3 ppm and experimental soil has Zn content as 2.036 ppm.
In plant tissue also it increases from 4.00-10.28 ppm and the values are with in the
12
permissible limit i.e. from 1 to 200 ppm (table 4).
Microbial biomass increased in soil with plant as well as in soil without plant, this is
because various chemicals secreated by plants attract myriads of micro organisms. The
increase is from 1x104/g to 20x104/g in Okra grown soil and 1x104/g to 255x104/g in
control experiment (table 3).
Table 2. The elemental concentration of hair waste used in the pot experiment
with Okra.
Parameters
C
N
Ca
Mg
K
Na
Fe
Cu
Mn
Zn
P
S
This Study ^
395 g/kg
1.2 g/kg
2.1g/kg
70 mL/kg
22 ppm
143 ppm
4.43 ppm
14.77 ppm
1.1 ppm
117 ppm
92 mL/kg
50.6 g/kg
Hair $
413 g/kg
1.3 g/kg
2.45 g/kg
78 ppm
72 ppm
187 ppm
39 ppm
19 ppm
2 ppm
217 ppm
104 ppm
89.6 g/kg
Literature
Hair #
1022 µg/g
94 ppm
5.3 µg/g
261µg/g
22 ppm
2.5 ppm
192 ppm
207 µg/g
42300 ppm
Hair @
1090 ppm
105 µg/g
11.8 µg/g
266 µg/g
23 ppm
2.94 ppm
189 ppm
184 µg/g
46900 µg/g
^ Elemental concentration of hair in this study was measured on AAS and various
techniques described in material and methods following digestion in conc. HNO3.
$ Hair mineral content as reported by Zheljazkov, V.D., 2005.
# Hair mineral content as reported by Dean A. Bass, 2001.
@ Certified Value of hair mineral content as suggested by Shanghai Institute of Nuclear
Reasearch Academia Sinica (SINRAS).
8.78
8.85
8.80
8.60
8.50
8.72
8.70
8.69
8.65
8.60
Microbial
Biomass
(per g)
1 x 104
1 x 104
20 x 104
23 x 104
255 x 104
1 x 104
3 x 104
6 x 104
14 x 104
20 x 104
DM
Yield
(kg/pot)
-
0.345
0.332
0.464
0.630
0.592
Ti ssu
eN
(%)
-
1.512
1.568
1.932
2.380
2.456
Soil
NO3-N
(ppm)
0.054
0.180
1.200
3.240
32.500
0.42
1.33
5.56
10.23
22.14
Soil NH4N
(ppm)
0.512
0.437
0.587
1.600
18.020
0.27
0.32
0.43
3.47
10.63
Hair
(g/pot)
0
10
20
40
80
0
10
20
40
80
Crop
No
Crop
Okra
pH
0.17
0.28
0.34
0.40
0.46
EC
(mmhos/
cm)
0.18
0.12
0.21
0.28
0.40
Table 3. Okra yield, NH4-N, NO3-N, pH, EC, OC and microbial biomass as
affected by hair waste addition to soil with or without Okra plant and total
Nitrogen conc. of Okra tissue as affected by hair waste addition to soil in pots.
0.1
4
0.1
3
0.1
5
0.1
7
0.1
8
0.1
2
0.1
4
0.1
7
0.1
9
0.1
8
OC
(%)
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Hair
g/pot
0
10
20
40
80
0
10
20
40
80
Crop
No
Crop
(Soil)
Okra
0.055
0.110
0.119
0.450
0.605
S
ppm
8.9
12.0
11.2
12.2
13.0
Ca&Mg
me/L
0.638
0.638
0.762
1.134
1.380
Fe
ppm
2.036
2.662
2.790
3.404
3.726
Zn
ppm
121.0
176.0
209.0
242.0
429.0
32.5
44.0
48.0
57.5
62.0
Ca
(ppm)
3045.12
3061.42
4007.12
4061.13
3524.57
Mg
(ppm)
128.78
128.83
128.60
128.99
128.76
14.33
17.42
19.23
24.23
26.80
4.00
4.79
8.73
9.38
10.28
Total concentration of nutrients in plant tissue
750.2
772.2
838.2
842.6
890.4
Na
ppm
10.86
12.68
13.22
13.84
14.54
1.60
2.24
4.60
9.00
27.74
Mn
ppm
Table 4. The phytoavailable nutrient conc. in soil (with or without plant),
amended with hair waste and total nutrient content in Okra tissue grown in
pots with 0, 20, 40 and 80 g/pot in the hair waste pot. Only nutrients with conc.
affected by the treatment are shown.
3.81
3.40
2.59
2.32
2.32
0.788
0.770
0.790
0.810
0.816
Cu
ppm
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Analysis of Plant Tissue
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) belongs to family Malvaceae, is a vegetable plant. It
can be grown on variety of soil but light sandy soil is unsuitable for it. It requires
adequate amount of N P K for its proper growth. In the study Okra responded good with
the use of hair as fertilizer in spite of the growing medium used is sandy soil. The best
results of Okra plant when applied with hair as fertilizer were observed at 40 g dose of
hair. The conc. of different parameter observed at this dose are: NO3-N 3.24 ppm in
control and 10.23 ppm in 'with plant' soil, NH4N- 1.60 ppm in control and 3.47 ppm in
'with plant' soil, Plant tissue N2- 2.38 %, Ca- 4061.13 ppm, Mg- 128.99 ppm, S- 57.5
ppm, Na- 242 ppm , Fe- 24.23 ppm, Mn- 13.84 ppm, Cu- 2.32 ppm and Zn-9.38 ppm.
4
Okra grown soil showed good result in microbial biomass and is 14 x10 /g in 40 g dose
of hair. Most of the nutrients are maximum at 40 g dose. Chemical result synchronize
with physical appearance i.e. the growth was also maximum in 40 g. In Okra plant tissue
the conc. of N2, Ca, Na, S, Fe, Mn and Zn increased with the application of hair.
CONCLUSIONS
The results from this study suggest that addition of hair waste not only increased macro
and micro nutrients in soil and plant tissue but also enrich the soil with microbial
biomass. Study concluded that 40 g dose of hair in 6 kg soil is sufficient in Okra for their
appropriate growth. Following conclusions are drawn from the results We added 0-80 g of hair waste in Okra and observed that Okra gave best results with
maximum growth at 40 g dose which synchronize with chemical results. At this dose the
vegetable were maximum in number and plant was healthy.

If we apply this dose in field it will be equivalent to 6.6 g/kg or 14784 kg/ha (or
40 g of hair waste in 6 kg soil). The use of a large quantity of human hair waste as a
nutrient source for crop production used for direct human consumption (e.g.
vegetables) may be questioned; these might be point of issue with marketability and
social acceptance. As there are specific guidelines and regulations for the use of sewage
sludge or industrial waste, similar guidelines should be developed for the use of these
waste materials in agricultural crops.

Our results also demonstrated that the addition of large amount of hair waste to
soil would depress soil pH due to mineralization and oxidation of Sulphur and Nitrogen
containing compounds. But this is good for arid and semi-arid regions where soil is
mostly alkaline in nature. In acidic soil the application of higher dose of hair is not
recommended.

Study also showed that there is increase in Organic carbon % with the addition
of hair waste which not only help in the increase of organic matter but also increases the
water holding capacity of soil.

S, Fe, Mn & Zn conc. increases both in soil as well as in plant tissue because of
high amount of these nutrients in hair.
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So our study will help Barbers and Farmers as Barbers get the better way of disposing
waste and in turn get the monetary benefit by selling it. On the other hand, Farmers will
get a better option for chemical fertilizers as the hair waste is not only inexpensive but
also enrich their fields chemically and biologically. Overall our results suggest that
uncomposted hair waste can be an excellent soil amendment and nutrient source for
high-value crops.
Acknowledgements
Author acknowledge the support extended by Dr. Tribhuvan Sharma, Deptt. Of
Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College, Bikaner (Raj.)
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Sharma P.D.,Ecology and Environment- Sixth Edition, Rastogi Publication, New Delhi, 199495, 305.
Combs D.K., Goodrich R.D. and Meiske J.C., Journal of Animal Science, 54, No.2, 1982, 391398.
Hopps,H.C., The biologic basis for using hair and nail for analysis of trace elements. Sci. Total
Environ, 1997, 7:71.
Epstein, E., Trace elements, heavy metals and micronutrients. In E. Epstein(ed.) The Science of
composting. Technomic Publ., Lancaster, PA, 1997, 137-170.
Singh D., Chhonkar P.K., Dwivedi B.S., Manual on soil, plant and water analysis, Westville
Publishing House,2005, 86.
Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. , Development of a DTPA soil test for Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu. Soil
Sci.Soc.Am.J.1978, 42:421-28.
Perry leonard,' pH for the Gardens' ( http://pss.uvm.edu/ppp/pubs/oh 34. htm). Retrived 11
December 2012.
Tandon H.L.S., Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters, Fertilisers and Organic Manures,
Fertiliser Development and Consultation Organisation, 2013, 50.
Solanki S. Ajay, Thesis- Physico-chemical and toxicological studies and treatment of industrial
effluent of dying and printing units in Bikaner city of Rajasthan, 2009, 263.
Nutrient deficiency: www.ces.nscu.edu/dept/hort/ Consumer/quickref/fertilizer/
nutri.def.html.
Shivanand Tolanur, Practical Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, International Book
Distributing, 2004, 55.
Baruah T.C. and H.P.Barthakur, A Text Book of Soil Analysis, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd.,1997, 297.
Clancy Ken (2013)-Plant and soil sciences , Sodium affected soils. www.fusion fert.com.
Shivanand Tolanur, Practical soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, International Book
Distributing, 2004, 59.
Baruah T.C. and H.P.Barthakur , A Text Book of Soil Analysis, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd.,1997, 196.
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OPTIMIZATION OF MECHANICAL AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF
BIKANER MINERALS FOR HIGH-STRENGTH ELECTRICAL
PORCELAIN
¶
¶
S.K.Tak and R.Mangal*
Department of Physics, Marudhar Engineering College, Bikaner,
*Department of Physics, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Five sample mixture of Kaolin from Indu ka Bala (Bikaner district), ball clay from
Mud (Bikaner district), feldspar & quartz from Ajmer district were formulated and
porcelain samples fabricated by extrusion, shaping and firing. Samples were also
evaluated for formability. The degree of densification of sintered specimen fired at
1100˚C to 1275˚C was evaluated by measuring the firing shrinkage, bulk density,
water absorption and Modulus of Rapture. Dielectric and Modulus of Rapture
deteriorated at high temperature because of pore formation and decreasing amount
of undissolved quartz in crystalline phase. An optimized composition of 30% kaolin,
15% ball clay, 30% feldspar and 25% quartz yielded a body with highest modules of
rapture and dielectric strength of 19kv/mm after firing at 1225˚C.
Keywords: Dielectric Strength, Modulus of Rapture, Porcelain, Quartz.
INTRODUCTION
Porcelain is a hard ceramic substance made by heating at high temperature selected and
refined materials often including clay in the form of Kaolinite, quartz and alkaline
feldspars [4, 6]. Porcelain clay when mixed with water forms a plastic paste which can
be worked to a required shape or form that is hardened and made permanent by firing in
a kiln at temperature of between about 1200 degree Celsius and 1400 degree Celsius.
The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from the formation
at high temperature within the clay body of mineral mullite and glass [1]. Electrical
Porcelain is widely used as insulators in electrical power transmission system. It is also
used to make wares for the table and kitchen, sanitary wares, decorative wares and
objects of fine art.
MATERIAL AND SAMPLE PREPARATIONS
Raw materials:
The raw materials used in the present investigation were ball clay from Mud (Bikaner
District), China clay from Indu ka Bala (Bikaner District), Quartz and feldspar from
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Ajmer district. These deposit and their locations are described by department of
mining, Govt. of Rajasthan. Representative samples were collected from the
deposits and processed for use in the study.
Sample preparation
The material were
each
separately wet--milled, run over a magnetic iron
separating tray to remove iron contamination and sieved to 45 microns for china clay
and ball clay, 53 microns for feldspar and 25 microns for quartz. They were
subsequently dried with the exception of ball clay which was mixed as slip in the
composition. The dry content of ball clay in the slurry was calculated using Brogniart's
formula [2,5]. The flow diagram depicted in figure 1 was used for preparation of the
samples for mechanical strength properties.
Quartz
Feldsp
ar
China
Clay
Ball
Clay
Weighing hopper
Water
Ball milling
Filtering
Vacuum pugging
Extruding
Drying
Firing
Figure 1: Flow chart for preparation of
samples
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Batch compositions were formulated on the basis of triaxial plot presented by Norton
(1970) [4] but with slightly higher clay content in accordance to more recent literature
[6]. In samples S-1to S-3, Clay content was maintained at 50% while systematically
varying feldspar and quartz contents. In addition, the ratio of ball clay to china clay
content in the constitution of clay was varied. In S-4 and S-5, the clay content was
reduced to 45% with a fixed clay constitution to evaluate the effects of quartz and
feldspar on properties. Respective batches (Table 1) were mixed in required proportions
by weight and wet milled in ball mill with a self fabricated high temperature fired
pabbles as a grinding medium for 3 hours. The dry compositions of the major
components were calculated according to Brogniart's formula [2,5].
Where Wdry and Wwet represent the dry and wet mass percentage of the major
components, respectively and LOI represents loss on ignition.
Table 1: Batch Composition and Formability
Sample
Ball Clay
China Clay
Feldspar
Quartz
Total
Dimensional
Accuracy
S1
35
15
25
25
100
Good
S2
25
25
30
20
100
Good
S3
30
20
20
30
100
Low
S4
30
15
30
25
100
Good
S5
30
15
25
30
100
Very
Low
In preparation for extrusion, the milled materials were left to dry at room temperature to
form a paste of sufficient plasticity for extraction through a vacuum pugmill. The
extruder was washed clean after every batch. Cylindrical sample of a 16mm diameter
and length 100mm are made to measure modulus of rapture.
Using pulverized dried material from the extraction process, samples for dielectric
strength tests were prepared by uniaxial pressing at 100MPa to form discs of 3±o.5 mm
thick and 25mm diameter. All the samples were dried in air and then at 110˙C for 3
hours in an electric furnace. Samples from each batch were then fired to temperature of
1100, 1150, 1200, 1225, 1275˙C at a heating rate of 6˙C/m and held at the top
temperature for one hour before cooling in the furnace.
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EXPERIMENTAL
Firing shrinkage of the sample was determined by measuring the length of samples
before and after firing and expressing the difference as a percentage of the length before
firing.
Bulk density was determined from measurement of volume and mass of fired samples.
Water absorption of fired samples was determined by Archimedes' immersion
technique, involving boiling in water for one hour and a further soaking for 24 hours at
ambient temperature and noting the differences in weight of samples before and after
the treatments in water.
MOR was measured using a Testometric universal testing machine in a three point
bending fixture for the as-fired specimens. Five to eight specimens from each sample
batch were tested in 3-point bending load-tests [3, 8]. The measured values for modulus
of rapture (MOR) were ordered an experimental value of MOR, σ was calculated
through the expression in equation (2)
P = Load need to break the rod
L = Gap between Support
d = Diameter of rod
Dielectric breakdown voltage was measured using an A.C voltage with a frequency of
50Hz applied through a transformer to the testing equipment, with the test specimen
immersed in transformer oil. The voltage was gradually raised (automatically) until the
sample started conducting, causing the circuit breaker to trip [11].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Batch formability
The formulated samples exhibited significant levels of variability in their formability as
shown table 1. Three of them, S-1, S-2, and S-4 showed good formability whereas S-3,
and especially S-5, showed poor formability. Not even after 5 days of ageing, the
plasticity was improved. It is interesting to note the big difference between S-4 and S-5
although the only difference in formulation is the relative amounts of feldspar and
quartz, both considered to be non plastic components.
Vitrification
The firing shrinkage, MOR water absorption and bulk density are shown in fig.2, 3, 4, 5.
as seen the highest firing shrinkage and
MOR, corresponding to the highest degree of vitrification is found at 1200-1225˙C
firing temperature [2,3]. Also from figure 4, the lowest water absorption, corresponding
to the lowest amount of open porosity is found at 1225˙C due to improved vitrification.
Above that temperature, however, it increases due to bloating.
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Fig. 2: Fired Shrinkage
Fig.3: Modulus of Rapture
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Fig. 4: Water Absorption
Fig. 5: Bulk Density
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Dielectric Strength
The result from dielectric strength tests are shown in figure 6. As seen, the maximum
strength is found at 1200-1250˙C firing temperature. All samples show decreasing
strength at higher temperatures. At lower temperatures two batches, S-4 and S-5,
preserve their strength while the others reduce their strength.
Fig. 6: Dielectric Strength
Discussion
The first demand to fulfill for a ceramic batch mix is the demand of formability. As seen
from Table 1, S-3 and S-5, both with the highest content of quartz show low formability.
Comparing S-4 and S-5, having the same amount of non plastic constituents (feldspar
and quartz), clearly demonstrates the inferior forming properties of quartz-rich batches
compared with feldspar [9].
The second demand to fulfill is vitrification. Good vitrification gives high firing
shrinkage, high bulk density and low water absorption resulting from the formation of a
dense body. Density and porosity changes are a net result of two counteracting actions
viz., gas generation, which decreases density and increases porosity and liquid phase
formation, which fills the pores and cavities of the body and increases density. In
addition, good vitrification reduces flaw size and number of flaws thereby increasing
the two most important properties of the final product, modulus of rapture and dielectric
strength [10, 11].
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CONCLUSION
Quartz is detrimental for formability and must be limited to 25% in the batch
composition. Firing at 1225°C gives optimum mechanical and dielectric strength which
is connected to optimum vitrification. Firing at higher temperatures results in increased
porosity, reduction of quartz and increase in glass phase leading to a reduction of both
bending and dielectric strength. A porcelain composition of 30% kaolin, 15% ball clay,
30% feldspar and 25% quartz yielded a body with highest mechanical and dielectric
strength at 1225°C. The values of both dielectric strength and modulus of rapture
attained make it suitable for use as an electric insulator.
References
1. Islam, R. A., Chan, Y.C, and Islam M. F. (2004) “Structure-property relationship in
high-tension ceramic insulator fired at high temperature” Materials Science and
Engineering B106 pp 132-140.
2. Kirabira, J.B, Jonsson S. and Byaruhanga, J.K (2005). “Powder Characterization of
High Temperature Ceramic raw materials in the Lake Victoria Region” Silicate
Industries 70[9-10], pp 127-134.
3. Stathis, G., Ekonomakou, A., Stournaras, C.J, and Ftikos, C. (2004) “Effect of firing
Conditions, filler grain size and quartz content on bending strength and physical
Properties of sanitary ware porcelain” Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24
pp 2357-2366.
4. Norton, F.H. (1970) “Fine Ceramics, Technology and Applications.” McGraw-Hill
Book Co. New York.
5. Maity, S. and Sarkar, B.K. (1996) “Development of high-strength whiteware bodies”
Journal of the European Ceramic Society 16, pp 1083-1088.
6. Prasad, C.S, Maiti, K.N. and Venugopal R.(2002) “Effect of silica fume addition on
the properties of whiteware compositions” Ceramics International 28 pp 9-15.
7. Schroeder, E. J. (1978) “Inexpensive high
strength electrical porcelain” Am.
Ceram.
Soc. Bull. 57, 526.
8. Papargyris, A. D. and Cooke, R. D (1996). “Structure and mechanical properties of
kaolin based ceramics” British Ceramic Transactions, 95[3].
9. Prasad, C.S, Maiti, K.N. and Venugopal R. (2003) “Effect of substitution of quartz by
Rice husk ash and silica fume on the properties of whiteware compositions”
Ceramics International 29, pp 907-914.
10. Kobayashi, Y., Ohira, O., Ohashi, Y. and Kato, E. (1987). “Strength and Weibull
distribution of alumina strengthened whiteware bodies” Journal of the Ceramic
Society of Japan, International Edition 95, pp 837-841.
11. Thurnauer, H. (1954) “Dielectric Materials and Applications” (A.R.V. Hippel, Ed.)
Ceramics, Chapman & Hall, London
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DISPERSIONS IN AN OPTICAL FIBER
1
2
Kamal Sardana and G.P. Singh
1
Mewar University Chittorgargh Rajasthan
2
Dungar College Bikaner Rajasthan
Abstract
Copper wire or cables used for transmission of data from one point to other is not at
all useful in modern electronics. One of the major problems of consumer electronic
branch is spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of cable, called
Dispersion. This limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity. We are
intended to discuss the problem and their possible solution with special reference to
Indian context. The type of optical fiber generally used, various factor affecting
performance and possible solution to improve Linear and non linear characteristics.
Keyword: Copper wire, Optical fiber
INTRODUCTION
Copper wires have been used in data transmission since the invention of the telephone
in 1876. But as the demand increased, the use of copper wires consistently got reduced
due to many reasons such as low bandwidth, short transmission length and inefficiency.
Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light. The field of applied
science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is
known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber optics, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidth (data rates) than other
forms of communication. Optical fibers may be connected to each other or can be
terminated at the end by means of connectors or splicing techniques. This was the
reason for the introduction of optical fiber. Optical fiber played a very important role
due to its wide properties like high bandwidth, long distance transmission, and high
level of security. The use of optical fiber allow use of carrier frequencies typically
∼
200 THz. This increases capacity of optical communication systems by a factor of up
to 10,000. This increase can be understood by noting that the bandwidth of the
modulated carrier can be up to a few percent of the carrier frequency. Taking, for
illustration, 1% as the limiting value, optical communication systems have the potential
of carrying information at bit rates ∼
1 Tb/s. It is this enormous potential bandwidth of
optical communication systems that is the driving force behind the worldwide
development and deployment of light wave systems. Current state-of-the-art systems
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operate at bit rates approx 10 Gb/s, indicating that there is considerable room for
improvement.
V. FIBER TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and
cladding. Two main relationships exist:

Step Index

Graded Index
The step index fiber has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a
sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a
non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core
and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fiber:

Multimode Step Index fiber (Step Index fiber)

Multimode graded Index fiber (Graded Index fiber)

Single- Mode Step Index fiber (Single Mode Fiber).
STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
This fiber is called "Step Index" because the refractive index changes abruptly from
cladding to core. The cladding has a refractive index somewhat lower than the
refractive index of the core glass. As a result, all rays within a certain angle will be
totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary. Rays striking the boundary at angles
greater than the critical angle will be partially reflected and partially transmitted out
through the boundary. After many such bounces the energy in these rays will be lost
from the fiber. The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step index fiber travel
differ, depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a
pulse will arrive at the far end of the fiber at different times, resulting in pulse spreading
which limits the bit-rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
High order Mode Dispersion Refractive Index Profile Low Order Mode Multi mode
Step Index Input Pulse Output Pulse n1n2
GRADED INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBER
This fiber is called graded index because there are many changes in the refractive index
with larger values towards the center. As light travels faster in a lower index of
refraction. So, the farther the light is from the center axis, the grater is its speed. Each
layer of the core refracts the light. Instead of being sharply reflected as it is in a step
index fiber, the light is now bent or continuously refracted in an almost sinusoidal
pattern. Those rays that follow the longest path by travelling near the outside of the core,
have a faster average velocity. The light travelling near the center of the core, has the
slowest average velocity.
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As a result all rays tend to reach the end of the fiber at the same time. That causes the end
travel time of different rays to be nearly equal, even though they travel different paths.
Dispersion Multi mode Graded Index n1n2
The graded index reduces modal dispersing to 1ns/km or less.
Graded index fibers have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 
m and a cladding diameter of
125 
m. The fiber is used in applications requiring a wide bandwidth and low model
dispersion. The number of modes in the fiber is about half that of step index fiber having
the same diameter.
Single mode step index fiber:
Another way to reduce modal dispersion is to reduce the core's diameter, until the fiber
only propagates one mode efficiently. The single mode fiber has an exceedingly small
core diameter of only 5 to 10 
m. Standard cladding diameter is 125 
m. Since this
fiber carries only one mode, model dispersion does not exists. Single mode fibers easily
have a potential bandwidth of 50 to 100GHz-km.
The core diameter is so small that the splicing technique and measuring technique are
more difficult. High sources must have very narrow spectral width and they must be
very small and bright in order to permit efficient coupling into the very small core
diameter of these fibers.
One advantage of single mode fiber is that once they are installed, the system's capacity
can be increased as newer, higher capacity transmission system becomes available.
This capability saves the high cost of installing a new transmission medium to obtain
increased performance and allows cost effective increases from low capacity system to
higher capacity system.
As the wavelength is increased the fiber carries fewer and fewer modes until only one
remains. Single mode operation begins when the wavelength approaches the core
diameter. At 1300 nm, the fiber permits only one mode, it becomes a single mode fiber.
As optical energy in a single mode fiber travels in the cladding as well as in the core,
therefore the cladding must be a more efficient carrier of energy. In a multimode fiber
cladding modes are not desirable; a cladding with in efficient transmission
characteristic can be tolerated. The diameter of the light appearing at the end of the
single mode fiber is larger than the core diameter, because some of the optical energy of
the mode travels in the cladding. Mode field diameter is the term used to define this
diameter of optical energy.
VIII. DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of an optical
fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fiber. The
bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and therefore the
greater dispersion can be tolerated.
There are three main types of dispersion in a fiber:
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
Modal Dispersion.

Material dispersion.

Waveguide dispersion.
Linear Characteristics
MODAL DISPERSION
Modal dispersion occurs only in Multimode fibers. It arises because rays follow
different paths through the fiber and consequently arrive at the other end of the fiber at
different times. Mode is a mathematical and physical concept describing the
propagation of electromagnetic waves through media. In case of fiber, a mode is simply
a path that a light ray can follow in travelling down a fiber. The number of modes
supported by a fiber ranges from 1 to over 100,000. Thus a fiber provides a path of
travels for one or thousands of light rays depending on its size and properties. Since
light reflects at different angles for different paths (or modes), the path lengths of
different modes are different.
Thus different rays take a shorter or longer time to travel the length of the fiber. The ray
that goes straight down the center of the core without reflecting, arrives at the other end
first, other rays arrive later. Thus light entering the fiber at the same time exit the other
end at different times. The light has spread out in time.
The spreading of light is called modal dispersion. Modal dispersion is that type of
dispersion that results from the varying modal path lengths in the fiber. Typical modal
dispersion figures for the step index fiber are 15 to 30 ns/ km. This means that for light
entering a fiber at the same time, the ray following the longest path will arrive at the
other end of 1 km long fiber 15 to 30 ns after the ray, following the shortest path.
Fifteen to 30 billionths of a second may not seem like much, but dispersion is the main
limiting factor on a fiber's bandwidth. Pulse spreading results in a pulse overlapping
adjacent pulses as shown in figure. Eventually, the pulses will merge so that one pulse
cannot be distinguished from another. The information contained in the pulse is lost
Reducing dispersion increases fiber bandwidth.
Modal dispersion can be reduced in three ways:

Use a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes.

Use a graded -index fiber so that light rays that allow longer paths also travel at a
faster velocity and thereby arrive at the other end of the fiber at nearly the same time as
rays that follow shorter paths.

Use a single-mode fiber, which permits no modal dispersion.
MATERIAL DISPERSION
Different wavelengths also travel at different velocities through a fiber, in the same
mode, as
n = c/v.
where n is index of refraction, c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of the
same wavelength in the material. The value of v in the equation changes for each
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wavelength, Thus Index of refraction changes according to the wavelength. Dispersion
from this phenomenon is called material dispersion, since it arises from material
properties of the fiber.
Each wave changes speed differently, each is refracted differently. White light entering
the prism contains all colors.
The prism refracts the light and its changes speed as it enters the prism. Red light
deviates the least and travels the fastest. The violet light deviates the most and travels
the slowest.
WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION
Waveguide dispersion, most significant in a single- mode fiber, occurs because optical
energy travels in both the core and cladding, which have slightly different refractive
indices. The energy travels at slightly different velocities in the core and cladding
because of the slightly different refractive indices of the materials. Altering the internal
structures of the fiber, allows waveguide dispersion to be substantially changed, thus
changing the specified overall dispersion of the fiber.
Non Linear Characteristics
Polarization mode dispersion:
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is related to the differential group delay (DGD),
the time difference in the group delays between two orthogonal polarized modes, which
causes pulse spreading in digital systems and distortions in analogue systems.
In ideal circular symmetric fibers, the two polarization modes propagate with the same
velocity. However, real fibers cannot be perfectly circular and can undergo local
stresses consequently; the propagating light is split into two polarization modes.
These two local polarization modes travel at different velocities causing a pulse
spreading in digital systems. The so induced DGDs vary randomly along the fiber and
in time, leading to a statistical behavior of PMD, both in time and wavelength. At a
given time, the DGD values vary randomly with wavelength. The PMD value is the
average of the DGD values. While the individual values can shift from one time to
another the overall distribution, hence the average is assumed to be fixed.
Chromatic dispersion
Chromatic dispersion is caused by delay differences among the group velocities of the
different wavelengths composing the source spectrum. The consequence of the
chromatic dispersion is a broadening of the transmitted impulses.
The chromatic dispersion is essentially due to two contributions: material dispersion
and waveguide dispersion. The material dispersion occurs because the refractive index
changes with the optical frequency. It is generally the dominant contribution, except in
the wavelength region in which it vanishes (for silica based material this happens
around 1 300 nm). The waveguide dispersion depends on the dispersive properties of
the waveguide itself. From a practical point of view, a significant property is that the
waveguide dispersion has opposite signs with respect to the material dispersion in the
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wavelength range above 1300 nm.
CONCLUSION
Fiber optic technology is the new trend in communications industry and is steadily and
effectively replacing the old cable system for transmission of signals. Dispersion can be
avoided by using smaller core diameters which allows fewer modes. And also usage of
single mode fiber permits no modal dispersion. By using a graded index fiber so that
light rays that allow longer paths to travel at a faster velocity and there by arrive at the
other end of the fiber nearly at the same time.
References
1.J. A. Kash, F. E. Doany, C. L. Schow, R. Budd, C. Baks, D. M. Kuchta, P. Pepeljugoski, L.
Schares, R. Dangel, F. Horst, B. J. Offrein, C. Tsang, N. Ruiz, C. Patel, R. Hor- ton, F. Libsch, J.
U. Knickerbocker, “Terabus: Chip-to- chip board level optical data buses,” in Proc. 21st Annu.
Meeting IEEE Lasers Electro-Optics Soc. (LEOS), 2008, Paper WM1, pp. 515516.
2.A. F. Benner, M. Ignatowski, J. A. Kash, D. M. Kuchta, and M. B. Ritter, “Exploitation of
optical interconnects in future server architectures,” IBM J. Res. Dev., vol. 49, no. 4/5, pp.
755775, 2005.
3.H. Kogelnik, “On optical communication: Reflections and perspectives,” in Proc. European
Conf. Exhibition Optical Communication (ECOC), 2004, Paper Mo1.1.1.
4.S. Abbott, “Review of 20 years of undersea optical fiber transmission system development
and deployment since TAT-8,” in Proc. 34th European Conf. Exhibition Optical
Communication (ECOC), 2008, Paper Mo.4.E.1.
5.R. E. Wagner, “Fiber-based broadband access technology and deployment,” in Optical Fiber
Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. New York:
Academic, pp. 401436, 2008.
6.S. K. Korotky, “Network global expectation model: A sta- tistical formalism for quickly
quantifying network needs and costs,” J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 703 722, 2004.
7.A. Adamiecki, M. Duelk, and J. H. Sinsky, “25 Gbit/s electrical duobinary transmission over
FR-4 backplanes,” Electron. Lett., vol. 41, no. 14, pp. 826827, 2005.
8.P.J. Winzer and R.-J. Essiambre, “Advanced optical modu- lation formats,” in Optical Fiber
Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. Academic, pp.
2394, 2008.
9.D. O. Caplan, “Laser communication transmitter and receiver design”, in Free-Space Laser
Communications: Prin- ciples and Advances, A. Majumdar and J. Ricklin, Eds. New York:
Springer-Verlag, pp. 225362, 2012.
10.J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications. New York: McGraw- Hill, 2011.
11.K. Kikuchi, “Coherent optical communication systems,” in Optical Fiber
Telecommunications V, vol. B, I. P. Kaminov, T. Li, and A. E. Willner, Eds. New York:
Academic, pp. 95130, 2008.
12.S. L. Jansen, “Optical OFDM, a hype or is it for real?” in Proc. European Conf. Optical
Communication (ECOC), 2008, Paper Mo.3.E.3.
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A CERTAIN SUBCLASS OF MEMOMORPHIC CLOSE TO
COVEX FUNCTIONS
Shashi Kant* and Amit soni
P.G. Department of Mathematics,
Govt Dungar College, Bikaner 334003
Abstract
In this paper, a new subclass MK ( 0 ) of meromorphic close to covex functions
defined by means of subordination is investigated. Some results such as inclusion
relationships, coefficient inequalities, convolution property, distortion theorem for
this class are derived. The results obtained here is extension of earlier known works.
Keyword : covex functions, convolution property, distortion theorem
INTRODUCTION
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EFFICACY OF EUCALYPTUS (EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS)
OIL ON METHANE PRODUCTION AND RUMINAL
FERMENTATION (IN VITRO)
Taruna Pahuja*, S.K.S. Raghuvansi, Manish Bhati, D.V.S. Shekhawat,
R.C. Jakhmola and Prakash Acharya
Developmental Biology Lab, P.G. Department of Zoology,
Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner
*Email address: [email protected]
Abstract:
An experiment was conducted to study the effect of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
globulus) oil on methane production and ruminal fermentation (in vitro).
Eucalyptus oil has a potential to reduce methane production because it contains
tannins, flavonoids and volatile oils. E. globulus decreased total gas production and
methane gas concentration (GP; ml/g DM) up to 40.54%, and 56.7%, respectively.
Inclusion of E. globulus had drastically decreased true digestibility of dry matter
(TDDM; mg/g DM), organic matter (TDOM; mg/g DM) and neutral detergent fibre
degradibility (TNDFD; mg/g DM) up to level of 1.0 µl/ml, but did not significantly
decrease further at higher levels. The TVFA was almost similar up to level 1.0 µl/ml
of E. globulus but at 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level it was reduced significantly (P<0.05).
Ammonia nitrogen concentration linearly decreased without significant
differences with increasing level of E. globulus. However, protozoa count
decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing level of E. globulus. The findings
revealed that E. globulus oil could modify the rumen fermentation and has a
potential in methane mitigation
Key words: Eucalyptus globulus, gas production, methane production and
protozoa count.
INTRODUCTION
Methane is the largest potential contributor to the global warming phenomenon.
Enteric methane production from domestic animals is nearly 10% of the total methane
emission globally (1). Cattle typically lose 215% of their ingested energy as eructated
methane (1) which reduces the potential conversion of feed energy to metabolizable
energy. Various feed additives have been used to mitigate methane emission. But in
recent years, the forthcoming ban of in-feed antibiotics has driven research activities
regarding the potential of plant extracts and oils as alternatives to antibiotics growth
promoters.
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They are used at lower concentrations to manipulate rumen fermentation (2).
Essential oils present in various plant part have in vitro antimethanogenic and
antiprotozoal activity (3). The present study was carried out to evaluate the effect of
inclusion of Eucalyptus globulus oil on total gas, methane production, degradibilty and
rumen fermentation (in vitro).
Material and Methods: The experimental diet was prepared by taking sewan (Lasiurus
sindicus) as roughage source and concentrate in ratio of 60:40 and was used as substrate
for in vitro experiments. The concentrate mixture was composed of maize, groundnut
cake (GNC), barley, common salt and mineral mixture. Rumen liquor was collected
from four Magra sheep those were maintained on L. sindicus (Sewan)-dominated
pasture and each receiving 300 g/d concentrate supplement. The rumen liquor was
drawn before feeding using stomach tube. The rumen liquor was transported in
insulated flasks under anaerobic conditions to the laboratory. A 0.5g experimental diet
(roughage to concentrate ratio 60:40) along with different level of E. globulus and 50ml
buffer (inoculums/medium) in each fermentation vessels (patented) were incubated for
O
24 h anaerobically at 39 C following method of Menke and Steingass (4). E. globulus
oil was added at the levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 μl/ml of incubation medium. The
gas production (GP) was measured at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 and 24h interval. The gas
production was measured by the displacement of the piston of syringe. A blank was also
kept. Methane content in fermentation gas was determined by gas chromatography
(GC) using Nucon-5765 gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization detector
(FID) and stainless steel column packed with Porapak-Q (length 6';o.d.1/8” i.e. 2 mm;
mesh range 80-100). Temperatures were 40, 50 and 500C, in injector oven, column oven
and detector respectively and the flow rates of carrier gas (nitrogen), hydrogen and air
were 30, 30 and 300 ml/min, respectively. For methane estimation, each gas sample
(250μl) was manually injected using Hamilton airtight syringe.
Rumen fluid pH was determined immediately after collection using portable digital pH
meter (pen type) at the site of collection. After pH determination 1ml of saturated HgCl2
solution was added to each collected sample to kill the microbes and to stop metabolic
activity. After fermentation termination, contents of the vessel were filtered through
pre-weighed glass crucible. The sub-samples of filtrate were drawn and preserved in
deep freeze pending analysis. In vitro degradability was determined (5). The values of
Metabolisable Energy (ME) and Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA) of samples were
calculated by the equation of ME (MJ kg-1 DM) = 2.20 + 0.136 GP + 0.057 CP + 0.0029
2
-1
CP (4) and SCFA (μmol L ) = 0.0239 GP-0.0601 (6), respectively. CP and XA were
crude protein and ash in g/100 g DM and GP was the net gas production (ml/200 mg
DM) after 24 h incubation. After termination of incubation, protozoa were counted
microscopically (7). Total-nitrogen (Total-N) by kjeldahl method (8), ammonia
nitrogen content (9) and total volatile fatty acids (10) were determined in the filtrate.
The data were analysed using SPSS version 13.0.
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Inclusion of increasing level of E. globulus significantly (P<0.05) decreased the
total gas production as well as methane gas production (Table 1). The results showed
that the increase in concentration of E. globulus resulted in decrease in total GP and
methane gas concentration (ml/g DM) up to 40.54%, and 56.7%, respectively. The
results of present investigation are in consistent with the earlier reports of Kumar et al.
(11), Sallam et al. (12) and Patra and Yu (13). They reported significant decrease in total
GP and methane production after inclusion of essential oil specially eucalyptus oil
because the essential oils have antimethanogenic agents (14). The characteristic of
essential oils to interact with the cell membrane resulting in inhibition of growth of
some Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria generated the possibility of exploring
some of the essential oils from garlic, hot peppers and clove buds as antimethanogenic
agents (14). Eucalyptus leaves have a potential to reduce methane production as well as
gas production because it contains tannins, flavonoids and volatile oils. The high degree
of unsaturation of E. globulus likely made it toxic to methanogens (15; 12) and resulted
in a strong decrease of methane production. Patra (3), Sirohi et al. (16) and Rabah et al.
(17) also reported that essential oils supplementation decreased methane production.
Wanapat et al. (18) observed that the methane production was decreased due to
supplementation of plant oils containing plant secondary metabolites. ME and SCFA
production could be predicted from gas values. The results showed that ME (MJ/Kg
DM) and SCFA (mMol) were decreased with increasing level of E. globulus. Gas
production has indirect relationship with metabolisable energy (19). Gas production is
basically the result of fermentation of carbohydrates to acetate, propionate and butyrate
(19) and substantial changes in carbohydrates fractions were reflected by total gas
produced (20). A shift in the proportion of ME and SCFA will be reflected by changes in
gas production.
Inclusion of E. globulus had drastically decreased true digestibility of dry
matter (TDDM; mg/g DM), organic matter (TDOM; mg/g DM) and neutral detergent
fibre degradibility (TNDFD; mg/g DM) up to level of 1.0 µl/ml, but did not
significantly decrease further at higher levels (Table 1). The reduction in digestibility
might be due to antibacterial effect of essential oils or vegetable oils on ruminal micro
flora as observed by Oh et al. (21). Similarly the digestibility of feed reduced
significantly up to 1.0 µl/ml level, thereafter no further decrease was observed with
increasing dose of eucalyptus oil (11) and peppermint oil (22). Kouazounde et al. (23)
also observed decrease in digestibility due to essential oils.
The total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) was almost similar up to level 1.0 µl/ml of
E. globulus but at 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level it was reduced significantly (P<0.05) (Table
1). Then it again increased at 2.0 µl/ml. The VFA are the end products of rumen
microbial fermentation and represent the main supply of metabolizable energy for
ruminants.Therefore, an increase in their production would be nutritionally favorable
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for the animal (24). Kongmun et al. (25) also reported that TVFA concentration was
increased with increasing level of coconut oil.
pH increased significantly (P<0.05) up to 1.5 µl/ml inclusion level of E. globulus then it
decreased at 2.0 µl/ml inclusion level. The observed increase in pH reflected the lower
concentration of VFA. As pH decreases, acids tend to become undissociated and more
hydrophobic, thereby interacting more easily with cell membranes and exerting their
antimicrobial effect. Furthermore, bacteria seem to be more susceptible to the effects of
essential oils at low pH (26). In this study, the pH of in vitro rumen fluid varied from
6.45 to 6.68 which were within the normal range of rumen pH (6.45-7.00) (27). Rabah
et al. (17) also reported increase pH values with higher inclusion levels of essential oils.
Ammonia nitrogen concentration linearly decreased without significant
differences with increasing level of E. globulus. The total nitrogen concentration
significantly (P<0.05) increased after inclusion of E. globulus. Similar result was also
reported by Sallam et al. (12) and Rabah et al. (17) with inclusion of E. globulus oil.
The addition of E. globulus depressed protozoa count significantly (P<0.05)
(Table 1). Inclusion of E. globulus decreased protozoa count up to 86.02%. Kumar et al.
(11) and Patra and Yu (13) were found similar results on protozoa count with the
addition of eucalyptus oil. Decrease methane production is usually accompanied by a
reduction in the number of protozoa resulting from the increased oil concentration.
Close association of methanogenic bacteria with protozoa population might have
adversely affected methanogenic archaea which resulted in decreased methane
production.
Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that E. globulus (at 2µl/ml level) have a
potential to manipulate rumen fermentation favourably with antimethanogenic and
antiprotozoal properties.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by National Fund for Basic and
Strategic Research in Agriculture (NFBSRA) and Central Sheep and Wool Research
Institute.
References:
1.R.C. Jakhmola, Taruna Pahuja and S.K.S. Raghuvansi, Indian J. Small Ruminants,
16(1), 2010, 1-17.
2.N. S. Manh, M. Wanapat, S. Uriyapongson, P. Khejornsart and V. Chanthakhoun,
African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(13), 2012, 1997-2003.
3.A.K. Patra, Asian Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 6(5), 2011, 416-428.
4.K.H. Menke and H. Steingass, Anim. Res. Dev., 28, 1988, 7-55.
5.J.M.A. Tilley and R.A. Terry, Journal of British Grassland Society, 18, 1963, 104.
6.G. Getachew, H.P.S. Makkar and K. Becker, EAAP satellite symposium.1999.
7. R.C. Jakhmola, S.K.S. Raghuvansi and Taruna Pahuja, Indian J. Small Ruminants,
18(1), 2012, 69 - 74.
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8.AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis. (16 Edn. Vol. I ), 1995.
9.A.L. Chaney and E.P. Marbach, Clinical Chemistry, 8, 1962, 130-133.
10. A.J.G. Barnett and R.L. Reid, Journal Agric. Sci., 48, 1957. 315.
11.R. Kumar, D.N. Kamra, Neeta Agarwal and L.C. Chaudhary, Anim. Nutrition Feed
Techn., 9, 2009, 237-243.
12.S.M.A. Sallam, I.C.S. Bueno, P. Brigide, P.B. Godoy, D.M.S.S. Vitti and A.L.
Abdalla, Options Mediterraneenes, 85, 2009, 267-272.
13.A.K. Patra and Z Yu, J. dairy science, 96(3), 2013, 1782-92.
14.S. Calsamiglia, M. Busquet, P.W. Cardozo, L. Castillejos and A. Ferret, J. Dairy Sci.,
90, 2007, 2580-2595.
15. R.A. Prins, C.J. van Nevel and D.J. Demeyer, Ant. Van Leeuwen, 38, 1972, 281287.
16. S.K. Sirohi, Manu Mehta, Navneet Goel and Poonam Pandey, J. Nat. Prod. Plant
Resour., 2(1), 2012, 73-80.
17. A. Rabah, K. Karima, L. Nassima, Hakim, H. Belaidi, H. Besma and B. Hacene,
African J. of environmental sci and techn., 7(4), 2013, 140-144.
18. M. Wanapat, P. Kongmun, O. Poungchompu, A. Cherdthong, P. Khejomsart, R.
Pilajun and S. Kaenpakdee, Tropical Animal health and production, 44(3), 2012, 399405.
19. A. Akinfemi, A.O. Adesanya and V.E. Aya, American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific
Research, 4 (4), 2009, 240-245.
20. M. Coelho, F.G. Hembry, F.E Barton and A.M. Saxton, Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol.,
20, 1998, 219.
21. H. K. Oh, T. Sakai, M. B. Jones and W. M. Longhurst, Appl. Microbiol., 15, 1967,
777784.
22. N. Agarwal, C. Shekhar, R. Kumar, L.C. Chaudhary and D.N. Kamra, Animal Feed
Science and Technology, 148, 2009, 321-327.
23. J.B. Kouazounde, L. Jin, F.M. Assogba, M.A. Ayedoun, Y. Wang, K.A.
Beauchemin, T.A. McAllister and J.D. Gbenou, J. of the Science of food and agric., 1,
2014, 13.
24. M. Busquet, S. Calsamiglia, A. Ferret and C. Kamel, J. Dairy Sci., 89, 2006, 761771.
25. P. Kongmun, M. Wanapat, P. Pakdee and C. Navanukraw, Livestock Sci., 127, 2010,
3844.
26. P.N. Skandamis and G. J. Nychas, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 66, 2000, 16461653.
27. I.A. Mir, R. Kumar, R.K. Sharma and K. Barman, Indian Journal of Veterinary
Research, 19(1), 2010, 13-18.
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Table 1: Effect of adding various levels of Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus)
oil on total gas production, methane production, degradability and rumen
parameters (in vitro).
Parameters
Gas production (ml/g
DM)
CH4 production (ml/g
DM)
CH4%
ME (MJ/Kg DM)
SCFA (mmol)
TDDM (mg/g DM)
TDOM (mg/g DM)
TNDFD (mg/g DM)
Rumen Parameters
TVFA (mmol/ dl)
pH
Ammonia nitrogen
(mg/dl)
Total nitrogen
(mg/dl)
Protozoa (105/dl)
abcde
0
0.5
1
148.01a 141.34ab 134.67b
1.5
99.01c
2
88.01d
3.026
p
value
0.000
121.67a
111.17 b
97.67c
63.83d
52.67e
0.279
0.000
27.37a
7.60a
0.650a
723.07a
645.43a
523.03a
26.07b
7.40ab
0.613ab
657.60b
580.43b
410.27b
24.07c 21.43d 19.87e
7.23b
6.27c
5.97d
b
c
0.583
0.413
0.360d
c
c
591.53 590.73 583.47c
515.17c 511.70 c 503.27c
295.10c 296.47c 282.57c
0.041
0.077
0.015
5.403
4.656
9.312
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
7.33a
6.47d
29.27a
6.33ab
6.58c
29.16a
7.33a
6.61bc
28.94a
4.33c
6.68a
28.27a
5.67b
6.64b
26.17b
0.333
0.012
0.469
0.000
0.000
0.005
44.57b
36.40c
46.43b
44.57b
49.47a
0.731
0.000
198.90a
154.07b
37.07c
32.20d
27.80e
1.334
0.000
Eucalyptus oil (μl/ml incubation medium)
SEM
Means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P<0.05).
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ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MILK SAMPLES UNDER
DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
1
2
2
2
2*
N. Khiwani , M.Soni , K. Solanki , Rama Gupta and N. Bhojak
1
P.G. Deptt of Chem., Subodh P.G. College, Jaipur
2
Green Chemistry Research Centre, P.G. Department of Chemistry, Govt.
Dungar College (A-Grade), University of Bikaner, Bikaner 334003.
Abstract
Biologically milk is the normal secretion of mammary glands, dieticians
considered it as a complete food. Milk is considered as the most valuable and
nutritious product for the human consumption. It is the best nutrient medium for the
growth of various organisms from microbes to large animals. Among these, the
most important in dairying are bacteria, mould, yeast and virus. In the present paper
antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e. buffalo milk , camel milk, cow
milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk have been carried out on
staphylococcus aureus. Milk samples were subjected for various treatments.
Comparable studies between direct milk, ordinary solution of milk and micellar
solutions of milk have been carried out. Micellar system of milk shows highest
antibacterial activity as compared to other treatments.
Keywords : Antibacterial activity, Milk, Staphylococcus aureus.
INTRODUCTION
Biologically milk is the normal secretion of mammary glands, dieticians considered it
as a complete food and also considered as a mine of nutritive chemicals. Milk is
considered as the most valuable and nutritious product for the human consumption. It is
the best nutrient medium for the growth of various organisms from microbes to large
animals. Nearly all the changes which take place in the flavour and appearance of milk,
after it is drawn, are the result of the activities of micro-organisms. Among these, the
most important in dairying are bacteria, mould, yeast and virus. In the dairy industry
considerable effort is expended in controlling micro-organisms which cause spoilage.
The greater the bacterial count in milk, i.e. the greater the number of bacteria per ml of
milk, the lower is its bacteriological quality. Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular fungi
(plants without chlorophyll) which occur principally in the form of spherical,
cylindrical or spiral cells and which reproduce by transverse fission.
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In milk and its products, the spherical and cylindrical forms are predominant.
Bacteria are found in large numbers in the soil, sewage, decaying plants or animals; and
are also present in air, water etc. Under favourable conditions, bacteria multiply very
rapidly and may double their number in 15 minutes or less. There are many sources of
micro-organisms in milk. Unless the producing animal is clean and her flanks, udder,
and teats given special sanitary care just before milking, her body can be a source of
considerable contamination. The probability of diseases of the udder contaminating the
milk is very high. Mastitis is a disease of the mammary tissues. Mastitis results from
infections by Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus, Escherichia coli etc and
mycobacterium.
The sanitary condition of hands and clothing and the personal
habits of employees must always be suspected as potential sources of contamination.
Utensils and equipments are known to be the source of the greatest proportion of the
microflora contaminating milk. Contaminated air may carry micro-organisms directly
to the milk or milk product, or to other elements of the environment such as equipment,
making them sources of direct contamination of the product (1-6).
Dried dirt and filth is picked up by air movements and carried about as dust in
the atmosphere. For this reason, dust may be the source of almost every kind of
contamination imaginable. Dust should not be allowed to enter the milking area, the
collecting or chilling station, or the dairy- processing plant where it might settle on
equipment or products. Dust and dirt must not be permitted to enter the dairy water
supply.
Water supplies need special care or treatment to assure a quality suitable for
cleaning and processing operation in a dairy or food processing plant. Two groups of
microbiological contaminants may be found in water intended for use in a dairy: those
which are pathogenic and those which, although non-pathogenic, actually damage
product quality. While suffering an active or latent infection, the human and animal
body eliminates the causative organisms in faeces, urine, and/or nasal and oral
discharges. Such contaminants find their way into surface and ground water supplies.
The contaminants brush off from the body surface or clothing into the water, they are
picked up by direct contact of the water with body surfaces, especially the hands, or they
are carried by surface water as it percolates through the soil to become ground water.
Samples of tap water, for ex- were recently found to contain Pseudomonas fluorescens.
Aerobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli and species of Achromobacter, Micrococcus
and Bacillus (7-8).
MATERIALS AND METHOD
In order to investigate the antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e.
buffalo milk, camel milk, cow milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk following
sample solutions were prepared for each case:
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A. Direct milk : Fresh milk which was collected immediately from the animal and
investigated with in half an hour.
B. Pasteurised direct milk : Fresh milk used after pasteurization.
C. Boiled direct milk : Fresh milk used after just boiled.
D. Ordinary solution of milk : One drop of direct milk was diluted upto 10 ml with
distilled water and immediately used for antibacterial activity.
E. Pasteurised ordinary solution : Ordinary solution used after pasteurisation.
F. Boiled ordinary solution : Ordinary solution used after just boiled.
G. Micellar solution of milk : One drop of direct milk was diluted upto 10 ml with 1%
Triton- X- 100 and immediately used for antibacterial activity.
H. Pasteurised micellar solution : Micellar solution used after pasteurisation.
I. Boiled Micellar solution : Micellar solution used after just boiled.
Antimicrobial activity of various samples of milk have been evaluated by disc
diffusion method and Agar gel well method.
Disc Diffusion Method: A saturated solution of Nutrient agar was prepared in double
distilled water and it was autoclaved for 15 min, than poured in petriplates in the
laminar. After its solidification loan of bacteria (i.e Escherichia coli and
Staphylococcus aureus) against which antimicrobial activity is to be investigated was
applied. A separate paper disc was soaked in each solution for 10 minutes. Thus
prepared paper disc was placed into petriplate and finally prepared petriplates were kept
in incubator at 37oC for 24 hour. After 24 hour, petriplates were removed and checked
for measuring zone of inhibition in mm.
Agar gel well method:In this method the Nutrient Agar (NA) petriplates were prepared
with a height of 5 mm. The organism from broth was spread on NA plates (for the
preparation of bacterial lawn) with the help of sterilized swab. In these agar plates the
cups of 6mm diameter were dug out with the help of cork borer and the agar was soaked
out. The base of cup was sealed with 3% molten agar with the help of capillary tubes.
0
Load the cup with specific sample to be tested. Incubate the plates at 37 C for 24 hrs.
Observe the area surrounding each cup which shows the zone of inhibition in mm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Antibacterial activity of different milk samples i.e. buffalo milk, camel milk, cow
milk, goat milk, powdered milk and soya milk have been carried out on Staphylococcus
aureus. The results of antibacterial activity have given in fig 1. Reasons for the
antibacterial activity in milk has not been specified and verified, however one of the
probable reason is the presence of different metal ions in milk (8). In order to get correct
informations about antibacterial activity of buffalo milk, it was subjected for various
treatments and each type of treated milk was tested for antibacterial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus. Miceller system of camel milk show highest antibacterial
activity as compared to other milk.
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Increase in micellar system provides an evidence in support of metal ions in milk. The
investigations using micellar systems for biological activity of milk samples have been
reported first time.
Acknowledgment
Authors are thankful to UGC for financial assistance.
References
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Sci., 23, 193 (1970)
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8. Garg B.S. , Sharma R.K. ,Bhojak. N. ,Bist J.S. Bist and Mittal S., Separation and
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0
2
4
14
m
m
n
i 12
e
n
o 10
z
n
o
it
i 8
b
i
h
n
I 6
16
18
20
Direct milk
Pasteurized
direct milk
Boiled direct
milk
Pasteurized
O.S.
Boiled O.S.
Micellar solution pasteurized
M.S.
(M.S.) of milk
Boiled M.S.
Soya milk
Cow milk
Camel milk
Buffalo milk
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Various treatments
Ordinary
solution (O.S.)
of milk
Fig : 1 Antibacterial activity of various milk samples against
Staphylococcus aureus
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