The co-management of the sand eel fishery of Catalonia (NW

The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries in the
Mediterranean and Black Seas
J. Lleonart and F. Maynou (eds)
Scientia Marina 78S1
April 2014, 87-93, Barcelona (Spain)
ISSN-L: 0214-8358
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/scimar.04027.25A
The co-management of the sand eel fishery of Catalonia
(NW Mediterranean): the story of a process
Jordi Lleonart 1, Montserrat Demestre 1, Paloma Martín 1, Jordi Rodón 2, Susana Sainz-Trápaga 3,
Pilar Sánchez 1, Itziar Segarra 2, Sergi Tudela 3
1 Institut
de Ciències del Mar de Barcelona, CSIC, Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
E-mail: [email protected]
2 Direcció General de Pesca i Afers Marítims de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, 612-614,
08007 Barcelona, Spain.
3 WWF Mediterranean Initiative. Canuda, 37, 08002 Barcelona, Spain.
Summary: A management plan for the boat seines, called sonsera, used in Catalonia to target sand eels (Gymanammodytes
cicerelus and G. semisquamatus) and transparent gobies was drawn up in accordance with European Union rules. A Sand
Eel Co-Management Committee was formally created with the specific mission of ensuring a sustainable fishery. The Committee is composed of public administrations, fishermen’s associations, researchers and NGOs. The process has two phases:
first, a comprehensive study of the fishery and subsequent advice for the establishment of a management plan and, second,
the implementation and monitoring of the management plan. The study of the fishery included the analysis of the ecosystem
impacts of the fishery (mainly stock status, impact on sensitive habitats and by-catch) and was carried out in the wider context
of an adaptive co-management process to respond to the requirements of an ecosystem approach to fisheries.
Keywords: fisheries co-management; small scale fisheries; sand eel; boat seine; Mediterranean Sea.
La cogestión de la pesquería de lanzón en Cataluña (NW del Mediterráneo): historia del proceso
Resumen: Se ha desarrollado un plan de gestión de acuerdo a las normas de la Unión Europea de la pesquería con arte de
tiro desde embarcación, llamado “sonsera”, que se utiliza en Cataluña para la pesca del lanzón (Gymanammodytes cicerelus
y G. semisquamatus) y también de pequeños góbidos. Se creó formalmente un Comité de Cogestión con la misión específica
de garantizar una pesca sostenible. El Comité está integrado por las administraciones públicas, asociaciones de pescadores,
investigadores y organizaciones no gubernamentales. El proceso consta de dos fases: en primer lugar, un estudio exhaustivo
de la pesquería y posterior asesoramiento para el establecimiento de un plan de gestión, y en segundo lugar, la aplicación y
seguimiento del plan de gestión. El estudio de la pesquería ha incluido el análisis de los impactos ambientales de la pesca
(principalmente el estado del stock, el impacto en hábitats sensibles y las capturas accesorias) y se ha llevado a cabo en el
contexto más amplio de un proceso adaptativo de gestión conjunta para responder a los requisitos de un enfoque ecosistémico
de la pesca.
Palabras clave: cogestión de pesquerías; pesquerías artesanales; lanzón; sonso; arte de tiro; mar Mediterráneo
Citation/Como citar este artículo: Lleonart J., Demestre M., Martín P., Rodón J., Sainz-Trápaga S., Sánchez P., Segarra
I., Tudela S. 2014. The co-management of the sand eel fishery of Catalonia (NW Mediterranean): the story of a process. In:
Lleonart J., Maynou F. (eds), The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Sci. Mar. 78S1:
87-93. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/scimar.04027.25A
Editor: Francesc Maynou.
Received: October 28, 2013. Accepted: January 10, 2014. Published: March 28, 2014.
Copyright: © 2014 CSIC. This is an open-access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial Lisence (by-nc) Spain 3.0.
INTRODUCTION
The family Ammodytidae includes 23 species
distributed around the world (Nelson 2006). They are
small, short-lived forage fish typically found on shallow sandy bottoms, usually burrowing into the sand.
Sand eel was used to “feed poor people” in the 18th
century (Bomare 1764), but also as bait (Bomare 1800,
uses the synonym appat de vase). In the North Atlantic
and other seas sand eels are at present caught by industrial fleets for bait, meal, oil and fertilizer purposes
(Reay 1970). In the Mediterranean sand eels are object
88 • J. Lleonart et al.
of a small scale fishery mainly addressed to human
consumption, documented at least since the beginning
of the 19th century (Delaroche 1809). Sand eel was
used as live bait by longliners in Catalonia (NW Mediterranean) in the mid-20th century (Bas et al. 1955).
Sand eels are well known in Catalonia, receiving
the common names of sonso, enfú, trencavits and barrinaire, and their capture is a traditional activity for
small-scale fleets. Delaroche (1809) reported sand eel
(as Ammodytes tobianus) to be present in the Barcelona
fish market. After Delaroche’s paper, sand eel related
to fisheries was cited in the works by Sánchez-Comendador (1904), Gibert (1913), Borja y Goyeneche
(1920) and Lleó (1923).
Sand eels are target of a fishery carried out by a special boat seine called sonsera, (plural sonseres), which
is the name of both gear and boat. Lleó (1923) reported
the presence of 18 sonseres in Catalonia in 1920. According to Lleonart (Coord.) (1990) the number of sonseres in 1988 was 20. Further data about the fishery are
found in Bas et al. (1955), and Sánchez and Demestre
(1988). Currently 26 boats are entitled to use this gear,
distributed in 6 ports of the central and northeast coast
of Catalonia.
There are two species of sand eel in Catalonia:
Gymnammodytes cicerelus (Mediterranean sand eel,
sonso blau in Catalan), by far the most abundant species, and Gymnammodytes semisquamatus (smooth
sand eel, sonso ros in Catalan). The taxonomy of
these species was unsure in the past (Ammodytes tobianus was used as a synonym of G. semisquamatus by
several sources, as in Fischer et al. 1987), but eventually the identification of the species present in Catalonia was solved by Sabatés et al. (1990). Individuals
of both species rarely reach 15 cm length and they
live on shallow sandy bottoms (between 5 and 10 m
depth). Their catches are used for human consumption, and a very small proportion for bait. Sand eels
are consumed fresh. In the period 2000-2012 prices
ranged between 1 and 5 €/kg, with a mean of 2 €/kg.
The price increased to 3.5 €/kg in 2013, the highest
annual mean on record.
Boats operate on a daily trip basis, going to fish
five days a week early in the morning when sand eels
leave their holes. Fishers search for schools using
echo sounding, and after one to three hauls come back
to port to sell the catch. Both sand eel species can
appear mixed in the catch. By-catch is low and most
of it can be released alive (Table 1). On a fishermen’s
initiative, the first regulatory framework specific for
the fishery was adopted in 1987. A key element of this
initial regulation was the implementation of a seasonal closure during the reproduction period (December
15th to the end of February). Management measures
adopted in recent years also include a closed census
of authorized boats.
The sonsera gear can also be used, with some minor
adaptations, to catch small gobies (Aphia minuta, Crystallogobius linearis and Pseudaphia ferreri). These
species are fished on muddy or sandy-muddy bottoms,
transparent goby (Aphia minuta) in the southern fishing grounds at 7-12 m depth and crystal goby (Crys-
Table 1. – By-catch of sand eel fishery, expressed as percentage in
weight, according to two sources: logbooks (accounting for 843 tons
of sand eel) and sampling (accounting for 9.6 t of sand eel).
Species or taxonomic group
Pagellus erythrinus
Xyrichtys novacula
Bothus podas
Spicara spp.
Synodus saurus
Mullus spp.
Trachinus draco
Scomber colias
Cephalopods
Seriola dumerilii
Citharus linguatula
Trachurus spp.
Sparus aurata
Rajidae
TOTAL
Logbooks
Sampling
0.053
0.017
0.011
0.081
0.011
0.001
0.026
0.069
0.005
0.010
0.001
0.026
0.001
0.001
0.313
0.347
0.288
0.252
0.230
0.216
0.091
0.057
0.031
0.030
0.028
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.573
tallogobius linearis) in the northern fishing grounds
at 30-50 m depth. Catches of Pseudaphia ferreri are
negligible. Traditionally the fishing period for these
species has been from November to May, partially
overlapping with the sand eel closure.
European legislation (European Council 2006) explicitly prohibits the use of boat seines as being used
currently in terms of mesh size, depth and distance
from the coast, so the sonsera is automatically outside
the law unless the corresponding derogations within
the context of a comprehensive management plan are
approved. The main issues in this process are the sustainability of sand eel stocks, by-catch prevention and
seagrass meadow protection.
According to the OECD (1996), co-management is
a process of management in which government shares
power with resource users, with each given specific
rights and responsibilities relating to information and
decision-making. Much literature has been produced
recently regarding fisheries co-management (e.g. Wilson et al. 2003, Pomeroy and Rivera-Guieb 2006, Pope
2009, Berkes 2009, Gutiérrez et al. 2011). Often comanagement is presented as related to the ecosystem
approach to fisheries (FAO 2009). However, though
fisheries co-management as a concept has a relatively
short history, as a practice it has been present for a
much longer period (Jentoft 2003) and is not completely new in the Mediterranean. A general review of
assessment and management issues in Mediterranean
and Black Sea has been done by Caddy (2009).
In 2012 a Sand Eel Co-Management Committee
was appointed to carry out a scientific study that would
support a management plan for the sonsera. It was also
tasked with the management of the fishery during the
initial interim period. That Committee is composed of
the public administration, fishermen’s associations,
researchers and civil society represented by NGOs. An
executive permanent committee with two representatives of each part meets monthly to monitor the fishery
output, analyse incidents and take decisions. Fishermen play a major role in this structure so it can be considered as a fully co-management process sensu FAO
(i.e. Halls et al. 2005), and included as a main issue of
the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) (FAO 2003,
Garcia et al. 2003).
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The co-management of the sand eel fishery of Catalonia • 89
THE PROBLEM
On 21 December 2006 the European Union adopted
the Council Regulation (EC) No 1967/2006 (European
Council 2006) concerning management measures for
the sustainable exploitation of fishery resources in the
Mediterranean Sea. Article 19 of the regulation provides
for compulsory adoption of management plans by member states for fisheries conducted by boat seines (among
other gears) no later than December 2007. The same regulation adopts technical measures related to mesh size
(Article 9), and the minimum distance from the coast
and depths allowed for towed nets, a category in which
boat seines are included (Article 13). Transitional derogations until 31 May 2010 applied to the minimum mesh
size and minimum distance from the coast for fishing
gears operating in accordance with national law in force
on 1 January 1994 (Article 14). Permanent derogations
were conditional to a positive scientific study supporting
the corresponding management plans.
On 11 May 2010 a first draft of the Management
Plan for Artisanal Fishing with Boat Seines or Sonsera
was submitted to the Spanish Government to be delivered to the European Commission. Several questions
and answers regarding the improvement of the document went from and to the EC until January 2012, when
the submitted plan was not accepted due to the lack of a
scientific study that would support the proposed measures and derogations. Therefore, the fishery was deemed
not legal and forced to close in March 2012, right after
the annual closed season. This entailed a huge crisis in
the sector, which approached the NGOs, scientists and
the different administrations calling for support.
The main issues regarding the sustainability of boat
seining are the following:
- The fishery of both the main target species (sand
eel) and the minor one (transparent gobies) must be
sustainable with respect to the target species.
- The activity of the sonsera must not be detrimental to vulnerable habitats, especially by avoiding fishing on seagrass meadows.
- The by-catch, if any, must be very low (i.e. up to
1% and no more than 5 kg).
THE CO-MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
During informal meetings among stakeholders held in
March 2012, it was agreed to create a Sand Eel Co-Management Committee including fishermen, the fisheries
administration, NGOs and scientists. The co-management
committee was formally established on April 26, 2012.
Fisheries authorities include both the central Spanish
government authority (which joined the Committee in
December 2012), and the Catalan government authority.
NGOs include the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
and Greenpeace. A permanent committee composed of
a sub-set of ten members (two per stakeholder) meets
at least once a month; decisions are taken by consensus
whenever possible and at least by a majority of seven
votes. This scheme strengthens the sense of ownership of
the management process among all stakeholders, resulting in a very high adherence to the rules.
The Sand Eel Co-Management Committee has both
short term and long-term objectives. In the short term
the aim of the Committee has been to design a new
management plan based on a comprehensive scientific
study and to manage the fishery during this interim
period. In the long term, subject to approval of the
management plan, the objective is to implement the
plan, to control its implementation, to monitor the indicators, to adjust the fishing activity according to the
harvest control rules and to decide on penalties in case
of noncompliance.
The fishery was closed in March 2012, right after the
start of the fishing season. To de-block the situation, in
June 2012 the co-management committee obtained approval for a “scientific fishery” under highly strict and
precautionary rules with the purpose of carrying out
the scientific study needed to develop the management
plan during the following 18 months. The plan, after
approval by the authorities, would allow the reopening
of the commercial fishery for the 2014 fishing season.
The legal provisions allowing for the scientific fishery
are specifically stated by invoking a Council Regulation (European Council 2009), whereby a Community
fishing vessel shall be authorized “fishing for scientific
purposes” only if “indicated in a valid fishing authorization” (Article 7). Moreover, the same regulation also
allows for the commercialization of the catches when
they are carried out for scientific purposes (Article 33).
In addition, authorized fishing for scientific purposes is
exempt from the obligation of compliance of the technical measures provided by the Mediterranean Regulation (European Council 2006), as clearly stated in its
first article.
The management control rules for the sand eel fishery were based on standard methodologies and take
into account the precautionary approach (Caddy 2009).
They were stated as follows:
- Set a total allowable catch (TAC) for the sand eel
fishing season. Since the Sand Eel Co-Management
Committee was created in April 2012, the scientific
study started in August, and the sand eel fishing season
covers the period from 1 March to 15 December, the scientific study could not monitor a whole fishing season
but two halves, covering a composite fishing season,
from August 2012 to July 2013. Given the urgency it
was not possible to wait until March 2013 to monitor
one complete fishing season. The TAC was set at 819
t (i.e. 2012 landings). This figure was the highest value
reported since 2000 although there is consensus that real
catches have been much higher in recent years because
underreporting is a widespread practice in this fishery.
- Set the fishing effort at ten boats per day for five
days a week on all working days during the fishing season. This measure means an effort reduction of 40%
in comparison with previous seasons, when 25 fishing
boats were operating regularly. A rotating procedure
was established in order to avoid unbalances.
- Determine fixed quotas per boat and day on two
levels: boats with two persons onboard and with three
persons onboard, the latter being larger than the former. These quotas were established at the beginning
of the season (i.e. 500 and 660 kg) but were reviewed
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90 • J. Lleonart et al.
monthly and modified as the cumulative catch of the
entire fishery approached the TAC. The Sand Eel CoManagement Committee was very strict on that, and
fishermen who exceed the quota must compensate it
later. If the overcatch is over 10%, the profits are allocated to social purposes.
- The whole commercial catch must be sold by official auction.
- Every boat owner must present a logbook every
day accounting for every haul with the following data:
fishing time, total catch (estimate percentage of species), by-catch, georeferenced position and depth. A
total of 1906 daily trips and 3038 hauls were collected
in the study period.
- Host technicians on board to collect samples. The
sampling schedule included four monthly onboard
samplings in different areas and boats. These operations were also performed during the closed season, in
this case taking only specimens for scientific use.
- Other traditional rules were maintained: fishing
seasons, obligation to fish in daylight, limited time at
sea and technical characteristics of the gear.
THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY
The scientific study was mainly based on the data
collected during the period August 2012 to July 2013.
Previous information about the fishery in recent years
was available but its reliability was doubtful. Nevertheless, these data were also scrutinized.
Data on first sale of fish catches in all ports of Catalonia have been available since 2000 and are provided
by the Catalan government. Data consist of landings
and revenues of fish sold by species, boat and day. This
constitutes a huge amount of data (14 million records
in the period 2000-2012), with sand eel a small part of
the total (0.2%).
However these data involve many problems, especially when a fine analysis is required, as in the present
case. Species misidentification and underreporting are
the two main errors present in the database. Underreporting of sand eel in the historical series was the first
problem to deal with. The cause of this bias was that
catches were sold outside the official market.
Data collected specifically during the period August 2012 to July 2013 include i) close monitoring of
catches per boat and day under the special fishing plan
mentioned above, and ii) a sampling campaign carried
out on board boat seiners (monthly, four fishing days)
to obtain data on the specific composition of the total
catch, length frequency distributions of target and bycatch species, length-weight measurements and, when
possible, target species sex and maturity.
The scientific study dealt with different aspects of
target species biology, boat seine fishing, impact on the
habitat and population dynamics. The results include
the following topics:
- Target species identification.
- Biological parameters: length-weight relationships, growth, maturity stages.
- Sand eel and small goby size distributions by area
and time.
- Description of the gear, fishing operation and fleet
behaviour.
- Fleet composition and characteristics.
- Mapping geographical distribution of hauls, depth
and type of bottoms and comparison with the available
information on seagrass habitats.
- Selectivity of the fishing gear.
- By-catch, species identification, sizes, amounts
and release of live specimens.
- Population dynamics and stock assessment.
The figures resulting from these controls are presented and discussed monthly in the Sand Eel Co-Management Committee, and modifications and penalties
are agreed.
The scientific study refers to the sonsera gear, although this gear has two different strategies targeting
sand eels and small gobies.
RESULTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY
On the Catalan coast, the boat seine fishery is driven by the Mediterranean sand eel (Gymnammodytes
cicerelus), with catches of smooth sand eel (Gymnammodytes semisquamatus) representing only around 2%
of the total. Landings and activity of the boat seine fleet
targeting gobid species, transparent goby Aphia minuta
and crystal goby Crystallogobius linearis, are low in
comparison with those of the fleet targeting Mediterranean sand eel. Only two specimens of Pseudaphya
ferreri were observed.
The boat seine fishing gear is used exclusively for
fishing sand eel and gobid species. The sand eel fishing
grounds are located very close to the coast (depending
on the zone, within 400-600 m from the coast), in shallow waters (6-16 m depth, occasionally up to 30 m in the
north of the area). Gobid species are fished on muddy
or sandy-muddy bottoms: transparent goby at 7-12 m
depths in the southern fishing grounds and depth crystal
goby at 30-50 m in the northern fishing grounds.
Four species of seagrass have been reported in
Catalan coastal waters (Romero et al. 1995, Barba et
al. 2011): Zostera marina, Zostera noltii, Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica. The species of
the Zostera genus do not grow beyond 10 m depth,
C. nodosa and P. oceanica inhabit a depth range between 10 and 40 m and Posidonia oceanica is by far
the most abundant. The Catalan government monitors
seagrass meadows along the coast and has published a
map (Anon. 2001). Updated and improved information
(2012-2013) was provided by the Catalan government
to the scientific partner of the Sand Eel Co-Management Committee.
Sand eel has not been reported to occur in seagrass
meadows (Pergent et al. 2012) because the species actually inhabits sandy bottoms. However, the possible
impact of sand eel fishery on seagrass meadows is a
major issue regarding the potential effect of the fishery
on marine ecosystems. A representation of both seagrass meadows and individual hauls was made using
Google Earth. By plotting haul positions against seagrass distribution maps, it can be concluded that the
sonsera is not used on sea bottoms characterized by the
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The co-management of the sand eel fishery of Catalonia • 91
presence of seagrass meadows, in particular Posidonia
oceanica.
The analysis of the boat seine catch when targeting
sand eel evidenced the high selectivity of the sonsera,
as the presence of by-catch species can be detected
by the echo-sounder, which allows selective fishing
operations resulting in catches without or with very
few non-target species. The percentage in weight of
by-catch species regarding the total sand eel catch was
very low over the study period, around 2% to 3%.
In the gobid fishery, the presence of by-catch species is also detected by echo-sounder to improve the
selectivity of the fishing operation. The two gobid
species are very small and have a very low weight.
Therefore, the weight ratio between these species and
the by-catch species showed a different picture from
the one shown in the case of the sand eel. In Aphia
minuta catches represented 61 kg of transparent goby
against 17.86 kg of by-catch, that is 29.3%, mainly
Mullus barbatus, Pagellus erythrinus, Trachurus spp.
and Sardina pilchardus. For Crystallogobius linearis
the relationship was 87.60 kg of crystal goby against
139.95 kg of by-catch (160%), the main by-catch species being Mullus barbatus, Pagellus erythrinus, Diplodus annularis, Allotheuthis media, Octopus vulgaris,
Loligo vulgaris and Sardinella aurita.
It is important to note that the by-catch species analysed would have been released at sea alive if they had
not been retained for study. No data on post-capture
mortality were obtained, but field observation show
normal swimming behaviour of the released animals.
Commercialization of by-catch species was forbidden
during the scientific study as in the case of sand eel.
This study has provided information on the main
biological traits of the Mediterranean sand eel (distribution, growth, reproduction period, size-at-first maturity, and timing of recruitment). The biology of G.
cicerelus and G. semisquamatus in the study area was
unknown, except for scattered information reporting
the presence of larvae at certain times of the year.
According to the assessment scenarios considered,
it appears that the sand eel fishery studied during the
period August 2012 to July 2013 through length-based
pseudocohort analysis appears to be in a healthy state.
Only in the worst parameter combination could a slight
growth in overfishing appear but no traces of recruitment overfishing were detected. In 2013, the boat seiners had no difficulty in obtaining the monthly quotas
to reach 819 t by the end of the fishing season, which
would suggest that sand eel abundance did not decrease
in comparison with 2012. For 2014 a quota of 819 t is
proposed, as in 2012 and 2013.
The reproduction period of Gimnammodytes cicerelus in the area extends from November to February
and at the end of the fishing season, in mid-December,
the population consists of individuals that have attained the size-at-first-maturity. Most of individuals
caught belong to 0-class.
Transparent goby (Aphia minuta) and crystal goby
(Crystallogobius linearis) landings over the fishing
seasons (from November to May) 2001-2003 to 20122013 displayed marked fluctuations. In addition, the
landings pattern within each fishing season was also
very variable, the landings peak in each season occurring in different months. The monthly landings and
catch per unit effort (CPUE) trend in some of the fishing seasons, which increased after decreasing, suggest
the incorporation of new individuals after the start of
the fishing season, which prevents the use of depletion
methods. Available data do not allow reliable assessments. The highest CPUEs were not obtained at the
beginning of the fishing season, which suggests that
the onset of the fishing season is not coincidental with
the massive incorporation of recruits, unlike what happens to sand eels.
Historically a very limited number of boats (four to
six) targeted gobids. When the new management plan
comes into force, only six seiners will be able to go
fishing gobids.
ADVICE
Regarding the protection of seagrass meadows,
although sand eel does not inhabit them, after updating the cartography of the seagrass habitat it would
be sensible to create a protection buffer area around
them. Taking into consideration the control measures
to avoid the commercialization of by-catch species and
the good results regarding gear selectivity and the live
release of by-catch species, it is recommended to limit
the by-catch species to a maximum weight percentage
of 1% of the total catch or less than 5 kg of total weight.
Furthermore, by-catch species commercialization must
remain forbidden.
It is advisable to maintain the fishing limitations
applied during the study, for which an effort reduction to a half and a TAC was established. Furthermore,
monthly harvest control rules to keep the fishery under
continuous observation is highly recommended. If a
plan for the management of the sand eel fishery is approved in the coming years, the fishing season quota
will be set at the start of the season and based on the
results of the previous fishing season.
Given the reproductive season of Gymnammodytes
cicerelus and since the yield at the start of the fishing
season has been shown to be related to the yield at the
end of the previous fishing season (Spawning StockBiomass - Recruitment relationship), it is advisable
not to modify the current closed-season period from 16
December to the end of February. Given the poor data
available on small gobies, it is proposed for 2014 to set
the historical average catch over 2001-2013 as a TAC,
which provides an estimate of 1.8 tons of Aphia minuta
and 3.8 tons of Crystallogobius linearis.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
In this first phase of the co-management operation,
no studies on the ecological role of sand eel have been
performed other than the impact on sensitive bottoms
and by-catch. Sand eel can be considered as a forage
species. According to recent ecological studies forage
fish are of paramount interest to the functioning of
marine ecosystems (Pikitch et al. 2012, Ahrens et al.
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92 • J. Lleonart et al.
2012). Cury et al. (2011) propose the reference point
of “one third [of virgin forage species biomass] for the
birds”. Based on nine case studies including sand eel
in the North Sea, Pikitch et al. (2012) propose keeping
biomass above 80% the virgin level in data-poor forage fish fisheries. Contrasting with other forage fish
species in the global ocean, Gymnammodytes cicerelus in the Mediterranean is restricted to a very narrow
coastal fringe and sand eel accounts for only about 6%
of the catch of all forage species (mainly sardine and
anchovy) in Catalonia. Lacking specific studies, it can
be hypothesized that the relevance of the species in the
channeling of the trophic energy of the overall marine
ecosystem towards upper trophic levels is limited and
mainly localized. Detailed studies are needed to test
this assumption.
A sustainable fishing of sand eel is likely if it is
monitored and controlled adequately. In a ranking of
the main threats to the sustainability of fisheries in
Catalonia the sonsera should be placed in a very low
position, clearly below bottom trawl and purse seiners.
Co-management means a step towards the rational management of fisheries in the Mediterranean.
Paradoxically, this devolution of management powers
can be understood as the contemporary adaptation of
ancient customary schemes successfully regulating
activities on fishing commons. The Catalan Sand Eel
Co-Management Committee brings a participative,
bottom-up approach to the management of fisheries.
The strong point and most advanced aspect of the
Committee is that all participants are on an equal footing for decision-making regarding the setting of rules
and their implementation.
Co-management is not completely unknown in NW
Mediterranean fisheries: in particular, an attempt to
manage trawl fisheries during the 1960s was successful
for five years in Castelló, Spain (Lostado et al. 1999).
This project failed owing to the lack of continuity of
the commission in charge of its implementation, offering an important lesson for similar contemporary experiences. In 2011 a co-management committee for the
management of Aphia minuta fishery in Toscana and
Liguria was officially established through a ministerial
decree (Abella com. pers.)
After the formal approval of the management
plan from the European Commission, the Sand Eel
Co-Management Committee will continue a close
follow-up and monitoring of the fishery. The scientific
monitoring will also support compliance with the European legislation requirement of revising management
measures affecting short-life species such as the sand
eel annually. The commitment for financial support by
fishermen is essential to guarantee the continuity of
the Committee’s activities and therefore the long-term
sustainability of the fishery.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The scientific study was supported by fishermen,
including the costs of sampling (presence of sampling
personnel on board, no income for the fish used for
scientific study). The other co-management partners
contributed in-kind resources such as personnel and
infrastructure. The field and laboratory work of Ana
Isabel Colmenero, Alfredo Garcia de Vinuesa and Elia
Vallejo is acknowledged. The authors wish to acknowledge the excellent collaboration among all members of
the co-management committee. In particular we wish
to mention its originator, Mercè Santmartí, former Director General of Fisheries and Maritime Affairs of the
Catalan government and the two fishermen of the permanent committee, Mauricio Pulido and Lluís Trias.
The Sand Eel Co-Management Committee received the
WWF Award for Conservation Merit in 2013.
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