Nicaragua Labour Market Profile 2014 This Labour Market Profile is a yearly updated report that provides a broad overview of the labour market's situation and development. The report is based on the latest data available and following trends. Each section has also accesses to the sources' links that can be used to go more in-depth on selected themes. 1 Nicaragua – Labour Market Profile 2014 Executive Summary Nicaragua is attempting to find a balance between global competitiveness and equity for workers. Sound macroeconomic and open trade policies are implemented, but the economy and the labor market show little structural change. The productivity has stagnated, leading to underperforming GDP and employment growth relative low in comparison with the Latin American average. On the other hand, the Nicaraguan transoceanic canal is a mega-project that is projected to start in 2015. If it succeeds to raise the necessary funds to implement this huge program through a Chinese billionaire entrepreneur, the government has estimated it will raise the GDP growth up to 12%-15% annually in coming years and create jobs for 50,000 workers in construction and indirectly 200,000 for the operation of the Nicaraguan Canal. Many questions are floating about an impact of the canal, such as U.S.-China as well as Latin America geopolitics, a possible high influx of Chinese workers, and environment consequences. A new Code on Processes of Labour and Social Security came into force in May 2013. It establishes specialize labour courts, and judicial mediators are appointed whose role it is to mediate labour disputes orally in the first instance, thereby reducing the amount of labour disputes, which can take years to solve. Many trade union organizations experience a fragmentation, which mainly are motivated by internal ruptures of central trade unions, affected by the current government's policies, and flexibility of the labour market. It has also been reported that the government interfered in union activities, and some employers engaged in antiunion discrimination with impunity. The tripartite dialogue has improved labor stability in a normally volatile sector. It has suppoted Nicaragua to reduce the labour market impact of the global financial crisis and recover quicker than other countries. The collective bargaining coverage is estimated to cover 2.4% of the labour force. A large share of waged workers is covered by collective bargaining agreements. In December 2012 a tripartite agreement was reached, increasing the salary of workers in Export Processing Zones with 8%, for the four consecutive years 2014-17. Poverty is declining in Nicaragua, but remains high. The labour market was affected by the global financial recession in 2008-09 and unemployment rose from 5% in 2007 to 8% in 2010, and has been unchanging on this level since then. Youth unemployment also increased to 11%, while the time related underemployment stands at 22%. This report shows that the employment in the informal economy is on a rise. The lack of decent work opportunities drive Nicaraguans seeking jobs in other countries and it is estimated that 20% of the population live abroad, which is one of the highest migration rates in the world. Remittances are also very high at 9.7% of GDP. Many of the migrating Nicaraguans are agricultural workers in Costa Rica and two trade union centres in Nicaragua and Costa Rica have initiated cooperation to improve migrants working conditions. Reforms to Nicaragua's Social Security system were agreed by the National Assembly in January 2014. The reforms initiate that the retirement age will remain at age 60 and workers' contributons will remain the same, with a requirement to pay into the system for 14 years in order to qualify for entitlement to a pension. However, the amount that employers contribute will gradually increase from the current 16% to 19% in 2017. Nicaragua was one of the first countries to ratify the ILO Convention 189 on Domestic Workers. Labor inspectors have authority to inspect working conditions of domestic workers. It has been observed that the Government’s enforcement of labor laws in agriculture is still inadequate due in part to resource constraints. The minimum wages were set in 2014 and reached an average of C$4,260 per month (US$178). Minimum wages have steadily been increased every year, doubling-up the real minimum wage during the last decade. However, the average wage has only increased slightly over the last decade, and has been falling since 2006 due to high inflation. 2 Contents Trade Unions ......................................................................................................................................... 4 Trade Unions in Nicaragua ............................................................................................................................ 5 Employers’ Organisations ....................................................................................................................... 5 Central Tripartite Structures ................................................................................................................... 6 National Labour Legislation .................................................................................................................... 6 ILO Conventions ..................................................................................................................................... 7 Trade Union Rights Violations ................................................................................................................ 8 Working Conditions................................................................................................................................ 9 Workforce ........................................................................................................................................... 10 Unemployment and underemployment ..................................................................................................... 11 Migration ..................................................................................................................................................... 12 Informal Economy ....................................................................................................................................... 13 Child Labour ................................................................................................................................................. 13 Gender ......................................................................................................................................................... 14 Youth ........................................................................................................................................................... 14 Characteristics of the Working Age Population ..................................................................................... 15 Vocational training ...................................................................................................................................... 16 Social Protection .................................................................................................................................. 17 General Economic Performance ............................................................................................................ 18 Trade ................................................................................................................................................... 19 Trade agreements ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Export Processing Zones (EPZs) ................................................................................................................... 20 References ........................................................................................................................................... 21 3 Trade Unions automatically can renew if neither party requests revisions. The collective bargaining coverage is estimated at 2.4% of the labour force. Trade unions in Nicaragua Number of trade unions Dues (standard) Members of trade unions 1,312 N/A 342,410 Trade union members share of labour force 14 % Trade union members to waged workers 32 % Female member share of trade unions (FNT & CST) Members of affiliated trade unions from the informal economy (CSTCP) Number of CBAs 5 National Workers Front (FNT) FNT is the largest trade union centre. It has nine affiliated trade union federations. The organization has approximately 267,000 members. Several trade union leaders from FNT were elected to the Parliament in 2011 under the Sandinista party. 51 % 50,000 13 Workers covered by CBAs 60,000 Share of workers covered by CBA 2.4 % Labour force (2013) Nicaragua has several trade union centres: Public Sector Union (UNE) 2,588,000 6 UNE has represented public sector workers in Nicaragua since its formation in 1978. Its membership has drastically decreased since 1990 in part because of the privatization of previously publicly owned services and in part because of attacks on unions carried out by successive right wing governments since 1990. Organized labour in Nicaragua was developed during struggles in the nineteenth century between Conservatives and Liberals, Somoza dynasty dictator regime (1936-1979), and interference from outside 1 interests. The trade union movement boomed in 1979 after the fall of the Somoza regime. Industrial and Manufacturing Union & the Free Trade 7 Zones (CST-JBE) The trade union movement is in a transition phase: Many trade union organizations experience a fragmentation, which mainly are motivated by internal ruptures of central trade unions, affected by the current government's policies, and flexibility of the 2 labour market. The CST-JBE is affiliated with FNT and represents workers in the industrial and manufacturing sectors. CST-JBE has around 70,000 members organised in 23 federations and 150 trade unions. Around 15,000 members are women, who mostly work in the maquilas. CST has close ties to the Sandinista FSLN party. It is estimated that around 1,312 active trade unions are operating in the country. There are registered eight unions in the Export Processing Zones (EPZ), but only two are active. Members of labour unions are becoming more vulnerable in organizing collective bargaining with employers, e.g. workers have 3 concerns to be fired due to negotiations. Health Workers Union (FETSALUD) 8 FETSALUD is affiliated with FTF and organizes doctors, nurses, administrative staff, auxiliary workers and others in the health sector. FETSALUD represents 26,000 health workers, including both medical and non-medical staff; and 80% members are women. Most labor unions are allied with political parties. It is estimated that close to 350,000 workers are members of trade unions in Nicaragua. It equals a trade union density of 14% of the labour force, which is slightly 4 lower than the Latin America's average at 21%. This density is much higher among waged workers were it is measured at 32%. Based on an estimation, it is noteworthy that half (51%) of trade union members are women. Teachers Union (ANDEN) 9 ANDEN is one of the biggest teaching unions in Nicaragua, representing over 50% of primary and secondary school teachers. University Lecturers Union (FEPDES) 10 FEPDES is affiluated with FTF and was created in April 1990 and recognised as a Federation in 2001. The FEPDES has an estimated 5,109 members. The Constitution guarantees the right to collective bargaining and with a length of two years, which 4 11 Trade Unions in Nicaragua Members, Dues, Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBA) and Occupational Safety and Health committees Trade Union / Trade Union Centre FNT Frente Nacional de los Trabajadores CPT Consejo Permanente de Trabajadores CTN-A Central de Trabajadores de Nicaragua Autónoma CUS Confederación de Unificación Sindical CPT-I Confederación General del Trabajo (independiente) CAUS Central de Acción y Unificación Sindical CST Central Sandinista de Trabajadores CTN Central de Trabajadores de Nicaragua CUSa Confederación de Unidad Sindical Autónoma CST-JBE José Benito Escobar CUT Confederación Unidad de Trabajadores CSTCP-FNT Confederation of SelfEmployed Workers CSNTMLAC Fishermen CSNTAI Confederation of Agroindustry Workers National affiliation CPT CPT Number of OSH committees at workplaces 55% - - 13 - - - 267,000 - - - - - - 30,000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50,000 25,410 30% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50,000 - - - - - 22,000 - - - - - 12,000 - - - - - CPT FNT FNT Workers covered by CBAs Female Members CPT FNT FNT Dues Number of CBAs Total Members (2012) Employers’ Organisations High Council of Private Enterprise (COSEP) 12 COSEP (Consejo Superior de la Empresa Privada) is the main employers’ organisation. Its mission is to foster economic and social policies and to ensure free enterprise, respect for private property and strengthening business in order to contribute to progress in Nicaragua through its leadership, the active participation of its members and its interaction with the various stakeholders. COSEP is governed by a Board of Directors, and is run by an Executive Committee and has a workforce commission. COSEP has 18 affiliated organisations – mainly chambers of commerce. COSEP conducts CSR activities, publishes a “Legislative and Economic Reports” newsletter every second month has received development aid from DANIDA, among others. Notable other employer organisations are the Nicaraguan Association for Textiles and Apparel Industry (ANITEC), and the Federation of Nicaraguan Chamber of Commerce in Free Private Zones (FCNZFP). 5 Central Tripartite Structures Mediation and Arbitration Bi/tripartite organs 13 Labour disputes are governed by the labour code: First a dispute is submitted to the Ministry of Labour (MITRAB), and is attempted to be solved under direct settlement between employers and workers. Then a conciliator appointed by MITRAB will attempt to settle the dispute. If conciliation fails, a strike may be initiated or the dispute may if the parties agree, be referred to arbitration, by a Arbitration Tribunal presided by a representative from MITRAB, and one representative each from workers and employers. - - A new Code on Processes of Labour and Social Security 14 came into force in May 2013. It establishes specialised labour courts, and judicial mediators are appointed whose role it is to mediate labour disputes orally in the first instance, thereby reducing the amount of labour disputes which can take years to 15 solve. 16 National Council for Social Economic Planning Local Power Cabinets National Commission on the Occupational Health and Safety of the Workers and Workplace Hygiene (MITRAB) National Minimum Wage Commission (MITRAB) Higher Work Council Social Security Council National Health Council National Education Council National Fishing Council National INATEC Council National Airport Council National Lottery Council Tripartite National Commission for Export Processing Zones National Labour Legislation Constitution 17 Código del Reglamento de Asociaciones Sindicales The Constitution from 1987 was last amended in 2014 paving the way for third consecutive terms of Presidency as well as scraped the minimum required votes for election and allows the president to issue decrees with force of law. Previous amendments from 1995 created a unicameral legislative National Assembly. The constitution recognises the right to work, worker participation at workplaces, equal pay for equal work, minimum social benefits and wage, occupational safety and health, eight hour workday, rest, holidays, job stability, job security and paid maternity leave. It also prohibits child labour and recognises the right to strike, freedom of association and collective bargaining. Workers have the right to participate in development and implementation of economic plans. Labour Law 19 The trade union law from 1997 outlines the forms of membership and geographical levels. Basic trade union rights are guaranteed and workers have the right to form and join the trade union of their choice as well as to bargain collectively. The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) has argued that some problematic areas exist in the law, e.g. while union leaders have protected status, this is limited to nine executive members per union and three branch members. The fines for interfering in trade union 20 affairs are not sufficiently dissuasive. Código Procesal del Trabajo y de la Seguridad Social 21 The law on processes of labour and social security came into force in May 2013 and aims to ease the process of settling labour disputes. 18 The Labour Code is the most important labour legislation. Several other legislations exist, which regulates and sets standards and restrictions for the 22 labour market. The Labour Law (Código del Trabajo) from 1996 regulates individual and collective labour relations, working hours, breaks, leave, wages occupational safety and health and special working conditions. 6 ILO Conventions Ratified ILO Conventions23 Subject and/or right Ratification date Convention Fundamental Conventions Freedom of association and collective bargaining Elimination of all forms of forced labour Effective abolition of child labour Elimination of discrimination in employment C087 - Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise, 1948 C098 - Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 C029 - Forced Labour Convention, 1930 C105 - Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 C138 - Minimum Age Convention, 1973 C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 C100 - Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 C111 - Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 1967 1967 1934 1967 1981 2000 1967 1967 Governance Conventions Labour inspection Employment policy Tripartism C081 - Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 C129 - Labour Inspection (Agriculture) Convention, 1969 C122 - Employment Policy Convention, 1964 C144 - Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976 Not ratified Not ratified 1981 1981 Up-to-date Conventions Working time C014 - Weekly Rest (Industry) Convention, 1921 1934 Elimination of child labour and protection of children and young persons C077 - Medical Examination of Young Persons (Industry) Convention, 1946 1976 C078 - Medical Examination of Young Persons (Non-Industrial Occupations) Convention, 1946 C095 - Protection of Wages Convention, 1949 1976 Wages 1976 C131 - Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970 1976 Occupational Safety and Health C115 - Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 1981 C139 - Occupational Cancer Convention, 1974 1981 Industrial relations C135 - Workers' Representatives Convention, 1971 1981 Vocational guidance and training C140 - Paid Educational Leave Convention, 1974 1981 C142 - Human Resources Development Convention, 1975 1977 Freedom of association (agriculture) Seafarers C141 - Rural Workers' Organisations Convention, 1975 1981 C146 - Seafarers' Annual Leave with Pay Convention, 1976 1981 Indigenous and tribal peoples C169 - Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 2010 Specific categories of workers C110 - Plantations Convention, 1958 1981 C189 - Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 2013 Fundamental Conventions are the eight most important ILO conventions that cover four fundamental principles and rights at work. Equivalent to basic human rights at work. Governance Conventions are four conventions that the ILO has designated as important to building national institutions and capacities that serve to promote employment. In other words, conventions that promotes a well-regulated and well-functioning labour market. In addition, there are 71 conventions, which ILO considers “up-to-date" and actively promotes. 7 Trade Union Rights Violations The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) noted restrictions on the principle of free and voluntary bargaining in March 2013 when the Universidad Politécnica de Nicaragua (UPOLI) was unwilling to negotiate. Teachers and administrative personnel from UPOLI staged a protest calling for a 10% salary increase. According to the Secretary General of the trade union, the employers and 24 authorities at UPOLI were unwilling to negotiate. discrimination were not severe enough to prevent abuses. Also several cases with state workers were processed by the Central American Court of Justice, ruling in favor for the employees. None had been reinstated or received severance payment, despite the favorable ruling. The U.S. Annual Human Rights Report moreover observed that many employers in the formal sector continued to blacklist or fire union members with impunity and delay severance payments to fired workers - especially public sector employees – or omit the payments altogether. Employers avoided legal penalties by organizing employer-led unions that lacked independence and frequently using contract workers to replace striking employees. There were reports party dues were automatically withdrawn 26 from paychecks. 25 According to the U.S. Annual Human Rights Report , there continued to be reports that the government interfered in union activities, and some employers engaged in antiunion discrimination with impunity. There continued also to be reports of government interference in union activities in the public sector, including illegal dissolution of unions and firing of workers not associated with the ruling FSLN party. The Democratic Federation of Public Service Workers (FEDETRASEP) reported that since 2007 government ministries illegally disbanded 175 unions, including 19 during the year 2013. Former ministry employees and human rights and labor organizations alleged that proFSLN public sector unions used intimidation and coercion to recruit new members, often pressuring workers to leave non-FSLN unions. ILO's Committee of Freedom of Association is processing one active confidential case, which was raised by the Federation of Workers and Textile Maquila (FESTMIT) in September 2013. The follow-up case was filed by the Administrative Workers’ and Teachers’ Union of the Ministry of Education (SINTRADOC) in Decmber 2011. It has reference to transfer and subsequent dismissal of three trade union officials by the Ministry of Education on the pretext of restructuring. The Government was requested to keep the Committee informed of any rulings handed down with respect to the transfer and subsequent dismissal of the trade union officials. There are abundant cases of workers being fired due to political motives. For example, the organization FEDETRASEP has registered that since 2007 close to 27,000 public sector employees were fired without just cause or due process of law, including 2,361 workers during 2013. In addition, employers often do not reinstate workers fired for union activity or pay the required severance. 27 ILO Complaints Procedure Freedom of Association cases (2014) According to labour leaders, collective bargaining agreements and labor laws have routinely been violated by employers with impunity. Labor organizations have argued that the fines for antiunion 8 Active Follow-up 1 1 Closed 64 Working Conditions The most common areas of non-compliance in the areas of national labour law are in the categories of Occupational Safety and Health, and Contracts and Human Resources. Regarding Freedom of Association, the implementation of clauses in collective bargaining agreements was the area in which there are the 34 highest levels of non-compliance. Wages and earnings Monthly average, median and legal minimum wages Current Cordoba US$ 6,615 295 3,189 132 MITRAB30 2,851 110 Doing Business31 3,448 135 Source Average wage (2011) Median wage (2012) Minimum wage (average, 2014-15) Minimum wage for a 19-year old worker or an apprentice (2014) Growth of real average wage (2000-2011) Growth of real minimum wage (2000-2011) Global Wage Database28 Wage Indicator29 During the first six months of 2012, the Ministry of Labour (MITRAB) reported conducting 1,276 health and safety inspections and registered 6,820 workplace accidents, including 13 registered deaths. 6.9 % Global Wage Database This insufficient enforcement of labour law is widely prominent in the informal economy. This 'sector' makes up 65% of the total employment and absorbs workers in street sales, agriculture and ranching, transportation, domestic labour, fishing, and minor construction. It has been registered that legal limitations on hours worked often are ignored by employers who claim that workers readily volunteer for extra hours for additional pay. Violations of wage and hour regulations are common and generally not investigated in the large informal sector, particularly in street sales, domestic work, and agriculture. Compulsory overtime is reported in the private security sector where guards often are required to 35 work excessive shifts without relief. 94 % The minimum wage is set for 10 different economic formal sectors, with the lowest being C$2,851 (US$110) for agriculture and the highest being C$6,410 (US$251) of construction, finance and insurance sectors. The minimum wage has steadily increased every year, doubling the real minimum wage during the last decade. The average wage has only increased slightly over the last decade, and has been 32 falling since 2006 due to high inflation. The minimum cost of living is C$1,666 per week (US$256), whereas a textile worker in the EPZs receive 33 C$1,455 per week (US$223 per month). Both the minimum and median wage are well below the cost of living. Also in terms of minimum wages' averages in Central America, Nicaragua's remain much lower than the others. Working hours per week (2010) >=50 hours 26% The National Assembly voted in 2012 to broaden rights ensuring decent work for domestic workers, including expanding union rights, reducing the length of the workday, and assuring social security benefits. However, the legislation has so far not entered into force. 40-48 hours 31% A recent assessment of 20 factories, showed no evidence of child labour and forced labour. However, the section of child labour on page 12-13 demonstrates that child employment still is prevalent. 36 <25 hours 20% 25-34 hours 10% 35-39 hours 13% As can be seen from the graph above, most employed Nicaraguans work more than 40 hours per week, and over a third work more than 50 hours per week. 9 Workforce 37 Employment rates (2013), Age and Sex distribution Sex Age Male & female Total Youth Adult Total Youth Adult Total Youth Adult Male Female Employment rate 15+ 15-24 25+ 15+ 15-24 25+ 15+ 15-24 25+ 59 % 43 % 66 % 75 % 58 % 83 % 44 % 28 % 51 % 51% 25+ 83% 66% 28% 15-24 58% 43% 44% 15+ 75% 59% 0% 20% Female Nicaragua has a population of 5.9 million people and a labour force of 2.6 million workers. Population projections can be interpreted as favorable, as no major changes are expected in terms of a 'youth bulge' massively entering the labor force, or rapid aging process in which a shrinking labor force has to cope with the costs of supporting an increasing share of elderly people. Ease of Doing Business Topics 38 Share of workers in total employment Nicaragua (2005) Latin America and the Caribbean (2005) Latin America and the Caribbean (2012) 2 US$ a day 28 % 5.7 % 12 % 3.5 % 7.4 % 100% Measuring how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations, Nicaragua has made some improvements, especially in terms of starting a business and getting credit. On the other hand, registering property and resolving 39 insolvency have experiences a decline. Enforcing Contracts has the highest ranking at 70 out of 189 countries. (See also the section of Economic Performance). The latest data on working poverty from 2005 indicate that there are double as much working Nicaraguans living for US$1.25 or US$2 a day than the average for the Latin America and the Caribbean region. 1.25 US$ a day 10 % 60% 80% Male & female Caribbean where 19% lived for US$2-4 a day and 57% for US$4-20 a day. Women have considerably lower employment rates than men, but the overall employment rate is average for the region. Working Poor Age 15+ 40% Male 40 2015 2014 Change Starting a Business 120 140 20 Dealing with Construction Permits 134 133 -1 Getting Electricity Registering Property Getting Credit Protecting Investors Paying Taxes Trading Across Borders Enforcing Contracts Resolving Insolvency 96 134 89 172 164 74 70 110 91 128 99 171 163 77 71 102 -4 -6 10 -1 -1 3 1 -8 Doing Business 2014 indicators are ranking from 1(top) to 189 (bottom) among other countries. The rankings tell much about the business environment, but do not measure all aspects of the business surroundings that matter to firms and investors or that affect the competitiveness of the economy. Still, a high ranking does mean that the government has created a regulatory environment conducive to operating a business. Working poor measures employed people living for less than US$1.25 and US$2 a day, as proportion of total employment in that group. Nicaragua has a larger lower middle class, but a smaller upper middle class than the regional average, as 38% lived for US$2-4 a day and 29% for US$4-20 a day, compared the average for Latin America and the 10 Unemployment and underemployment labour market is problematic in developing countries. When unemployment is not an option where a person can survive, work of some sort has to be found, often casual and informal work. Unemployment should therefore be understood in relation to the strength of social safety nets, the prevalence of informal employment and how much of informal employment is underemployment due to few formal employment 45 possibilities. Unemployment and Underemployment (2010) 41 Unemployment rate Urban youth Unemployment rate 42 43 Underemployment share of employment Part-time workers share 44 of employment Total Male Female 8% 7.4 % 8.8 % 16 % 15 % 16 % 22 % 17 % 29 % 21 % 14 % 31 % Unemployment trend in Nicaragua, 2000-2012 (%) 46 50 Unemployment in Nicaragua stands at 8%, and urban youth unemployment at 16%. The both rates a similar as the Latin America and the Caribbean's average at 7.8% and 16.3%, respectively. 44 44 40 43 43 36 35 35 34 34 33 7 5 9 6 9 7 11 8 11 11 8 8 30 Indicators of hidden unemployment, which indicate who involuntary work less than they desire out of total employment, are high: 22% are in underemployment and is much higher among women. Around 30% are part-time workers, voluntary or not. 21 20 23 17 13 10 6 4 6 4 6 5 11 7 8 9 6 9 5 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Unemployment rate (%) Youth unemployment rate (%) Share of youth unemployed in total unemployed (%) Interpretation of the open unemployment and employment rates as indicators of a well-functioning Sectoral employment 47 48 Employment (2010) & GDP share (2012) Sector & Gender distribution Male employment Female employment GDP share per sector 9,775 1,089 2.5 % Manufacturing 144,757 154,557 15 % Electricity, gas and water 11,658 2,130 1.6 % Construction 101,396 1,587 5.3 % 256,512 382,809 14 % 89,080 8,708 5.9 % 56,407 24,425 10 % 176,180 333,885 18 % N/A N/A 8.9 % 670,952 163,294 18 % Sector Mining and quarrying Trade, hotels and restaurants Transport, storage and communications Financing, insurance, real estate and business services Community, social and personal services Others Agriculture 0% 7% 21% 28% 2,5% 15% 1,6% 5,3% 14% 5,9% 10% 18% 8,9% 18% 0 Male Around 46% of workers are in waged employment and 49 66% of non-agricultural employment is informal. Agriculture produces 18% of GDP, which is largely 14% 180.000 Female 360.000 540.000 GDP share by Sector 720.000 because of the share of cash crops in exports. It is estimated that 32% of workers are operating in this sector. It is a male dominated sector. Male are also 11 Sector Share of GDP (%) more present in the sector construction, mining and transport, but these only employ a smaller group. 50 70 60 One out of two workers (51%) are employed in the service sector. The service sector has been declining in contribution to GDP, though, but not in share of employed. It suggests a decline in productivity of this sector. 58 58 59 60 59 59 59 59 59 59 57 50 54 53 26 27 20 20 40 30 20 22 19 23 18 23 18 23 17 23 17 23 18 23 17 23 17 23 18 23 18 24 19 10 Many employed women tend to work outside of agriculture, especially in Trade, Hotels and Restaurants as well as Community, Social and Personal Services. 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Industry Migration 51 Migration Net migration (2008-2012) Net migration to average population per year (2008-2012) Personal transfers i.e. remittances received, % of GDP (2012) Nicaragua - 120,000 Nicaragua - 1 : 243 Inhabitants Latin America & the Caribbean - 1 : 956 Inhabitants Nicaragua 9.7 % Latin America & the Caribbean 1.1 % Services Agriculture Nicaraguans migrate to very different countries, with the top three destinations being Costa Rica, the United 53 States, and Spain. Around 20% of the population has migrated abroad. An estimated 400,000 Nicaraguans work in Costa Rica, mainly in the agricultural sector. Many of them are illegal migrants, and therefore prone to be paid wages lower than the minimum wage and not receive mandatory health insurance and pension. The two trade union centres FNT and ANEP in respectively Nicaragua and Costa Rica, have started cooperation to 54 improve migrant workers conditions. Net migration is the net total of migrants during the period, i.e. the total number of immigrants less the annual number of emigrants, including both citizens and noncitizens. Lack of decent work opportunities, unemployment and underemployment are the main reason for 55 migrants leaving Nicaragua. Migrants tend to be young and unskilled, and there are also many temporary migrants, mainly to neighbouring Costa Rica, but also increasingly to El Salvador, Panama, and Guatemala. A tightened U.S. immigration policy has increased emigration to neighbouring countries. The large exodus of Nicaraguan labour migrants has also had social impact, and most families now have one 56 parent away from the household. With a remittance rate of 9.7% to GDP, Nicaragua receives much more remittance than the Latin American and Caribbean's average. It makes Nicaragua one of the top remittance receiving countries in the 52 world. More leave out of Nicaragua than enter. The net migration rate from 2008-2012 is one out of every 243 inhabitant, and the Latin American and Caribbean region already has a high migration rate, compared to the rest of the world. The trend is on a decreasing rate, i.e. the previous Labout Market Profile 2013 reported one out of 141 inhabitants. A new migration law is being discussed in Parliament to reflect the current migration management reality and strengthen the protection of Nicaraguans 57 abroad. 12 Informal Economy organises 50,000 self-employed workers in the 63 informal economy. Employment in the informal economy Total informal employed in nonagricultural employment Nicaragua (2009) 58 59 64 Trend of employment in the informal economy (%) 50 % LAC (2010) Employment in the informal sector in nonagricultural employment 65 % Nicaragua (2013) 60 90 80 55 % 81 70 61 66 66 60 32 % LAC (2010) 57 50 1 = Very informal 48 5 = Very formal Employment status on informality-index 2001 2002 58 54 44 40 2000 59 58 2003 2004 2005 2009 2010 Share of persons in informal employment in total nonagricultural employment (%) Share of persons employed in the informal sector in total nonagricultural employment (%) 2 3 A survey by WageIndicator.org conducted in 201265 rated workers on an informality scale from 1-5, with 1 being workers not entitled to social benefits, who do not contribute to social security and with no contract. It shows 44% in the most informal category and 25% in the most formal. This is more formal than a similar survey of neighbouring Honduras. 4 Informal employment make up 65% of total employment in the non-agricultural sector. The informal economy is therefore somewhat larger than the average for the Latin American and Caribbean region. It is also noteworthy that the informal economy is on rise. The survey also showed that the informality index correlates the wage level as well as how likely a worker is to be paid above the minimum wage level. With only 22% in the most informal category paid above the minimum wage level. There is no clear correlation between age and informality, and young workers are only slightly more likely to work informally. Another indication is the type of employment: Two types of employment, which are often informal, are own-account workers, who make up 30% of the employed; and contributing family workers who make 62 up 17%. There are 46% waged workers. Trade unions are opening up access for affiliated organizations, e.g. Confederation of Informal Sector Workers (CSTCP) is an association affiliated to FNT. It Child Labour The most recent survey on child labour in Nicaragua is from 2005, where 13% of children were engaged in child labour, slightly higher than the average for the 66 Latin America and Caribbean region. The rate of children in employment fell slightly from 12.1% 2000 to 10.1% in 2005, which coincided with an increase in school attendance. Most children aged 7-14 work as unpaid helpers (85%) many are also waged workers (14%). The average working week for children who only work is 38.5 hours, children who also go to school work an average of 20.8 hours. Children tend to work in forestry, fishing, coffee plantations, and subsistence farms. Hazards in agriculture included sun exposure, extreme temperatures, pesticides and chemicals. Hazards in fishing included polluted water and dangerous ocean 67 conditions. Children are more likely to be engaged in child labour in rural areas (19%) than urban (7%). Boys (21%) are also much more likely than girls (4%). Children are more likely to work the older they are, as 10% of children aged 7-14 and 36% of children aged 15-17 are employed. 13 The government's plans to combat child labor and protect children have not been fully implemented, and programs are insufficient to reach the numbers of children engaged in hazardous child labor in agriculture and victims of commercial sexual 68 exploitation. Working children Proportion of all children in age group In October 2012, the National Assembly approved a law to simplify, modernize, and streamline the public administration of labor justice, including child labor cases. The trade union CTCP has identified elimination of child workers from the informal sector as a priority area. Latin America and the Caribbean70 (2008) Region Nicaragua (2005)69 Age 7-14 5-17 14-17 5-17 Type Children in employment Child Labour Hazardous work Children in employment Child labourers Hazardous work Proportion 10.1 % 12.9 % 26.9 % 13.3 % 10 % 6.7 % Children in employment include all children who conduct some kind of work, whereas child labourers are a narrower term without mild forms of work. Hazardous work is the worst from of child labour as defined in ILO C182. Gender On the Global Gender Gap Index, Nicaragua has moving up from rank 62 in 2006 to 10 out of 136 countries in 2013, and is the highest ranking in Latin 71 America. This index is constructed to rank countries on their gender gaps not on their development level. On the Gender Inequality Index it is ranking 129 out of 72 187 countries. than five times more likely as girls to be engaged in child labour. Women have lower levels of education, however, more girls enrol into schools than boys. The large trade union centre FNT has a policy of promoting 50% female participation in trade union leadership. It is also promoting the implementation of 73 the 2008 Equal Opportunity Law 648. As noted elsewhere in this report: Women have considerably lower employment rates than men. Women are only slightly more likely than men to be affected by unemployment, though almost twice as likely to be affected by underemployment. Few women work in agriculture and more commonly find employment in manufacturing, commerce, education health, and domestic work. In addition, boys are more An Enterprise Survey reported that as many as 62% of firms had female participation in ownership compared to 40% for the average in Latin America and the Caribbean, whereas 10% of full time employees were women, lower than the Latin America and the 74 Caribbean where it was 14%. Youth The Government established a National Plan of Youth Employment (2012-2016) and expanded its Youth Employment and Migration program to protect working adolescents and increase their employment 75 opportunities. as most jobs continue to involve low-skill tasks, and this is reflected in the meager growth of real incomes. Notwithstanding, a recent survey from 2011 estimated that more than 62% of young Nicaraguans are optimistic about their future despite high levels of 77 unemployment, poverty, and violence. The youth labour force participation rate (15-24 years old) is 48% of the total participation, which equals 605,000 workers. As previously showed, the share of youth unemployed in total unemployed exploded in the beginning of the 2000s, and is only gradually decreasing again since 2003. Unemployment for educated youth is around 30%, three times higher than average youth unemployment and four times 76 higher than general unemployment. It explains why more workers are turning to self-employment in the growing informal economy. Moreover, there is evidence that the productivity of labor has stagnated There has been raised concerns of the high youth density in the Caribbean Coast, which is characterized by multiple risk factors that contribute to an acute level of vulnerability. Among others, there is a higher prevalence of drugs and alcohol, disintegration of family and community ties, school abandonment, unemployment and bleak prospects for a job, and the 78 weak presence of state institutions. 14 Characteristics of the Working Age Population Highest level attained and years of schooling in the population (2010), Population 25+, Total and Female Highest Level Attained Total Female No Schooling Primary 32.1 % 22.2 % 8.1 % 10.1 % 11.6 % 5.8 % 10.1 % 42.4 % 16.7 % 10.1 % 9% 10 % 4.3 % 7.5 % 5.8 years 4.8 years 0.52 0.59 Secondary Tertiary Begun Completed Begun Completed Begun Completed Average year of total schooling Educational Gini Coefficient 79 Total Female 0% 20% No Schooling Secondary - Begun Tertiary - Completed 40% 60% Primary - Begun Secondary - Completed 80% 100% Primary - Completed Tertiary - Begun Primary, secondary and tertiary is the internationally defined distinction of education. In Denmark these corresponds to grundskole, gymnasium & university. The educational Gini Coefficient is similar to the Gini Coefficient, but instead of measuring the distribution of income in a population, it measures the distribution of education measured as years of schooling among the population. 80 The graph above shows the educational attainment of all Nicaraguans above 25 years, therefore gives a glance of the human capital of the labour force. and the rest, where most have progressed to secondary schools and above. Women have lower levels of educations in most types of education, with especially more having no schooling. Nicaragua’s education is unequally spread between the over 50% of the population who have either had no schooling or have not completed primary school, 81 Enrolment in Primary and Secondary schools (2000-2010) Total and Female, Nicaragua and Latin America & Caribbean Net primary school enrolment 100% Net secondary school enrolment 80% Nicaragua , Total enrolment 70% 95% 60% 90% Nicaragua , Female enrolment 50% 40% 85% 30% 80% LAC , Total enrolment 20% 75% 10% 0% 70% 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 LAC , Female enrolment Net enrolment is the ratio of children of official school age, who are enrolled in school to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross enrolment is the ratio of total enrolment, regardless of age, to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross primary enrolment is therefore sometimes higher than 100%. The enrolment into Nicaragua’s primary schools has increased during the last decade and is now similar to the regional average, while enrolment into secondary schools are still considerably below the regional average. There have hardly been any gender differences in enrolment rates in the last decade, even though women in general have lower average years of schooling. The enrolment rate for tertiary education was 18% in 2003, somewhat below the regional average at 28%. 15 Vocational training Vocational Training young people, as vocational training often gives easily employable skills. The vocational training trend has been on a decreasing rate which is in contrast with the Latin America and Caribbean's average. 82 Pupils in vocational training (2010) Ratio of pupils in vocational student to all pupils in secondary education Ratio of pupils in vocational training out of 15-24 year olds Nicaragua 6,880 Nicaragua Latin America & Caribbean 3.5 % Nicaragua 1.3 % 9.3 % Among firms that have unfilled vacancies, more than 61% of them find that social skills such as communication skills are the most difficult to find in a candidate, in contrast to 52% in the rest of Central America. It is noted that Nicaragua has less difficulties with technical skills in comparison with the region. Latin America & 5.2 % Caribbean Nicaragua’s ratio of pupils in vocational training to all pupils in secondary education was calculated on average for the period 2006-2010, while the Latin America & the Caribbean region is an average of the period 2007-2011. The ratio of pupils in vocational training out of 15-24 year olds is calculated as an average in the period 2005-2010.83 85 Most difficult skill to find when filling vacancies (% firms) Rest of Central Nicaragua America Ratio of pupils in vocational student to all pupils in 84 secondary education, 2000-2011 12% 10% 8% Social skills 52 61 52 Technical skills 48 39 48 An impact evaluation of interventions aimed at increasing the income capacity of the poor through vocational training, micro-finance or business grants in Nicaragua, showed that poorest households were more likely to enter programs and received higher profits in non-agricultural self-employment, while less poor households assigned to the training had higher non-agricultural wages. The vocational training didn't lead to wage increases of the poorest. It questions 86 benefits and impact of courses. 6% 4% 2% 0% 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Nicragua Total Latin America & Caribbean Nicaragua has a lower share of students in vocational training out of students in secondary education, and also compared to the population of 15-24 year olds. This can be a problem for youth unemployment of 16 Social Protection Public spending on social protection schemes (2009) Public social protection expenditure, excl. health Córdoba 4.8 billion US$ 236 million % of GDP 2.9 % per capita 41 US$ % of government expenditure88 36 % % of GDP 4.1 % % of population 12 % % changes per year (2007-2011) 3.5 % Public health care Health social protection coverage Trends in government expenditure in health 87 Employers pay 16% of the salary to the Integral and 10% to IVM and RP. Workers pay 6.25% of the salary to Integral and 4.25% to IVM and RP. Integral and IVM are open for voluntary coverage for self-employed for 92 respectively 18% and 10% of declared earnings. Still only about 15% of the working age population is covered by the INSS. Reforms to Nicaragua's Social Security system were approved by the National Assembly in January 2014. The retirement age will remain at 60 years old and workers' contributons will remain the same, with a requirement to pay into the system for 14 years in order to qualify for entitlement to a pension. The reforms initiate that employers contribute will gradually increase from the current 16% to 19% in 93 2017. Benefits, coverage and contributions to pension 89 schemes (2011) Social benefits for the active age Pensionable age receiving an old age pension (men 62+; women 57+) Old age effective coverage as proportion of programs Active contributors to an old pension scheme % of GDP Proportion of total Proportion of contributory 15-64 years 0.5 % The non-contributory Social Protection Network (RPS) provides conditional cash transfers. RPS transfers US$9.2 per household per month, US$21 per year for school materials, US$18.7 per month to support health and US$4.6 per year subsidy to school per child covered. The conditions are that children must enrol and attend school, as well as attend health check94 ups. 24 % 24 % 14 % Nicaragua's old pension schemes have a low coverage on an estimated 14%, between 15-64 years, contributors, while the rate is 28% in Latina America. The country has a relatively high government expenditure on social protection at 36% and with US$41 per capita. It is also notable that there is an annual growth of 3.5% of government expenditure on health. There are some legal and political constraints of extending social insurance to informal sector workers, but there are possibilities for private sector actors to take on the role of agent and/or provider of social and health insurance. Many workers from the informal economy do often not have knowledge about the pension systems and/or the costs were crucial determinants of signing up for health insurance. When they are offered voluntary insurance schemes, they enroll fast, mostly in public institutions. An evaluation showed that insurance did not result in increased overall service utilization, but in a switching to health clinics for the insured from other facilities not covered by the insurance program. It was concluded that the subsidized insurance significantly reduced enrollees’ out-of-pocket health expenditures. On the other hand, once subsidies for the premium expired, the insurance program experienced a low retention 95 rate. The National Institute of Social Security (INSS) is the main provider of social security. Data from INSS shows that between 1998 and 2011 the population that contributes to social security increased from 16% to 20% of the economically active population. This coverage corresponds to less than 50% of wageearners in Nicaragua, 25% of the employed population 90 and 8% of the total population. INSS has three schemes: i) Riesgos Profesionales (RP) covers professional risks and work injury; ii) Invalidez, Vejez y Muerte (IVM) provides invalidity, old-age and survivor pensions, and iii) Enfermedad y Maternidad (Integral) provides medical, sickness and maternity 91 benefits. 17 General Economic Performance 96 will raise the GDP growth up to 12%-15% annually in coming years and create jobs for 50,000 workers in construction and indirectly 200,000 for the operation of the Canal. However, critical questions remain on the perspectives of the canal, e.g. if the main investor, which is a Chinese billionaire, can raise at least US$4050 billion; when China is more present in the U.S. “backyard”; influx of thousands of Chinese workers; 104 and environmental consequenses. Key Facts (2013 est.) GDP GDP per capita (PPP) GDP real growth HDI (2012)97 Gini Index (2010) 4,500 US$ 0.599 40.5 4.2 % 166 of 229 129 of 187 56 of 141 countries countries countries The Human Development Index (HDI) measures the average of a long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. This Gini Index is measured if income were distributed with perfect 'equality', the index would be zero; if income were distributed with perfect 'inequality', the index would be 100. In terms of the ranking, the first country has the highest inequality, while the number 136 has the highest equality. 11.3 billion US$ Doing business98 Control of corruption Government effectiveness Rule of Law 119 of 189 countries -0.76 (2007) -0.91 (2007) -0.80 (2007) The doing business indicator ranks Nicaragua as medium to low at 119 out of 189 countries, stepping up on 7 steps on the index during the period 2013/14 and 2014/15. Nicaragua has low scores on all three governance indicators, especially on Government Effectiveness. GDP per Capita (PPP), trend and forecast105 20000 Current USD -0.78 (2012) -0.89 (2012) -0.74 (2012) A high ranking on the Ease of Doing Business Index means the regulatory environment is more conducive to the start-up and operation of a local firm.99 The selected Governance Indicators100 cover the years 2007 and 2012, and ranking from ‐2.5 to 2.5; i.e. negative tendencies below the zero mean and unit standard deviation, score negative measurements.101 15000 10000 5000 0 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 Nicaragua 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 Nicaragua is one of the least developed countries in Latin America with mediocre income equality. Poverty has decreased steadily in recent years, but remains high. There have been no advances on the Human Development Index in the period 2007-2012. Latin America and the Caribbean Inflation, trend and forecast106 25% 20% 15% After a quick rebound in 2010 after the global financial crisis in 2008, economic activity grew at 5.4% in 2011, the highest rate in a decade. Inflation was also tamed to single digits, down from a high of 25% in mid-2008. The macroeconomy remains stable, with a GDP forecast growth at 4.2% in 2014. The fixed capital formation is still increasing and stays above the 102 average in the Latin America and Caribbean. The country is highly dependent on remittances and on 103 development aid. 10% 5% 0% 2017 Latin America and the Caribbean 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 Nicaragua Gross fixed capital formation (% of GDP)107 40 30 Agriculture, construction, forestry, fishing and mining are driving growth. On the demand side, are private consumption, exports and government spending. Private investment registered a slight growth, well below the levels of the past two years, though. The Nicaraguan Canal has been interpreted by the government as a symbol of progress in the country. The government has estimated that this mega-project 20 26 19 24 18 22 17 22 18 24 18 26 26 19 20 30 30 20 21 23 20 22 20 23 21 10 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Nicaragua 18 Latin America & Caribbean 25 21 Trade Trade and Foreign Direct Investment 2013 (est.) 108 Exports Imports 4.3 billion US$ 6.6 billion US$ FDI flow (average 2008-12) 668 million US$ 38 % of GDP 59 % of GDP 5.9 % of GDP The country is also part of the Central American Integration System, which includes the Central American Common Market (CACM), and has a Consultative Committee involving labour and works to 112 harmonise education systems. FDI Stock N/A Nicaragua is member of the Dominican RepublicCentral America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR), which was initiated in 2002. It is an agreement between the United States and Central American states, with the goal of setting up a free trade area. It requires the two countries to uphold the four core ILO labour standards, as well as acceptable conditions of work, in a manner that does not affect 113 trade. It sets up a monitoring mechanism. CAFTA has been controversial in the United States, for not making enough labour and environmental 114 requirements, while in the Central American countries liberalize state owned enterprises and opening markets to subsidized U.S. agricultural 115 products. Nicaragua’s exports to the U.S. have grown 75% over the past six years and fostered a US$1 billion-plus trade surplus with the U.S., which in large part to CAFTA. Trade is a prominent part of Nicaragua’s economy, with export at 38% and imports at 59% of GDP. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows are also at a very high rate at 5.9% of GDP. The export sector is relatively well diversified, making it less vulnerable to changes in global demand. The export productions have a composition of skill requirements that make it difficult for skilled labour to 109 be used in other sectors. 110 Main products share of exports (2012) Coffee; 14% Others; 44% Knit Sweaters; 4,0% Crustaceans; 4,0% Gold; 10% Insulated Wire; 4,9% Main export markets (2013) Mexico; 12% El Salvador; 4% Venezuela; 7% EU; 6% Frozen Bovine Meat; 8,2% Passenger and Cargo Ships; Raw Sugar; 5,9% Nicaragua benefits from European Union’s (EU) unilateral Generalised Scheme of Preferences (GSP+) special incentive arrangement, which allows duty and quota free access for most products. To be granted and continue to be granted GSP+, a country must ratify and effectively implement conventions within human rights, environmental and the eight ILO Core Conventions. The EU will examine each beneficiary 116 every second year. As of 1 August 2013, the EU and Honduras, Nicaragua and Panamainitiated started applying the trade part of an Association Agreement signed in 2012. The agreement will open up markets and create a stable business and investment 117 relation. 5,0% 111 Others; 13% US; 50% Along with five other Central American countries, Nicaragua has entered an association agreement with EU, which has not yet entered into force. The Association Agreement is to strengthen regional integration between the Central American countries including cooperation, harmonisation and improvement of labour market. In turn, the EU will 118 provide trade benefits. Canada; 8% Trade agreements Nicaragua has bilateral trade agreements with Costa Rica, Mexico, Panama and Taiwan, and is also negotiating trade agreements with Canada and Chile. 19 Export Processing Zones (EPZs) Nicaragua’s EPZs where first established in 1991, though there had been minor free zones since the 119 1970s. specific minimum wages, and they are the same in 121 EPZs. A tripartite agreement on the EPZ was reached in December 2012 between the Government, the trade unions CST, CST-JBE, CUS, CUT and the employer organisations ANITEC and FCNZFP. The point of the agreement is wage increases of 8%, for four 122 consecutive years 2014-2017. As of 2010 there were 49 EPZs in Nicaragua with 147 enterprises, which according to the National Free Trade Zone Commission (CNZF) have created 84,900 directs jobs and 254,700 indirect jobs, and exports for US$1.57 billion. The largest sector is textiles 120 comprising 60 enterprises and 69% of direct jobs. Anecdotal evidence suggests that EPZ workers in Nicaragua are denied the legally mandated minimum wage under the current government. In fact, low pay and violations of labour law have characterized Nicaraguan EPZs. Wages in comparable industries outside the zones are higher on average, though. There has also been a hostile social dialogue at times within the EPZs. It is noteworthy that women have played an important role in Nicaraguan labour 123 struggles. Export constitutes close to 40% of Nicaragua’s GDP, much of this from the Export Processing Zones. A 60hour workweek, including overtime, pays below estimated costs of living. In 2008, 20 collective bargaining agreements were signed in the EPZs covering 54,054 workers out of 73,200 workers in 2008. It is illegal for employers to restrict unions, but dismissals due to union activities are still common. Nicaragua has several industry 20 References 1 Robert J. 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