Global Water and Energy Security

JOURNAL OF WATER AND ENERGY SECURITY
Volume 1
Number 1
January 2014
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Journal of Water and Energy Security, Volume 1 Number 1
http://www.jwaes.org
Copyright © DTP 2014
ii
JOURNAL of WATER
and ENERGY SECURITY
Volume 1, Number 1 January 2014
Editor-in-Chief
James A. Tindall, Ph.D.
University of Colorado Denver
Consulting Editor
Andrew A. Campbell, Ph.D.
CI-CE-CT
Melbourne, Australia
Managing Editor
James A. Burch, DM
Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA
Associate Editors
Dewayne Branch, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
James Burch, Colorado Technical University, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Shakhawat H. Chowdhury, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Michael Friedel, USGS, Denver, CO, USA
Richard Hughbank (Maj., U.S. Army Ret), U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, PA, USA
Mike Hummel, California University of Pennsylvania, California, PA, USA
Mohamed Yamba, California University of Pennsylvania, California, PA, USA
Editorial Board
Ling Liu, State Key Lab. Of Hydrology, WR, and Hydro Eng., Hohai University, Nanjing, China
Bonnie L. Reese, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Ismael Sanchez, Universidad Centroamericana "José Simeón Cañas", San Salvador, El Salvador
Steven Steckel, TinMore Institute, Denver, CO, USA
David M. Sumner, USGS, Florida Water Science Center, Altamonte Springs, FL, USA
Nata Tadesse, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
© DTP — Los Angeles, Denver, Sao Paulo, London, Monte Carlo, New Delhi, Tokyo
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Copyright © 2014 DTP
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Online ISSN: 2329-4191
Disclaimer
The opinions expressed herein by either the editor(s), associate editor(s), editorial board
member(s), and or author(s) are solely theirs unless specifically stated otherwise within
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editor’s Note: Global Water and Energy Security ................................................................... 1
The Global Water Landscape: Strategic Issues and Policy Implications ........................... 10
A New Nicaragua Canal: Environmental, Policy, and Strategic-Security Implications ... 47
The Economic and Social Costs of Maritime Criminal Activity .......................................... 80
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. I, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
Volume 1, Number 1, 1-9 (2014)
ISSN: 2329-4191
Journal of Water and Energy Security
Editor’s Note: Global Water and Energy
Security
James A. Tindall*
University of Colorado Denver, *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Received 28 November 2013; revised 15 December 2013; accepted 30 December 2013
“The facts, all the facts, and nothing but the facts!”
-
James A. Tindall1
Introduction
Welcome to the inaugural issue of the Journal of Water and Energy Security—a
unique interdisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal focusing on water and energy-security2
research, policy concerns, and related threat and intelligence issues to include
interdependencies on the role of water and energy in environment, economic, and
societal areas. By extension, the journal also focuses on related agricultural and security
issues that intertwine these areas. The journal offers policy and analytical perspectives
relating to threats to critical infrastructures, economic development, intelligence,
homeland and national-security issues, global interdependencies, foreign-policy
concerns and the critical role of intelligence, counter intelligence and counter measures
against foreign and domestic threats against U.S. domestic and global water and energy
infrastructure, resources, and interests. The field also encompasses methodological
development of observational, experimental, theoretical, analytical, numerical, and data
driven approaches that advance the science and art of water and energy security and
their supply, resilience, sustainability, and management.
As stated frequently to his master’s and doctoral research mentees about the role of research for
providing unbiased facts to decision makers so they can potentially make the best decisions.
2 Many often perceive the term security to relate to guards, gates, and guns type scenarios, but in the
context of this journal, it is very much more. Herein security refers to supply, sustainability, resiliency,
and related factors—primarily of environmental, societal, health, and complex resources systems, as well
as physical security measures and processes.
1
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. I, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
Tindall, Editor’s Note: Global Water and Energy Security
2
At its most fundamental level, the Journal of Water and Energy Security focuses
on the significant interdependencies in water and energy security and the life-giving role
these sectors relate to the lives of people throughout the global community. What is
water security? “Water Security is the protection of adequate water supplies for
food, fiber, industrial, and residential needs for expanding populations, which requires
maximizing water-use efficiency, developing new supplies, and protecting water
reserves in event of scarcity due to natural, [man-made], or technological hazards.
[Eco-system functioning, environmental, social, and economic parameters are
composite water-security components].”3 What is energy security? “[Energy Security
is] the protection of sovereign energy resources, products, by-products, and
commodity supply and conveyance lines from source to distribution point and, the
means to safeguard storage facilities and independence of sovereign prices resulting
from non-sovereign entities. Production sources and distribution channels must be
capable of withstanding threats from all hazards, have redundancy, and should
consider sustainability through policy and backup measures. Security requires
resilient systems with the capacity to supply readily available energy in sufficient
volumes with guaranteed access, affordability, and time foreknowledge of needed
distribution to all consumer levels, which has significant importance for homeland
security, national security, and natural resources managers.”4
In a narrow context, the journal’s water and energy security focus will center on
topics that directly relate to key critical infrastructure items, such as water sustainability
and management or the feasibility of proposed energy policies. In this case, research will
focus on discrete issues, such as the critical nature of U.S. hydroelectric power or water
management issues in the Nigerian Delta. In a broader sense, however, the journal also
focuses on the wider implications of water and energy issues. In these cases the Journal
of Water and Energy Security will explore some of the wider implications of
constructing a canal in Nicaragua from the perspective of geopolitical, economic,
environmental, and security perspectives or evaluating the impact of maritime piracy
James A. Tindall, and Campbell, Andrew, A, Water Security: Conflicts, Threats, Policies (Denver: DTP
2011).; James A. Tindall, and Andrew Campbell, "Water Security-National and Global Issues,"
Government Printing Office, pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3106/pdf/FS10-3106.pdf.
4 Definition developed by James A. Tindall and Edward H. Moran for the TinMore Institute
(http://tinmore.com/energy-def.php).
3
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
Tindall, Editor’s Note: Global Water and Energy Security
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issues in the Horn of Africa. It is important to note that whether in a narrow or broader
sense, the journal focuses on interdependencies and complexities that center on water
and energy not only as a commodity, but also as a resource that requires evaluation and
ultimately access to sustain global and national economies. By definition the subject is
highly complex and covers many areas through interdependency with critical
infrastructure—the systems that drive life and the economy, which include energy,
transportation, agriculture and food, public health, defense industry, and others. But, it
is also highly defined by critical roles in economic, development, societal, public health,
environmental and related interdependent sectors.
Energy/Water Nexus
Energy and water security is a national and global priority. The continued
security and economic health of the United States, any nation-state, or the global
community depends on sustainable supplies of energy and water because these two
critical natural resources are so closely intertwined.
The production of energy requires large volumes of water while the treatment
and distribution of water is equally dependent upon readily available, low-cost energy.
In 2000, irrigated agriculture and thermoelectric generation withdrawals of fresh water
were approximately equal in the U.S. Electricity production, which requires about
190,000 million gallons of freshwater per day. This accounts for over 40 percent of all
daily freshwater withdrawals in the U.S. In many regions of the U.S., the indirect use of
water (home lighting and electric appliances) is approximately equal to direct use (water
lawns and taking showers). As other examples, water treatment facilities use energy to
treat and pump water. Water distribution systems use energy for pumping and
pressurization. Consumers and businesses use energy to filter, heat and cool water for
their own uses. Wastewater treatment plants use energy to pump wastewater, run
treatment procedures, and process solids. Without water, economic development is
greatly curtailed! Without water, particularly in water-scarce areas, regions and
countries are not sustainable.
Water is a vital and integral element for the development of U.S. and global
energy resources and utilization. It is used in energy-resource extraction, refining and
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
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processing, and transportation. All of these sectors are vitally interdependent due to
their relation to critical infrastructure. For example, water plays an integral role in
electric-power generation, where it is used directly in hydroelectric generation and
extensively for cooling and emissions scrubbing in thermoelectric processes. In 2000,
thermoelectric power generation accounted for 39 percent of all fresh water withdrawals
in the U.S., or about the same as water withdrawals for irrigated agriculture (34 percent
— withdrawals are water diverted or withdrawn from a surface-water or groundwater
source). Water withdrawals for thermoelectric power are dominated by power plants
that return virtually all withdrawn water to the source and account for 3.3 percent of
total freshwater consumption (3.3 billion gallons per day) and represented over 20
percent of non-agricultural water withdrawal. Although this water is returned at a
higher temperature and with other changes in quality, it remains available for future
use. A number of power plants, including most of those built since 1980, withdraw much
less water but consume much of what they withdraw through the process of evaporative
cooling. This strains scarce water resources, which are increasingly stressed due to
changes in demographics and growth. In short, this is a significant water security and
management issue.
Current trends of water use and availability indicate that meeting future water
and energy demands to support continued economic development will require improved
utilization and management of both energy and water resources. Primary concerns
include:

Increasing populations require more food and energy; this will cause direct
competition between the two largest water users (energy and agriculture) for
limited water resources.

Population growth and economic expansion projections indicate the U.S. will
require an additional 393,000 MW of new generating capacity (equivalent to
about 1,000 new 400 MW plants) by the year 2020. But few of these have been
built—the result will likely be nation-wide rolling blackouts by 2025—similar to
those in California today.

Potential environmental and ecological restrictions on the use of water for power
generation.
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
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Cyclic drought in many locations, particularly in arid zones, is causing water
scarcity issues of large proportions. The recent drought in California, in which
Governor Brown recently requested residents to reduce overall water
consumption by 20 percent, is a clear example.5

Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals in drinking water that are
beginning to reach potentially harmful levels, that once reached, may cause
irreversible damage to both ecosystems and more critically, public health.

Potential terrorist attacks on power grids and water treatment and distribution
systems. The ability to meet the increasing demand for affordable water and
energy is being seriously challenged by these and other emerging issues. This is
true for almost all countries. There are also other regionally specific concerns.
These significant issues are no longer relegated to remote and historically water-
challenged regions such as the Middle East or Northern Africa; but, in a large part affect
industrialized and developed societies. The Journal of Water and Energy Security will
evaluate the energy-water relationship from a global perspective. For example, in the
United States, 10 major cities are facing increasingly scarce water resources and
sustainability issues: Los Angeles, Houston, Phoenix, San Antonio, San Francisco, Ft.
Worth, Las Vegas, Tucson, Atlanta, and Orlando.6 On a global scale, Brazil is facing
water-sustainability issues due to poor agricultural management and deforestation. As
the natural water resource base declines globally, so too does the ability to provide lowcost energy for the world’s poorer, impoverished groups. At its core focus, the Journal of
Water and Energy Security serve’s to focus on these issues
Energy production requires an abundant, predictable, and reliable source of
water. Clean water, however, is an increasingly scarce commodity throughout much of
the world—especially in water-stressed areas. Agriculture uses approximately 70 percent
of total water consumption in the U.S., which is comparable to other countries. There is
little that can be done to trim agricultural consumption over the long-term despite new
water-saving technologies. Due to population increases, agricultural production must
Anthony York, "Gov. Jerry Brown Declares Drought Emergency in California," Los Angeles Times(2014),
http://www.latimes.com/local/political/la-me-pc-jerry-brown-declares-drought-emergency-incalifornia-20140117,0,3244744.story#axzz2rFLA4BGb.
6 Tindall, Water Security: Conflicts, Threats, Policies.
5
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correspondingly and dramatically increase. This dynamic and interdependent
relationships result in increased pressure and strain on water, energy supplies, and
resources.
The Journal of Water and Energy Security will also evaluate future water and
energy initiatives from the perspective of interdependency and relationship to other
sectors, For example, within the United States, the electrical sector ranks second as the
largest user of water. Electrical production from fossil fuels and nuclear energy requires
190,000 million gallons of water per day (39 percent of all freshwater withdrawals in the
U.S., with 71 percent attributed to fossil-fuel electricity generation). Coal, the most
abundant fossil fuel, accounts for 52 percent of U.S. electricity generation; each kWh
(kilowatt hour) generated from coal requires the withdrawal of 25 gallons of water.
These figures, however, compare considerably less than water required for extracting oil
from shale. This implies that indirect use of water (home lighting and electric
appliances) is approximately equal to direct use (drinking water, water lawns, and
taking showers). According to the 2001 National Energy Policy, population and
economic growth in the U.S. alone will require 393,000 MW of new generating capacity
by the year 2020. This will further strain U.S. water resources. To supply this demand
would require 1,000 new, 400 MW power plants or, about 70 trillion gallons and 88
trillion gallons for fossil/biomass/waste and nuclear power plants, respectively. How
much water is that? To illustrate, Lake Mead requires about two years of annual flow
from the Colorado River to fill the reservoirs to capacity, which is about nine trillion
gallons. Thus, additional power plant water requirements, for fossil/biomass/waste
plants, would be enough to fill Lake Mead about eight times. This scope is difficult for
many to comprehend. Additionally, given current economic problems across the nation
and within all states, construction of these facilities is very unlikely, which means
decreasing energy supplies per capita. It would therefore appear that the most probable
solution will be strict limits on energy and water use and/or rolling blackouts to provide
necessary supplies. This will help conserve both resources. The development of
comprehensive energy policies that examine the benefits and tradeoffs of envisioned
energy initiatives is a vital national security issue—currently, the U.S. has no energy
policy! The Journal of Energy and Water Security will evaluate current approaches and
envisioned proposals not only from the perceived gains that result from these energy
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
Tindall, Editor’s Note: Global Water and Energy Security
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initiatives, but also from their dependency on increasingly scarce water resources. In
short, the journal will examine both energy and water issues from a linked and
ultimately symbiotic perspective, as well as a systems and 3D thinking approach
intertwining strategy, sustainability, and resiliency.
The oil extraction from shale for example and the fundamental interdependency
of water and energy resources underscores the issue of whether a stable, affordable
supply of water and energy will exist to support future energy demands and continued
economic development. In this case, there are several issues of note:

Populations are expected to increase significantly; accessible freshwater supplies
will not. These supplies are finite; two of the few options to increase or
supplement these water supplies are desalination and drinking water treated
from city sewage and wastewater as is done in Singapore. The latter is
unappealing to most Americans. Also, while water is a renewable resource, it is
not an expandable resource.

Energy required for treatment and distribution of water accounts for about 80
percent of its cost; an insufficient supply of affordable energy will have a negative
impact on both the price and availability of water. Increasing gas prices will have
a dramatic impact on water availability and pricing.

Population migration and increase in relation to energy demand will not always
coincide with water availability. For example, during the 1990s in the U.S., the
largest regional population growth, 25 percent, occurred in one of the most water
deficient regions in the arid American Southwest. That growth has not stopped.

Water availability is a serious issue in water-stressed regions of the U.S.,
particularly in the southeast, where population has increased by nearly 14 percent
since 1990. In comparison, the water-rich northeast has experienced only a two
percent population growth. In other countries such as Darfur, Jordan, and Israel,
this problem is more aggravated.

An increasing population will require more electricity and more food. More food
requires more energy from fossil fuels and more water for crop production. This
will create serious competition between the nation's two largest water users for
limited water supplies (energy and agriculture). As an example, ethanol produced
from corn requires nearly 2,500 liters of water to produce one kilogram (300 gal
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per lb) of ethanol. And, in the U.S., corn commonly is grown in areas
experiencing a 20 to 50 percent growth in population. This combination changes
irrigation and crop management practices and significantly stresses water
resources. Similar trends occur globally.

Proposed restrictions on the use of water for power generation to protect fish and
other aquatic organisms could result in both increased costs of electricity and
potential energy shortages. In this case, the environmental community and green
proponents are calling for the dismantling of existing dams. These initiatives will
highlight a critical policy issue—how to reconcile human needs versus protecting
the environment.
The critical interdependence between water and energy is inseparable; one
resource cannot exist in an industrial economy without the other. Also, the
interdependence between these critical infrastructure and others, as well as economic
industries, public health, environment, and sectors is far deeper, complex, and
intertwined than most imagine. The challenges of population growth, the increased
demand for agriculture, and the symbiotic relationship between these two sectors
highlights the need for evaluating water and energy security as a combined and
integrated policy issue. It is the focus of the Journal for Water and Energy Security to
evaluate these critical infrastructures in tandem, both within a narrow context to
evaluate water and energy sustainability initiatives from a particular perspective while
also considering broader perspectives and emergent issues to evaluate the implications
of current water and energy trends within the global community.
The Way Ahead
As a field of inter and trans-disciplinary study, water and energy security issues
has assumed a critical stature area for evaluation and academic inquiry. The
interdependencies that exist between the two sectors also need to be evaluated from an
integrated and symbiotic perspective. As a result, the journal will assume a decidedly
inter and trans-disciplinary approach that seeks to identify not only interdependencies
and relationships, but also explores the policy implications and the ensuing effects of
envisioned policy on increasingly scarce and competitive water and energy concerns. To
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org
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note, the journal not only seeks to recommend policy, but perhaps more importantly, to
evaluate policy implications and implementation based on a critical perspective. As has
been said, it is easy to recommend a course of action. It is fundamentally more difficult,
however, to envision the implications of such course of action and the effects that it will
have on future generations. The Journal of Water and Energy Security attempts to not
only capture the present, but to evaluate the future.
Having made the case for the inter and trans-disciplinary nature of water and
energy security and the need to evaluate these sectors in an integrated fashion, the
journal will assume a more focused perspective in future editions. The inaugural edition
assumes an expansive perspective to capture the scope and breadth of the issues we are
seeking to bring forth to the community. The intent for ensuing journal editions is to
focus their inquiry in regional or topical areas. For example, the March 2014 edition will
focus on domestic issues within North America. Following journals will center on other
global and topical areas. The overall intent is to revisit regions and topics over time to
evaluate trends and initiatives as they focus on water and energy issues.
Lastly, the Journal of Water and Energy Security will not only focus on the inter
and trans-disciplinary perspective of this issue, but is also committed to offering a broad
perspective. This will necessarily introduce differing points-of-view and indeed
opposing viewpoints on many issues. The guiding principle, however, is not to assume
partisanship, but rather to critically and thoroughly evaluate differing perspectives with
the aim of allowing the reader to synthesize perspectives and to capture the totality of
the issues. In short, the Journal of Water and Energy Security is committed to what
Aristotle put forth in his seminal work—Metaphysics—when he stated: “It is the mark of
an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.” Critical
evaluation, seeking to address the fundamental issues, integrating perspectives, and a
commitment to scholarly analysis will guide the journal’s future efforts.
For like-minded policy and decision makers, researchers, scientists, and
practitioners who are committed to scholarship and facts, we welcome your insights and
contributions to the journal in the critical areas of water and energy security.
© Journal of Water and Energy Security, VOL. 1, NO. 1 (Jan 2014) http://www.jwaes.org

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