Tourism
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EXAMINING THE IMPORTANCE
OF CULTURE, GENDER AND
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
CUSTOMERS
A. Scott Rood
Grand Valley State University, USA
Joanna Dziadkowiec
Cracow University of Economics, Poland
ABSTRACT: 7KLVVWXG\H[DPLQHVSUHIHUHQFHGLIIHUHQFHVRI 0LOOHQQLDOVWXGHQWVERUQ²
ZLWKLQDQGEHWZHHQWZRFXOWXUHV5R]LQDQGWRWHVWWKHÀQGLQJWKDWSHUFHSWLRQV
DERXWGLQLQJDUHFXOWXUHDQGJHQGHUVSHFLÀF%U\DQW'XQGHV3ROLVKDQG$PHULFDQVWXGHQWVZHUHVXUYH\HG6LJQLÀFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHUHYHDOHGLQÀYHRI VHYHQFRQVWUXFW
PHDVXUHV7KHVHULHVRI RQHZD\$129$VVKRZWKDWIUHTXHQF\RI JRLQJWRUHVWDXUDQWVDQG
place of dining out play an important role in shaping preferences toward casual dining. DifferHQFHVEHWZHHQ3ROLVKPDOHVDQGIHPDOHVDUHODUJHDQGVLJQLÀFDQWLQDOOVHYHQFRQVWUXFWVZKLOH
IRUWKH$PHULFDQVWKHUHDUHQRJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQSHUFHSWLRQV7KLVVWXG\FRQÀUPVWKDW
SHUFHSWLRQVDUHFXOWXUHVSHFLÀFDQGYDU\EHWZHHQWZRFXOWXUHV+RZHYHU the most important
GLVWLQFWLRQVHHPVWREHGLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJFXVWRPHUVLQSUHIHUHQFHVWKDWDUHLQGLYLGXDOLVWLF
UDWKHUWKDQH[SODLQHGE\FXOWXUHRUJHQGHUEDVHGKeywords: )RRG3UHIHUHQFHV&DVXDO'LQLQJ&URVV&XOWXUDO*HQGHU%DVHG
RESUMEN: (VWHHVWXGLRDQDOL]DODVGLIHUHQFLDVHQODVSUHIHUHQFLDVGHORVHVWXGLDQWHVGHO0Llenio (nacidos entre 1981 y 2000), entre dos culturas y en el seno de su cultura (Rozin, 2003),
GHPRGRDTXHVHSXHGDSRQHUDSUXHEDODLGHDGHTXHODVSHUFHSFLRQHVGHODVSHUVRQDVHQOR
TXHUHVSHWDDODUHVWDXUDFLyQVRQHVSHFtÀFDVDXQDFXOWXUD\DXQ género %U\DQW'XQGHV
HVWXGLDQWHVSRODFRV\HVWDGRXQLGHQVHVIXHURQFXHVWLRQDGRV6HHQFRQWUDURQGLIHUHQFLDVVLJQLÀFDWLYDVHQFLQFRGHODVVLHWHPHGLGDVGHFRQVWUXFWRV/RVWHVWHVHVWDGtVWLFRVFRQ
RQHZD\ $129$ PXHVWUDQ TXH OD IUHFXHQFLD GH ODV LGDV D UHVWDXUDQWHV MXHJD XQ SDSHO LPSRUWDQWHHQODFRQVWLWXFLyQGHSUHIHUHQFLDVHQORTXHUHVSHWDDUHVWDXUDQWHVLQIRUPDOHV/DV
diferencias encontradas entre las preferencias de las mujeres y de los varones polacos son
EDVWDQWHVLJQLÀFDWLYDVHQODWRWDOLGDGGHORVVLHWHFRQVWUXFWRVPLHQWUDVTXHHQHOFDVRGHORV
HVWDGRXQLGHQVHVQRH[LVWHQGLIHUHQFLDVGHJpQHURHQODVSHUFHSFLRQHV(VWHHVWXGLRFRQÀUPD
TXHODVSHUFHSFLRQHVVRQHVSHFtÀFDVDXQDFXOWXUD\YDUtDQHQWUHGRVFXOWXUDV6LQHPEDUJROD
GLVFUHSDQFLDPiVLPSRUWDQWHSDUHFHVHUTXHODVGLIHUHQFLDVHQWUHFOLHQWHVHQVXVSUHIHUHQFLDV
VRQLQGLYLGXDOHV\QRVRQH[SOLFDGDVFRQEDVHHQFXHVWLRQHVFXOWXUDOHVRGHJpQHURPalabras
clave: preferencias alimentares, restaurantes informales, intercultural, deferencias deJpQHUR.
RESUMO: (VWH HVWXGR DQDOLVD DV GLIHUHQoDV QDV SUHIHUrQFLDV GRV HVWXGDQWHV GR 0LOpQLR
(nascidos entre 1981 e 2000), entre duas culturas e no seio da sua cultura (Rozin, 2003), por
A. Scott Rood$VVLVWDQW&KDLU$VVLVWDQW3URIHVVRULQWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI +RVSLWDOLW\
DQG7RXULVP0DQDJHPHQWDW*UDQG9DOOH\6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\86$$XWKRUHPDLOURRGVF#
gvsu.edu. Joanna Dziadkowiec$VVLVWDQW3URIHVVRULQWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI 4XDOLW\0DQDJHPHQWDWWKH&UDFRZ8QLYHUVLW\RI (FRQRPLFV3RODQG$XWKRUHPDLOG]LDGNRM#XHNNUDNRZSO
138
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forma aS{UjSURYDDLGHLDGHTXHDVSHUFHo}HVGDVSHVVRDVQRTXHGL]UHVSHLWRà restauração
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VHWHPHGLGDVGHFRQVWUXFWRV$VDQiOLVHVHIHWXDGDVFRPRPpWRGRRQHZD\$129$PRVWUDP
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preferências em relação a restaurantes informais. As diferenças encontradas entre as prefeUrQFLDVGDVPXOKHUHVHGRVKRPHQV3RODFRVVmREDVWDQWHVLJQLÀFDWLYDVQDWRWDOLGDGHGRVVHWH
FRQVWUXFWRVHQTXDQWRTXHQRFDVRGRV$PHULFDQRVQmRH[LVWHPGLIHUHQoDVGHJpQHURQDVSHUFHo}HV(VWHHVWXGRFRQÀUPDTXHDVSHUFHo}HVVmRHVSHFtÀFDVDXPDFXOWXUDHYDULDPHQWUH
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HPTXHVW}HVFXOWXUDLVRXGHJpQHURPalavras-chave: preferências alimentícias, restaurantes
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,1752'8&7,21
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customers. Literature is replete with studies of segmentation, motivaWLRQVDWLVIDFWLRQDQGLQWHQWLRQVWRUHWXUQ,QWKLVLQFUHDVLQJO\JOREDOL]HG
HQYLURQPHQWLQWHUQDWLRQDOWRXULVPLVH[SHFWHGWRJURZ7KHKRVSLWDOLW\
sector is confronted with cultural diversity and its accompanying hetHURJHQHLW\%HFNHU0XUUPDQQ0XUUPDQQ&KHXQJ7KXVLW
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UHVWDXUDQWVHWWLQJ)RUH[DPSOHLn comparing restaurant perceptions of
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that SHUFHSWLRQVDERXWIDVWIRRGDUHFXOWXUHDQGJHQGHUVSHFLÀF,QWKHLU
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They also found that convenience of fast food is more important to
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LITERATURE REVIEW
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more so for the Americans. In a casual dining study of American and
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WKDW(QJOLVK-DSDQHVHDQG6SDQLVKVSHDNLQJFRQVXPHUVDWDQLQWHUQDWLRQDODLUSRUWIRRGFRXUWHYDOXDWHGPHQXDQGEUDQGDWWULEXWHVGLIIHUHQWO\5RRG']LDGNRZLHFWUDLQHGXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVWRFRQduct mystery shopping in casual dining restaurants in their two native
countries. That study found that American and Polish students have
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to have a preference for independent restaurants rather than chain restaurants, compared to the American students who had no preference.
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indigenous and locally produced food (Torres, 2002). The tastes and preferHQFHVRI WRXULVWVGULYHGHPDQGDQGFDQFUHDWHOLQNDJHVWRORFDOSURGXFWLRQ
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understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences,
suggesting that there are real human predispositions of various sorts
and that culture is a powerful force, and why it is surprisingly easy for us
to understand the viewpoint of people from other cultures. That study
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IHHOLQJRUDFWLQJLQSDUWLFXODUZD\V5R]LQ,QGLYLGXDOGLIferences may also vary in their endorsement of rejection of a culture’s
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larger in older generations and suggested that the current world-wide
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on individual differences including values, whereas contemporary crossFXOWXUDOUHVHDUFKH[DPLQLQJWKHKRVSLWDOLW\DQGWRXULVPLQGXVWU\LVSUHVHQWO\OLPLWHGWRH[DPLQLQJFRQVXPHUEHKDYLRUVRUSHUFHSWLRQVRQWKH
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dynamic system including interpersonal and psychological and may
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opinion today that customer preferences regarding food choices are a
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constructs measures were adapted from a study of full service restauUDQWV)RRG5HODWHG/LIHVW\OHTXHVWLRQVDQGDFKDLQYHUVXVLQGHSHQGHQW
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Table 1. Characteristics of the participants
Variable
N
)UHTXHQF\
&XOWXUH1 American
313
0DOH
204
Female
589
through age 20
21-25
15
more than 30
5
1RUHVSRQVH
Polish
*HQGHU1 1RUHVSRQVH
$JH1 The seven constructs used in the study are:
1. %UDQGHGYHUVXVLQGHSHQGHQW
142
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2. Attitudes towards advertising
3. %UDQGVDQGEUDQGKHWHURJHQHLW\
4. 4XDOLW\DVSHFWVRI IRRGSHUFHSWLRQ
5. Dining out
Procedural costs
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the purpose of the current study, ZLWKLQFXOWXUHV means that data from one culWXUHLVH[DPLQHGWRGHWHUPLQHLIWKHUHLVDJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHLQHDFKRI WKH
seven constructs. %HWZHHQ FXOWXUHV means that data from one segment, such as
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with regard to that segment. &RPELQHGFRXQWU\PHDQVWKDWDOOGDWDLVH[DPLQHGQ IRUSUHIHUHQFHGLIIHUHQFHVWKDWFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\JHQGHU
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men and women were found in two of the seven construct measures:
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Table 2. Gender differences within, between and combined cultures
$129$VLJQLÀFDQFH
Within cultures Between cultures
Combined Country
Poland
USA
Female
Male
%UDQGHGFKDLQYVLQGHSHQGHQW
0.000*
0.000*
0.111
Attitudes towards advertising
0.012
0.000*
0.000*
%UDQGVDQGEUDQGKHWHURgeneity
0.001
0.434
0.000*
0.000*
0.003
4XDOLW\DVSHFWVRI food perception
0.000*
0.119
0.034
Dining out
0.124
0.343
0.000*
0.000*
0.583
Procedural costs
0.002
0.000*
0.000*
0.035
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0.000*
0.101
0.000*
0.000*
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than Polish students in terms of their casual dining preferences. The
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Poles and Americans.
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RI )RRG3HUFHSWLRQQRWEHLQJVLJQLÀFDQW7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWZKLOH
Polish and American males share some preferences, there are more
differences than similarities.
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Gender differences in "Social Event and Relationship"
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that Poles prefer homemade food and go to restaurants to meet friends
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social life. It also appears that social aspects associated with dining out
are more important for women than for men.
'LIIHUHQFHVZLWKLQFXOWXUH²86$
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GLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ$PHULFDQPHQDQGZRPHQ&RQWUDU\WRWKHÀQGLQJVRI %U\DQW'XQGHVSUHIHUHQFHVWRZDUGVFDVXDOGLQLQJ
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144
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5RRG']LDGNRZLHF,QWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\GLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ
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constructs, while for the Americans there are no gender differences in
perceptions. Only one culture showed gender differences, somewhat
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IDFWRUV7KUHHRI WKHPHDVXUHV$WWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJEUDQGHGRULQGHpendent restaurants preferences and the role of casual dining in everyday
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$VVKRZQLQ7DEOHRYHURI UHVSRQGHQWVKDYHPRUHFRQÀdence in food products that they have seen advertised than in unadYHUWLVHGSURGXFWVZKLOHDERXWKDGWKHRSSRVLWHRSLQLRQV0RUH
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Table 3. Attitudes to Advertising
Variable
)UHTXHQF\
3RVLWLYHDWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJ1 &XOWXUH
American (313)
3ROLVK
0DOH
Female (589)
*HQGHU
1HJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJ1 &XOWXUH
American (313)
3ROLVK
188
0DOH
Female (589)
*HQGHU
522'$1''=,$'.2:,(&
145
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GLQLQJSUHIHUHQFHVDVHULHVRI RQHZD\$129$VZHUHHPSOR\HG7KH
UHVXOWVVKRZWKDWVLJQLÀFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHLGHQWLÀHGLQÀYHRI VHYHQ
FRQVWUXFWV7DEOHVXJJHVWLQJWKDWFDVXDOGLQLQJSUHIHUHQFHVDUHLQÁXHQFHGE\SRVLWLYHRUQHJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJ2QO\SUHIHUHQFHVWRZDUGVEUDQGHGLQGHSHQGHQWUHVWDXUDQWVDQGSHUFHSWLRQVRI SURFHGXUDOFRVWVGRQRWGHSHQGRQDWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJ,WFDQEH
FRQFOXGHGWKDWSUHIHUHQFHVWRZDUGFDVXDOGLQLQJDUHGHWHUPLQHGE\LQGLYLGXDODWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJUDWKHUWKDQE\JHQGHU7ZRFRQVWUXFWV
Attitudes towards advertisingDQG6RFLDOHYHQWDQGUHODWLRQVKLS are
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preferences. They depend on individual attitudes to advertising and do
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Analyzing cross-cultural differences reveals that attitudes to adverWLVLQJDUHFXOWXUHVSHFLÀF']LDGNRZLHF5RRGEXWRQO\SDUWLDOO\JHQGHUVSHFLÀFFXUUHQWVWXG\7DEOH7KHUHDUHLPSRUWDQWGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPDOHVDQGIHPDOHVFRPELQHGFRXQWU\EXWWKHUHDUH
QRGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPDOHVIURPERWKFRXQWULHVEHWZHHQFRXQWULHV
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DWWLWXGHVWRDGYHUWLVLQJDQGWKHVHDWWLWXGHVDUHUHÁHFWLYHRI SHUVRQDO
SUHIHUHQFHV7KLVÀQGLQJLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKRWKHUVWXGLHVIRUH[DPSOH
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7KDW TXHVWLRQ ZDV SURPSWHG E\ D UHFHQW VWXG\ ']LDGNRZLHF 5RRGZKLFKUHYHDOHGWKDWWKHUHDUHLPSRUWDQWGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWZRFXOWXUHVZLWKUHVSHFWWRSUHIHUHQFHVWRZDUGEUDQGHGDQG
LQGHSHQGHQWUHVWDXUDQWV$VVKRZQLQ7DEOHDVLPLODUQXPEHURI UHVSRQGHQWVIHOOLQWRHDFKRI WKUHHJURXSVDERXWUHVSRQGHQWV
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SUHIHUFKDLQUHVWDXUDQWVZKLOHRQO\RI 3ROHVKDYHVLPLlar preferences. In the case of independent restaurants, the situation
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Table 4. Branded/chain vs. Independent restaurants
Variable
Frequency
Favor independent restaurants
234
1RSUHIHUHQFHWRZDUGEUDQGHGLQGHSHQGHQWUHVWDXUDQWV
288
American (313)
144
3ROLVK
125
0DOH
Female (589)
202
American (313)
54
3ROLVK
180
0DOH
Female (589)
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&XOWXUH
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Favor independent restaurants
&XOWXUH
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that preference for either restaurant type is more related to individual
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In the current study, IUHTXHQWFXVWRPHUV are the respondents who
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DV SDUW RI P\ URXWLQH 2FFDVLRQDO FXVWRPHUV are respondents who
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Table 5. Frequent vs. Occasional Customers
Variable
Frequency
)UHTXHQWFXVWRPHUV
285
Occasional customers
8
American (313)
181
3ROLVK
104
0DOH
Female (589)
213
American (313)
131
3ROLVK
0DOH
Female (589)
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IUHTXHQWFXVWRPHUVDQGRFFDVLRQDOFXVWRPHUVDVHULHVRI RQHZD\
$129$DQDO\VLVZHUHHPSOR\HG7KHUHVXOWVVKRZVLJQLÀFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHLGHQWLÀHGLQÀYHRI VHYHQFRQVWUXFWV7DEOHVXJJHVWLQJWKDWFDVXDOGLQLQJSUHIHUHQFHVDUHLQÁXHQFHGE\IUHTXHQF\
of going out to dine. Only attitudes towards advertising and perFHSWLRQVRI TXDOLW\DVSHFWVDUHQRWLQÁXHQFHGE\WKLVIDFWRU,WFDQ
EH FRQFOXGHG WKDW SUHIHUHQFHV WRZDUG FDVXDO GLQLQJ DUH VWURQJO\
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148
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Table 6. Individual differences $129$VLJQLÀFDQFH
Branded Attitude
Brands
Quality Dining Procedure Social
Vs.Ind Adverts Heterogeneity Aspect out
Costs Event
&RPELQHG
country
0.111
0.000*
0.003
0.034
0.035
0.035
0.000*
Positive vs.
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to advertising
0.000*
0.000*
0.000*
0.000*
0.000*
)DYRU%UDQGHG
vs. Independent
Restaurants
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.003
)UHTXHQWYV
Occasional
&XVWRPHUV
0.000*
31 0.049
0.000*
0.000*
0.000*
0.000*
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Thus, differences within cultures are associated with factors other than
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females in all seven construct measures were found, indicating casual
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to restaurants and place of dining out and in everyday life plays an imporWDQWUROHLQVKDSLQJSUHIHUHQFHVWRZDUGFDVXDOGLQLQJRXW7KHVLJQLÀFDQW
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The most detailed analysis shows that the preferences in only one construct,
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preferences in the construct 4XDOLW\DVSHFWVRI IRRGSHUFHSWLRQ are not
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from two cultures were carefully surveyed. This tool was also shown
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The construct measures were also used to analyze individual customer
preference differences.
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research tool, future analysis could focus on respondent segmentation
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young adults. )RRGDQG3UHIHUHQFH. 139-145.
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situational contingencies and the theory of reasoned action: Applica-
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(4). 398–411.
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