Praehistorische Zeitschrift; 2014; 89(2): 337–370
Abhandlung
Jan Bemmann, Eva Lehndorff, Riccardo Klinger, Sven Linzen, Lkhagvardorj Munkhbayar,
Martin Oczipka, Henny Piezonka, Susanne Reichert
Biomarkers in archaeology –
Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun,
Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
DOI 10.1515/pz-2014-0022
Zusammenfassung: Zur Nutzungsanalyse großer ovaler,
erstmalig entdeckter und dokumentierter von einem niedrigen Graben-Wall-System umgebener Anlagen wurden Bodenproben auf spezifische Lipide untersucht, die Hinweise
auf die Anwesenheit – hinterlassene Verdauungsreste –
bestimmter Nutztierarten und Menschen in den beprobten Bereichen geben könnten. Wahrscheinlich dienten die
Anlagen dem Gartenbau, sicherlich nicht der Viehhaltung;
in den angrenzenden Dachziegel und Keramikscherben
aufweisenden viereckigen, deutlich kleineren umwallten
Anlagen siedelten Menschen. Solche ovalen Anlagen sind
in der Mongolei bisher nur aus dem Umfeld der uighurischen Hauptstadt Karabalgasun bekannt geworden, deren
Stadtgebiet eine deutlich größere Fläche einnimmt als
bisher angenommen wurde und vielteiliger sowie funktioJan Bemmann: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn,
Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie, Regina-Pacis-Weg 7,
53113 Bonn. E-Mail: [email protected]
Eva Lehndorff: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn,
Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation,
Soil Science & Soil Ecology, Nussallee 13, 53115 Bonn. E-Mail:
[email protected]
Riccardo Klinger: Geolicious GbR, Binzstraße 48, 13189 Berlin.
E-Mail: [email protected]
Sven Linzen: Leibniz-Institut für Photonische Technologien e. V.,
Albert-Einstein-Straße 9, 07745 Jena.
E-Mail: [email protected]
Lkhagvardorj Munkhbayar: Institute of Archaeology,
Mongolian Academy of Science, Jukov Street 77, Ulaanbaatar 51.
E-Mail: [email protected]
Martin Oczipka: Fakultät Geoinformation, Hochschule für Technik
und Wirtschaft Dresden, Friedrich-List-Platz 1, 01069 Dresden.
E-Mail: [email protected]
Henny Piezonka: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut,
Eurasienabteilung, Im Dol 2–6, 14195 Berlin. E-Mail:
[email protected]
Susanne Reichert: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn,
Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie, Regina-Pacis-Weg 7, 53113
Bonn. E-Mail: [email protected]
nal gegliedert ist. Dieses erste stichpunktartige Ergebnis
zeigt das Potential der Lipidanalysen, frühere Landnutzung zu rekonstruieren, beispielsweise Viehhaltung von
acker- oder gartenbaulicher Nutzung zu unterscheiden.
Gerade dieser viel zu wenig erforschte Aspekt ist für die
Einschätzung der häufig postulierten ‚Abhängigkeit‘ der
Nomaden von ackerbautreibenden Gesellschaften von
zentraler Bedeutung.
Schlüsselworte: Lipidanalyse; Nomaden; Mongolei; Gartenbau; umwallte Bereiche
Résumé: Un échantillonnage du sol à peu de profondeur
de la surface du terrain actuel a été effectué afin de déterminer à quoi servaient les grandes enceintes ovales,
cernées d’un mur bas et d’un fossé, découvertes et relevées
récemment en Mongolie. L’échantillonnage avait pour but
l’analyse de lipides spécifiques à certaines espèces; en
effet les données provenant de résidus de digestion fournissent de précieuses indications sur les concentrations
d’animaux d’élevage spécifiques dans les zones étudiées.
Les enceintes ont fort probablement été utilisées à des
fins horticoles, et certainement pas pour le bétail. L’habitat humain, documenté par des trouvailles de tuiles et de
céramique, se situait dans des enclos carrés et bien plus
petits à proximité de ces enceintes. Les enceintes ovales
n’ont été repérées en Mongolie que dans les environs de la
capitale Ouïghoure de Karabalghasun. L’étendue de cette
capitale est de toute évidence bien plus grande que l’on
ne l’avait pensé jusqu’à présent, et la zone d’occupation
avait été subdivisée en divers secteurs d’activité. Les premiers résultats de notre échantillonnage démontrent que
l’analyse des lipides donne l’occasion d’aborder l’étude
de la culture des céréales et des légumes sous un nouvel
angle. Etant donné le peu de recherches conduites dans ce
domaine, cet aspect est particulièrement important pour
l’évaluation d’une ‘dépendance’ des nomades envers les
sociétés agraires si souvent invoquée.
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338 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Mots-clefs: analyse des lipides; nomades; Mongolie; horticulture; enceintes murées
Abstract: In order to investigate the use to which recently
discovered and recorded large oval enclosures surrounded
by a low wall and ditch were put, a series of topsoil samples
were taken and subjected to an analysis of specific lipids;
such soil chemical evidence from human and domesticated animal faeces can provide significant insights into
the land use history of the areas sampled. The enclosures
are likely to have been used for horticulture, and certainly
not for keeping livestock. Human settlement, as attested
by the presence of roof tiles and ceramic sherds, was in
square, enclosed compounds nearby, and these were
clearly smaller. Oval complexes have so far only been documented in Mongolia in the vicinity of the Uyghur capital
of Karabalgasun. Karabalgasun was evidently much
greater in extent than had hitherto been assumed and
it was divided into a number of functional areas. Initial
results from our targeted samples show that the analysis
of lipids has much potential, offering new opportunities
to elucidate land use, e.g. the cultivation of cereals and
vegetables in contrast to livestock keeping. It is precisely
this aspect, so far largely neglected by research, which
will allow us to assess the oft-claimed ‘dependence’ of the
nomads on agricultural communities.
Keywords: lipid analysis; nomads; Mongolia; gardening;
walled enclosures
Introduction
In the time of the Turco-Mongol empires the Orkhon
Valley, a ritual landscape charged with meaning, achieved
the status of a space legitimising power (see Allsen 1996
and Dobrovits 2012 for essential literature). For numerous
peoples of the steppes, the Orkhon Valley was the centre
of the world, accommodating two capital cities of two
great empires – Karabalgasun and Karakorum (Fig. 1). The
great quantity, diversity and size of the monuments in the
Orkhon Valley reflect this enormous importance. A particularly strong concentration of walled enclosures, possibly indicating permanent settlement structures in the
region, was already impressively documented in the first
compilation by Radloff (1893, pl. 82) and in Maidar’s map
(1970b, map 1), which was based on the work of Perlee.
However, since the initial inventories of Perlee (1961/2012)
and Maidar (1970a; 1970b), the walled sites of Mongolia
have attracted little research interest, with the exception
of the four known urban complexes of Avraga (Shiraishi/
Tsogtbaatar 2009), Chin Tolgoi (Kradin et al. 2011; Enkthur
et al. 2011; Senda 2012), Karakorum (Bemmann et al. 2010;
Franken 2012) and Karabalgasun (Hüttel/Dähne 2012)¹.
Complexes surrounded by a wall, which can be understood as temples, residences, cities, settlements,
military camps, enclosed monumental burial grounds or
memorial complexes, among other interpretations, have
been attested from the Xiongnu period up to recent times.
These sites vary considerably in form, inner subdivision,
size, wall construction, orientation, topographic location
and gate construction. Since such sites are not thought to
have existed in the time span from the Stone Age to the
Early Iron Age, research is not concerned with their causal
association with the origins and organisational structure
of the nomadic empires of Inner Asia.
This article presents an interpretation for the use of a
specific type of walled enclosures.
During preparations for a reconnaissance trip,
which Jan Bemmann and Ernst Pohl of the University of
Bonn, together with geographers of the Free University
in Berlin, undertook in August 2006, the evaluation of
Russian aerial photographs from 1972 revealed an unusually high concentration of walled complexes in the
area to the north-west of the so-called citadel of Karabalgasun and to the south-east of the Spring Palace of
Ögödei qaghan (reigned 1229–1241 CE) (Fig. 2). One particular feature, hitherto unknown in Mongolia, are large
oval structures, several of which were located in this area.
These structures are scarcely noticeable on the ground
itself, given their extremely low elevation; they can only
be clearly seen from the air. The project “Geoarchaeology
in the steppe – reconstruction of cultural landscapes in
the Orkhon Valley, Central Mongolia”² finally gave us the
means and the cooperation of partners to carry out intensive research in this area and on its complexes. This took
place from July 2008 to June 2011 (Bemmann et al. 2011).
One of the project’s aims – under the auspices of the priority research programme “Wechselwirkungen zwischen
Natur- und Geisteswissenschaften” (“Interaction between
Natural Sciences and the Humanities”), funded by the
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, BMBF) – was to determine the intensity of settlement activity within individual
1 The barely noticed publication concerning the enclosed sites dated
to Kitan times located along the river Tuul River (Ochir et al. 2005,
87 ff.), which are of international significance, should also be mentioned.
2 Our expedition of 2006 was undertaken in preparation for this
joint project.
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 339
Fig. 1: a) Map of Mongolia, with the middle Orkhon Valley marked with a box; black line = modern state border. b) the Orkhon Valley
showing the main sites: 1 MOR-13, 2 Karabalgasun, 3 Khöshöö Tsaidam, 4 Spring Palace of Ögödei qaghan, 5 Karakorum
(graphics: Gisela Höhn and Susanne Reichert)
MOR-13
Fig. 2: Walled enclosures northwest of the so-called Citadel of
Karabalgasun and south-east of the
Spring Palace of Ögödei qaghan.
Russian airphotograph N-289, dated
24. 08. 1972, 616, with additions
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340 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
periods and to investigate the relationships between cities
and their surroundings. Our intentions were not only to
measure the newly-discovered monuments, record them
accurately in plan and 3D, and date them, but also to gain
information about their construction, their use and their
function. By applying the most modern techniques and
the most recent analytical procedures we have made great
strides (see Grützner et al. 2012; Oczipka et al. 2009).
A remarkable amount of information about numerous
complexes is thus available for the first time.
Our aim here is to reconstruct the land use in one of
the double complexes that are typical for this region; they
consist of a rectangular and a bordering oval surrounding
wall. We have designated that particular double complex
with our own project identification code MOR-13. The
surface features were identified by remote sensing and
dated on the basis of pottery sherds and 14C dating; the use
of the complex could be determined through the geochemical analysis of biomarkers in soil samples. We assumed
at the outset that the oval features served to keep animals
and that the remains of buildings were inside the rectangular features. Consequently, the biomarker analysis focused
on searching for animal and human organic material preserved in the soil. Indeed biomarker analyses comprise the
characterisation of remains of vegetation (plant waxes,
n-alkanes) and of faeces (steroids). By combining this geochemical approach with the dates obtained and information from written sources we hope to present more detailed
evidence about the land use of such structures. (J. B.)
The oval enclosure, land use and
function
As an initial working hypothesis we assumed that the oval
complexes that did not yield any surface finds were places
in which livestock was gathered or kept, or – conversely –
which served as a barrier to keep livestock out. One indication that this was the case is provided by the description
of modern-day fences in Inner Mongolia, in which a comparable ditch-and-wall system is present (Williams 2002,
136 fig. 6,3; see also Endicott 2012 on land use in general).
In order to verify this, soil samples were taken and analysed by Eva Lehndorff and her team; in doing so they introduced the analysis of lipids as a significant scientific
method for archaeological research in Mongolia.
A further clue is provided by a passage in The Secret
History of the Mongols. In § 281 Ögödei accuses himself of
making four mistakes: the last mistake he mentions is:
“… being greedy and saying to myself ‘What if the wild
animals born with their destiny ordained by Heaven and
Earth go over to the territory of my brothers?’ I had fences
and walls built of pounded earth to prevent the animals
from straying” (Rachewiltz 2006, 218; 1037 p.). Persian
written sources also report that Ögödei had a hunting
park built in the vicinity of his winter quarters on the river
Ongqin (Allsen 2006, 43 p.). Since the oval enclosures discussed here are located only a few kilometres south-east
of Ögödei’s Spring Palace, ‘Gegen Chagan’, and since his
sojourns in that palace were primarily for hunting (Allsen
2006, 195), some of the many walls could have been built
on these occasions as enclosures for wild animals. But,
if the dating of the MOR-13 square complex could also be
applied to the oval enclosure associated with it, then a date
in the time of the Mongol empire could at least be excluded.
Determining the function of MOR-13 could provide
indications of land use during the 8th century CE. Written
sources mention that crops were cultivated in the vicinity of both Karabalgasun and Karakorum (see for example
Barkmann 2000, 53). Several bountiful harvests are mentioned along the rivers Orkhon und Kerulen for the period
from 982 to 1013 CE, when the Kitans ruled the Mongolian
steppe (Wittfogel/Feng 1949, 556). It is generally assumed
that nomads in Mongolia consistently grew and harvested
cereals, albeit to a limited extent (Di Cosmo 1994, 1094;
1100 pp.; Fletcher 1986, 13), as Róna-Tas (1959) describes
in an ethnographic study. The accounts in written sources
find some support in the pollen profile from the Orkhon
lowlands south of Karakorum, published by Frank Lehmkuhl et al. in 2011, in which there are two significant occurrences of cereal pollen. (J. B.)
The topography of MOR-13
The wall systems of MOR-13 lie at 1367 m asl, some 900 m
west of the stream Zharamt and the flood plain of the river
Orkhon, at a distance of 6 km west of the present-day course
of the Orkhon. They are located in Khotont sum, which
belongs to Arkhangai aimag³. Almost square in shape with
sides measuring c. 200 × 200 m, the complex is oriented
in a northwest-southeast direction, so that the four corners
point almost exactly to the four cardinal directions (Fig. 3).
At least four artificial rises are located in the inner area of
the square complex. The highest lies not quite in the centre
and shows the strongest magnetic anomalies (Figs. 3–6).
Since a high concentration of roof tiles was observed there,
it is presumed that a building with a roof in Chinese style
3 Location: N 47°30’56.3’’ E 102°34’27.8’’ (UTM 48 T 317378 5265319).
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 341
Fig. 3–4: 3 – Three-dimensional representation of the terrain profile of MOR-13 scanned with the SQUID system
(graphics: IPHT Jena, Sven Linzen); 4 – 3D digital surface model (DSM) of MOR-13 (image: DLR, Martin Oczipka)
once stood on this platform. In addition, higher sections
of wall and platforms are recognisable on aerial photographs and on the ground as anomalies in the vegetation;
they are overgrown with grass of the species Achnatherum
splendens (Trin.) Nevski (Fig. 7)⁴. The wall varies in its state
of preservation, and reaches a maximum height of 1 m. In
some places it is so strongly eroded that the potential location of an entrance cannot be clearly determined. In the
4 Anne Zemmrich and Susanne Starke, University of Greifswald,
kindly identified the plant species.
southern and western corners the wall of the oval enclosure joins that of the square enclosure (Fig. 8), but because
its height is so insignificant, it is only recognisable on the
ground if its presence is already known to the viewer. It was
only after we had undertaken a new survey flight in June
2011 and obtained new aerial photographs of the area that
it became clear that the site was far more complex than had
been assumed previously from inspection on the ground
and from older aerial photographs and satellite imagery
(Fig. 8). An oval structure directly adjoins MOR-13 on its
north-eastern side; its wall is so low that it does not even
show up in high-resolution elevation models. A rectangular
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342 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 5–6: 5 – SQUID magnetogram of MOR-13. Blue circles mark anomalies, which can be interpreted as building remains
(graphics: IPHT Jena, Sven Linzen); 6 – Combination of magnetic and topographic data, both recorded by the SQUID system.
(The magnetogram illustrated in Fig. 5 was overlaid with the altitude information illustrated in Fig. 3; brighter colour = higher altitude)
(graphics: IPHT Jena, Sven Linzen)
Fig. 7: Part of the wall of MOR-13 overgrown with Achnatherum splendens (Trin.) Nevski
(photograph: Institute of Prehistory and Early Historical Archaeology, Bonn University)
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 343
Fig. 8: Aerial image of MOR-13, June 2011 (image: GEOSAN and DLR). The main walls are marked with a red dashed line
wall-and-ditch system that runs over a distance of 85–95 m
parallel to the south-western wall of MOR-13 is also visible
on aerial photographs. A wall runs from the northern
corner of this wall-and-ditch, evidently connecting it with
MOR-13. Possibly the rougher relief of the terrain northwest and south-east of this connecting wall indicates the
presence of further anthropogenic structures. Two further
oval structures are located to the north and north-west of
MOR-13, at a distance of 220 m and 420 m (Fig. 24); to the
west, outside the oval but connected with it, is yet another,
almost rectangular complex with sides measuring 190 ×
300 × 118 × 265 m. Yet more sections of wall are observable
inside and to the south and south–southwest of the large
oval enclosure, which cannot so far be reconstructed as
connected or interrelated structures.
Description of the fieldwork
An intensive field survey of the square complex was
conducted in September 2008, when diagnostic pottery
sherds and roof tiles were collected. No artefacts were
found within the oval enclosure. At the same time photogrammetric measurements were carried out, directed by
Martin Oczipka, then a member of the Deutsches Zentrum
Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) (German Aerospace Centre) in
Berlin. A small drone (unmanned aerial vehicle, UAV),
a so-called ‘octocopter’ (from the number of propellers)
weighing less than 5 kg (Oczipka et al. 2009) was used in
this survey. The geometric resolution of the ortho-images
lies at 2.5–5 cm/pixel. On the basis of these vertical aerial
images and with the use of photogrammetric software,
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344 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
digital surface models (DSMs) and (true) ortho-photographs were created. The individual ortho-photos were
combined into a continuous ortho-photo mosaic of the
respective sites, and the surface models were transferred
into an interactive 3D model (Fig. 4).
Riccardo Klinger and Brigitta Schütt, geographers at
the Free University in Berlin, drilled a deep core in one
of the platforms inside the square complex (Figs. 9; 11).
The core RK15 was analysed for its layer composition, soil
matrix and structure. The ages of several sections of the
core were determined by 14C dating on bulk and micro
samples (Fig. 9). In view of the core’s 2 m length we can
assume that the cultural horizon was penetrated. This is
supported by the presence of a charcoal-enriched layer at
a depth of 1.2 to 1.7 m beneath the present surface level of
the building remains. The dating of this layer (HV-25929,
marked in grey in the lowest section of the core) is in
agreement with the dating of the surface finds. The date
for the ancient surface provides a terminus post quem for
activities at the site; we can thus reasonably assume that
the platform was built in the 8th century CE. The three 14C
dates from the uppermost packet of layers from the platform show a range of dates from the end of the 7th to the
middle of the 9th century CE, thus circumscribing the time
span in which the buildings stood or were erected on the
platform.
In May 2009 Sven Linzen, of the Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT) in Jena, conducted a geomagnetic survey using the SQUID system (Superconducting
QUantum Interference Device; see Linzen et al. 2009 for
the system). The instrument is based on SQUID gradiometer sensors, which provide the highest magnetic field
gradient resolution even at high scanning speeds over
the ground. Combined with a metal-free measuring cart
drawn by an all-terrain vehicle, a measurement speed of
up to 60 km/h can be attained. The concurrent collection
of altitude-data by means of a high precision Differential
Global Positioning System (DGPS) allowed us to compute
a model of the terrain without vegetation (Fig. 3). Still in
2009 Norbert Klitzsch (Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische
Hochschule Aachen) conducted geoelectric and georadar
investigations in order to record additional data of parts of
the monuments (see Storandt 2011, 45–49).
Fig. 9: Core RK 15 with radiocarbon dates. Layer from surface to
depth of 80 cm: CL-Si, randomly embedded and solidifying S-mg
(focal point at a depth of 25 cm), 10YR5/2–4/4 (deposit with
10YR7/2 at a depth of 67–80 cm), HCL++, Org+, dry, not rollable;
deposit from 80 to 105 cm: Si-fS, cG rarely embedded, 10YR7/3,
HCL+, Org+, very dry, not rollable; deposit from 105 to 120 cm:
Si-fS, well rounded mG-cG, 10YR7/2, HCL+, Org+, roots, dry,
not rollable; deposit 120 to 170 cm; Si-fS, rare well rounded mG,
10YR6/2–4/2 8 darkening, monotonically 145–170 cm), HCL+ (decreasing), Org(+), charcoal-layer at 158 cm, dry, not rollable; deposit
from 170 to 205 cm: Si-fS, well rounded mG (decreasing diameter),
10YR7/3, HCL++, Org 0, slightly layered in colour, dry, not rollable;
deposit 7 from 205 to 210 cm: Si-fS, rare fG, 10YR6/6, HCL+-, Org 0,
dry, not rollable (graphics: Riccardo Klinger)
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 345
directed by Jan Bemmann and Martin Oczipka in June 2011
in collaboration with the company Geosan in Ulaanbaatar.
It must be stressed that it is the interplay between different prospection techniques that enabled us to succeed
in producing an almost entirely non-destructive, initial
assessment of hitherto unknown archaeological monuments. (J. B.; R. K.; S. L.; M. O.)
Magnetic SQUID prospection of MOR-13
Fig. 10: Taking a soil sample with a bulb digger for biomarker
analysis (photograph: Institute of Prehistory and Early Historical
Archaeology, Bonn University)
In May 2010 archaeologists of Bonn University and
the Mongolian Academy of Science (MAS) took soil
samples for lipid analysis, following the guidelines of Eva
Lehndorff, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation (INRES) in Bonn. Sediment samples were taken
with a bulb digger and put in plastic containers (Fig. 10).
Four samples were taken in each of five places, inside
and outside the two complexes which we had identified
by that time (Fig. 11). The processing and analysis of the
samples were carried out in the laboratory of the INRES in
Bonn. Lastly, in September 2010, a small section was cut
through the wall of the large oval complex and a further
trench was cut through the rectangular complex MOR-13
from the wall’s crown down to the ditch, to ascertain how
the wall was constructed and to gain information for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) sampling⁵. The work
on the wall trenches and the recording of the profiles
were in the hands of Lkhagvardorj Munkhbayar, Institute
of Archaeology, MAS, and Henny Piezonka, fellow employee of the project. Because the size and complexity of
the immediately adjacent complexes were unknown to us
at the time, we limited the number of soundings to these
two trenches. We could nevertheless show without any
doubt that the oval enclosures were low, now extremely
flattened, bank-and-ditch constructions and hence were
man-made.
Valuable supplementary information for the interpretation of the complexes and their integration in the region
were gained from aerial photography; this was achieved
in a project funded by the Gerda Henkel Foundation and
5 The OSL samples are being processed and analysed by Dr Saran
Solongo of the Mongolian Academy of Science in the Institute of
Geography, University of Köln, in collaboration with Dr Daniela Hülle
and Prof Dr Helmut Brückner.
An area of 300 × 300 m covering the MOR-13 walled enclosure was prospected with the motorised SQUID system
within five hours of measurement on one day in May 2009.
MOR-13 was one of several walled enclosures, which were
investigated with the system in different regions of the
middle Orkhon Valley. The recorded magnetic maps of the
enclosures differ strongly in terms of the signatures of the
ramparts and the enclosed inner areas. The magnetogram
of MOR-13 is for the most part dominated by a grainy structure with amplitudes of 2–10 nT/m. This configuration of
dozens of point-shaped anomalies becomes very regular
with a spacing of 2–3 m, especially outside the enclosure
in the north and the south-west (Fig. 5). We think that
these magnetic anomalies have no anthropogenic origin,
but were caused by a geological frost boil pattern in the
subsoil. Four clusters of point-shaped magnetic anomalies with high amplitudes of up to 50 nT/m were detected
inside the enclosure. One of them is located exactly in the
enclosure’s centre, and a second about 43 m south of the
centre. The two other clusters of anomalies are located
immediately on the inner side of the bank, close to the
southern corner (Fig. 5). Fired bricks, roof or floor tiles can
be assumed to have caused the magnetic signals because
of the intensity and shape of the anomalies. A comparison with the accurately recorded topographic map of the
area (Fig. 3) shows the exposed position of the magnetically detected building remains. However, several other
exposed positions inside the enclosure do not show magnetic evidence of fired materials (see combined illustration of Fig. 6). Thus, we conclude that the four magnetic
clusters of anomalies indicate buildings of higher rank
inside the enclosure.
The area of the embankment itself has only a weak
magnetic representation. A long-periodic signature of
small amplitude is detectable in the north-western and
south-eastern sector (compare Fig. 5 with Fig. 6). We can
conclude from this that an inner bank structure without
sharp vertical margins, and with only a weak magnetic
contrast with the materials used, existed. We found
similar bank properties at further walled enclosures in the
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346 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 11: Map of MOR-13 with location of the two trenches, the soil samples, and the core drilling (graphics: Susanne Reichert)
surrounding of MOR-13, for example at MOR-2, some 12 km
to the north (see Grützner et al. 2012). However, walled enclosures with pronounced magnetic contrasts in the upper
part of the bank slopes can also be found, for example at
MOR-9, 25 km southeast of MOR-13 (Lungijn dörvölzhijn
[MOR-9]; see Bemmann et al. 2011). The latter anomalies
classify the bank as possessing an (intact) rammed earth
core. (S. L.)
The wall trenches
Trench 1 was dug into the bank of the oval structure. The
trench was located on the northern side of the structure,
some 0.4 km west-northwest of the rectangular walled en-
closure (see Fig. 11). The 1 m wide trench started on the
crest of the bank and extended 5.5 m towards the northwest. Unlike the faint traces of the structure visible above
ground, the section of the trench provided clear information about its man-made features (Fig. 12). Under a very
thin layer of topsoil the remains of the bank were found
in the south-eastern half of the trench and consisted of
grey-brown, very compact sandy loam with some gravel.
To the north-west of it, a shallow, U-shaped ditch with a
maximum depth of 0.5 m below the modern surface was
visible. The bottom fill consisted of a band of yellow loose
sandy gravel; located above it were layers of grey-black,
mostly loose sand and sandy loam. At the north-western
end of the trench, a shallow pit filled with grey-brown
to black-grey compact silty sand had been dug into the
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 347
Fig. 12: MOR-13, profile of Trench 1 through the oval enclosure (drawing: Henny Piezonka)
Fig. 13: MOR-13, profile of Trench 2 cut through the square enclosure (drawing: Henny Piezonka)
subsoil. Its stratigraphic relationship with the bank and
ditch cannot be determined. The only artefact discovered
during the excavation is an unglazed ceramic handle
(Fig. 19,7). An OSL dating sample was extracted from the
bank layer in metre 1 of the north-east profile of the trench
(see Fig. 12).
The second MOR-13 trench was located on the northeastern bank of the rectangular enclosure (see Fig. 11).
The 1 m wide trench started on the crest of the bank and
extended 12 m north-east towards the exterior of the enclosure, where a slight depression indicated the presence
of a surrounding ditch. In the profile (Fig. 13), the earthen
bank is visible in the south-western part. It was covered
by a thin layer of topsoil. Its base lay c. 1.0 m under the
surface and on top of a very homogenous layer of dark
brown, not very compact silty sand, which might represent either a buried natural topsoil, or an anthropogenic
horizon predating the construction of the bank. The bank
was erected by subsequent heaping of various materials.
Most of these layers consisted of grey to ochre-grey, rather
compact loamy sand with a high proportion of gravel;
some of them also contained charcoal and pieces of burnt
clay. The north-eastern half of the profile was dominated
by a shallow, ditch-like depression. It was cut into the
subsoil to a depth of no more than 0.75 m, measured from
the old ground surface (top of the dark-brown layer underneath the bank described previously). The north-eastern edge of the cut lay beyond the limits of the trench and
hence its width cannot be determined. As to function, it
is not clear whether the depression was actually intended
to be a ditch, or whether it is merely the area where material for the bank was excavated. The depression was filled
with various layers of dark grey to brown loamy sand. In
the area closest to the bank, these layers were very rich in
archaeological material, including butchered and partly
charred animal bones, charcoal, burnt loam and deco-
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348 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
rated pottery (Figs. 16,44; 17,34; 18,35. 45–46). An interesting artefact among these finds is a broken toggle made of
antler (Fig. 20,59)⁶. The abundance of finds in these layers
indicates that the depression was used as a rubbish pit
for debris thrown from the bank. It is from one of these
archaeologically dated layers that the OSL sample was
taken. (H. P.; L. M.)
Dating the artefacts
A general comment from a methodological perspective
about the existing dating schemes for the material culture
of Mongolia is necessary: the division into periods in archaeology, before information from historical records is
available, was based on characteristic types of archaeological monuments, especially the parts of burial structures that are visible above ground. Beginning with the
Xiongnu period (209 BCE–2nd century CE), the temporal
division is based on dates conveyed in the written documents about the existence of the respective empire or
dynasties, and the nomenclature follows the ethnonyms.
This has led to apparent gaps in the cultural sequence (see
Rogers 2007, 257), because there were long intervals in
which there was no unifying central power. Schematically
defined pottery types are attributed to these historically
defined periods of time. The sherds derive as a rule from
surveys or recovery of unstratified finds. A relative pottery
sequence, and recognition of coeval forms and their duration, can only be established through the study of cultural
layers from settlement excavations, which however are
largely lacking or are confined to Kitan or Mongol times⁷.
For the period of interest here, the 6th to 9th centuries CE,
a distinction is made between the Turkic empire (552–742
CE), subdivided into a first empire (552–630/659 CE) and
a second empire (682–742/766 CE)⁸ and the Uyghur empire
(744–840 CE). So far no settlements with permanent
buildings or complexes are known for the Türks in Mongolia (Stark 2008, 56). With Karabalgasun the largest urban
complex in Mongolia – the largest known to this day –
emerged under the Uyghurs, encompassing a surface area
6 In the Sayan-Altai region, such items are commonly found in burials
of the Turkish period dating between the 6th and the 10th century CE.
They were used as part of fetters for tying the feet of a horse (Kubarev
2005, 136–137). In Siberia, similar toggles have remained in use until
ethnographically-documented times (Kirpichnikov 1973, 78, fig. 45).
7 The first suggestions for the temporal division of pottery from
settlements in the Xiongnu period are now available (Wright 2011;
Ramseyer 2013).
8 The second date refers to the independent and longer lasting western Old Turkic qaghanate.
of more than 32 km2. Ever since Khudiakov and Tsėvėėndorzh’s study (1975) the stamp-decorated ceramic sherds
gathered there have been considered as diagnostic for the
identification of settlements and graves of Uyghur times.
The danger of circular reasoning, i.e. when stray finds
from a complex dated with the aid of written sources are
used to describe the material culture of this period, is
obvious. The insufficiently researched Old Turkic period
in Mongolia (summary of grave finds in Törbat/Odbaatar
2012; a good general overview in Stark 2008) is supposedly characterised by hand-made pottery, which displays
fingernail impressions underneath the rim or a coarse
incised zigzag decoration or St Andrew’s cross pattern on
the body or neck (Stark 2008, 106 pl. 19). Complete vessels
have hitherto been found solely in burial contexts. Until a
substantiated scheme with absolute dates is established,
the duration of the individual ceramic forms and decorations will remain uncertain.
At the moment, this results, for example, in a stampdecorated sherd from Khöshöö Tsaidam (the memorial
complex of Kül Tegin) being proffered as evidence that
the Uyghurs sought out or made use of that site (Šmahelová/Pohl 2009), a proposal submitted without making
the context of the find clear at the outset and thus later
considered to be secure⁹. On the basis of the radiocarbon
dates from the drilled core (Fig. 9), the MOR-13 complex
may be dated in terms of absolute chronology to the 8th
century CE; it could have been built during the late phase
of the second Türk qaghanate or the first phase of the
Uyghur empire. In the latter case the traditional dating of
stamp-decorated ceramic finds would be in agreement.
Both the Old Turkic peoples and the Uyghurs belonged
to the same language group; the latter – like their predecessors – used the Old Turkic runic script. The custom
of burying a man and a bridled horse in the same grave
is similarly common to both groups. During the second
Türk qaghanate as well as during the Uyghur empire the
Orkhon Valley was the centre of power. In view of so many
commonalities the question arises as to why the form,
9 Further stamp-decorated sherds are known from the complex of
Kül Tegin (Šmahelová 2009, 336 f. figs. 13–14). During investigations
at the Bilgä Qağan memorial complexes within a Turkish-Mongolian project, fragments of a large ceramic vessel with stamped decoration were found in the enclosing ditch near the entrance to the
enclosed part of the memorial complexes, excavation area NG 268B.
The excavators similarly assigned the ceramic vessel to Uyghur times
(Gömeç 2005, 43; 106–107 photographs 68–70; 211). A sherd bearing
a stamped decoration – lozenge-shaped designs – was also found
in the centre of the Bilgä Qağan complex, excavation area NG 264A;
according to current opinion, it was dated to Uyghur times too
(TICA 2003, 56; 96 fig. 15,2).
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun decoration and quality of pottery should have altered
abruptly with a change in the ruling tribes? In my opinion,
the not negligible quantities of ceramics in both memorial complexes at Khöshöö Tsaidam indicate that these
so-called Uyghur ceramics were already being produced
during the second Türkic qaghanate.
In order to give stimulate research on pottery and
to impart an impression of a typical spectrum – in our
opinion – of ceramic sherds from a settlement site, all
the items found at MOR-13 are listed here, most are illustrated, and they are statistically evaluated. Nevertheless,
the available database is still far too small to meet all the
methodological requirements of pottery analysis. (J. B.)
349
Fig. 14: Percentage distribution of the pottery groups
(Excel diagram) (graphics: Susanne Reichert)
Ceramics from MOR-13
The evaluation of the ceramics allows some initial observations, which, however, cannot be used as chronological indicators. In total 118 ceramic sherds were found, of
which 72.9 % were collected as stray finds during pedestrian surveys (n 86). The remainder comes from the excavation trenches 1 and 2 (27.1 %; n 32). Trench 1 yielded only
one fragment of a handle (cat. no. 7, Fig. 19,7); trench 2 was
richer in finds: 31 ceramic fragments were found there,
mostly in the dump layers of the ditch (Fig. 13, layers 6–9).
Formally the fragments can be attributed to the following
vessel parts: five rim sherds (cat. nos. 1–5, Fig. 19,1–5), two
handle fragments, one being a body sherd with part of the
handle (cat. nos. 6, 7, Fig. 19,6–7), 108 body sherds of unglazed earthenware (cat. nos. 8–53, Figs. 16–18) and three
glazed or engobed body sherds (cat. nos. 54, 55). The latter
are stray finds and of later date, presumably of the period
of the Mongol empire. Because of the highly fragmented
nature of the sherds it was not possible to refit any sherds
to reconstruct vessels. The interpretation of the ceramics
is further restricted by the fact that 48.7 % of all sherds
were inaccessible and could not be comprehensively documented¹⁰. Thus in these cases we are unable to undertake detailed analyses concerning, for example, the fabric
of the pottery. Closer examination of the fabric shows that
there are no significant differences between decorated and
undecorated body fragments; all earthenware sherds are
fairly uniform in their composition. They can be broadly
10 The sherds were photographed and described anew according to
uniform criteria in 2012 in the store of the Institute of Archaeology,
MAS. Part of the material was no longer accessible. In this case reference was made to notes and photographs made during the expedition. Ceramics still available for analysis was documented along the
criteria as proposed by Kunow et al. 1986.
Fig. 15: Quantification of single basic motifs (Excel diagram)
(graphics: Susanne Reichert).
divided into three groups according to their surface colour:
grey wares constitute the bulk of the sherds, followed by
red wares, whereas the percentage of the third group, yellowish/brown coloured ware, is negligible (Fig. 14). At
this stage the meagre database does not allow a more detailed classification, which should take other criteria into
account such as the type and amount of temper.
About one-third of the body sherds bears characteristic decoration (36.1 %; n 39), through which these fragments could be conventionally dated to Old Turkic and
Uyghur times. Decorative motifs range from simple horizontal lines, to grooves, to various stamped patterns like
small lozenges in a dense pattern, concentric lozenges,
arcs and clusters of rectangular lines (Fig. 15). Some of
these individual motifs are combined, for example, horizontal lines and lozenge stamps (cat. no. 34, Fig. 17,34)
or horizontal lines and slanted short grooves (cat. no. 45,
Fig. 18,45). Aside from horizontal lines, concentric rhombic
stamps are the most frequent motif (Fig. 15)¹¹. Apart from
11 Decorations were split into single components for the analysis;
therefore, the total number of motifs does not equal the amount of
decorated sherds.
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350 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 16: Decorated sherds. The numbers refer to the catalogue in the appendix. Scale: 1:1
(photographs: Susanne Reichert; graphics: Gisela Höhn)
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun Fig. 17: Decorated sherds. The numbers refer to the catalogue in the appendix. Scale: 1:1
(photographs: Susanne Reichert; graphics: Gisela Höhn)
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351
352 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 18: Decorated sherds. The numbers refer to the catalogue in the appendix. Scale: 1:1
(photographs: Susanne Reichert; graphics: Gisela Höhn)
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun Fig. 19: Ceramics: 1–5 rim sherds; 6–7 handles. The numbers refer to the catalogue in the appendix. Scale: 1:1
(photographs: Susanne Reichert; graphics: Gisela Höhn)
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353
354 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 20: Miscellaneous finds: 56–58 iron artefacts; 59–60 bone artefacts; 81 roof tile fragment. The numbers refer to the catalogue in the
appendix. Scale: 1:2 for 56–58 and 60; scale 1:1 for 59 and 81 (photographs: Susanne Reichert; graphics: Gisela Höhn)
the ‘small lozenge or angular stamp pattern’ motif, every
basic motif was found at least once in trench 2. The extent
to which this has any bearing on the chronological setting
of this type of decoration is questionable, as the main part
of these finds derives from the ditch of trench 2, which
was probably filled over a considerable span of time. Furthermore, there is probably no direct connection between
the occurrence of the different motifs and the three preliminary types of ware. At least red and grey wares are
combined with every kind of decoration, whereas angular
stamped patterns and concentric rhombic stamps do not
occur together with yellowish-brown ceramics. This might
be due to the scarcity of this ware.
In order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of
the Old Turkic and Uyghur ceramics systematic settlement excavations with stratified ceramic assemblages are
sorely needed. (S. R.)
Organic-geochemical
interpretations of soils from MOR-13
Soils are an archive that provides ecosystem information,
for example about the history of the vegetation and land
use. A huge proportion of this information is stored in the
organic residues of organisms living on and in the soil. Soil
organic matter (SOM) consists in part of macromolecular
vegetation and biomass debris. However, a high proportion of this is degraded in time-scales of days to weeks
(fast carbon cycling). Nonetheless, some hydrophobic
organic compounds (lipids) remain in the soil for longer
periods; they are part of the slow-cycling organic carbon
pool. Physical processes protect organic matter in microand nano-pores of soils (Kaiser/Guggenberger 2003), and
inorganic components such as iron oxides, for example,
act as a keeper of soil organic matter via chemical bonding
(for a review see Six et al. 2004). Hence, in soil a stabilisation of SOM was observed within the millennium scale
(see for example Mikutta et al. 2009).
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 355
Fig. 21: Main factors influencing steroid patterns in
soil: i) diet, i.e. zoo- or phytosterols feed omnivore
and herbivore animals, ii) the digestion process
respectively produces C27- or C29-5ß-stanols.
Hydrogenation of the carbon = carbon Δ5 double
bond in sterols (as highlighted in cholesterol)
produces 5ß-orientated carbon-hydrogen bindings
in respective stanols. The side chains (positioned
at the 12th carbon atom) of phyto- and zoosterols
keep their specific structure (i.e. number of carbon
atoms) and allow their application as mammal
biomarkers (graphics: Eva Lehndorff, INRES Bonn
University)
Tab. 1: Names and synonyms for common steroids and their potential origin (Eva Lehndorff, INRES Bonn University)
Trivial name
Name
Prevalent source
Cholesterol
Campesterol
Stigmasterol
ß-sitosterol
Coprostanol
Epicoprostanol
Cholestanol
Ethylcoprostanol
(5ß-Stigmastanol)
Stigmastanol
cholest-5-en-3ß-ol
24ß-methylcholest-5-en-3ß-ol
24ß-ethylcholest-5,22-dien-3ß-ol
24ß-ethylcholest-5-en-3ß-ol
5ß-cholestan-3ß-ol
5ß-cholestan-3a-ol
5a-cholestan-3ß-ol
24ß-ethyl-5ß-cholestan-3ß-ol
Zoosterol, cell walls of higher organised organisms (“meat”)
Phytosterol, cell walls of plants
Phytosterol
Phytosterol
Omnivore digestion
Omnivore digestion
Digestion product of soil microbes
Herbivore digestion
24ß-ethyl-5a-cholestan-3ß-ol
Digestion product of soil microbes
Some of these slow-cycling compounds, the lipids,
are indicators for their precursor material and can thus be
used as biomarkers for a certain type of vegetation, microorganism or mammal. For example, plant waxes (consisting of a homologue series of n-alkanes) have shown specific n-alkane patterns according to the prevailing type of
vegetation cover, e. g. grass and herbs (predominance of
n-C31-alkane) or deciduous forest (n-C29-alkanes; Schwark
et al. 2002). Accordingly, there are studies that employ
n-alkanes as vegetation markers in loess and lake sediments (Schwark et al. 2002; Liu/Huang 2005). More recently the ratio of long- to short-chained n-alkanes was
used as a marker for anthropogenic activity in archaeological soil samples (Eckmeier/Wiesenberg 2009).
Steroids, built of a cyclic ‘sterane carbon body’ and a
source-specific carbon side chain, may serve as mammal
biomarkers, so-called faecal markers (Grimalt et al. 1990;
Fig. 21). Sterols are produced by animals (27 carbon atoms
= zoosterols, for example cholesterol), fungi (28 carbon
atoms, for example ergosterol) or by plants (29 carbon
atoms = phytosterols, for example stigmasterol; Tab. 1).
During digestion the carbon-carbon double bond at the
second sterane ring is transferred via hydrogenation to
energy and a carbon-hydrogen bond at the 5th carbon atom
(Gaskell/Eglinton 1975; Fig. 21). According to the digestive
process this ends up in either 5α-stanols in bacterial residues (C-H bond opposing orientation of the functional
group (-OH)) or 5ß-stanols in mammal faeces (C-H bond
parallel to orientation of the -OH group; preferentially
produced by animals; Fig. 21).
Further discrimination between herbivore and omnivore faeces in the environment can be achieved by
comparing the abundance of C27- to C29-5ß-stanols (for
example, coprostanol versus ethylcoprostanol; Fig. 21;
Tab. 1), as shown for slurries, agricultural soils and water
samples (Grimalt et al. 1990; Bull et al. 2000; Derrien et al.
2011). Accordingly, Bull and colleagues (Bull et al. 1999;
2001) managed to distinguish soil- (microbe-) derived
steroids from gut-derived steroids and could show that
coprostanol is a feasible marker for the input of human
faeces in archaeological soil samples. Also other studies
successfully employed steroid pattern analysis in archae-
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356 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 22: Chromatogram of a lipid extract showing the steroid
elution series in sample MOR-13, site 1 (outside the archaeological
structure). Abundance of coprostanol and ethylcoprostanol indicates
contributions of omnivore and herbivore faeces to the soil lipids,
respectively (green = n-alkanes, purple = n-alkanols;
orange = steroids) (graphics: Eva Lehndorff, INRES Bonn University)
ological soil samples (Birk et al. 2011; Shillito et al. 2011;
Lombardo et al. 2013).
In the Orkhon Valley slight morphological rises in the
landscape occur, which are most likely to represent the
remains of Uyghur settlement. A low vegetation cover,
low population density and long severe winters make a
uniform preservation and accumulation of soil lipids in
this area quite possible. Hence, we hypothesise that soil
lipids have archived the integrated land use history at
least since the time of Uyghur settlement. Here we employ
elemental C and N analysis as well as n-alkane and steroid
analyses of topsoil material to elucidate land use in a potential Uyghur settlement-pasture complex at MOR-13.
Materials and methods
Samples
The sampling design was adjusted to the morphological
structures found at the MOR-13 site (Fig. 11). At five locations four replicate samples of the top 0–10 cm of the soil
were taken (20 samples in total Fig. 10). Sites 1 and 3 were
located outside an oval structure that had a diameter of c.
700 m. Sites 2 and 4 were located within the oval structure
(potentially pasture land), and site 5 comprised four replicates of soil within a square structure (potential settlement,
c. 200 m²). Samples were air-dried, sieved to >2 mm, freed
from roots, ground and stored deep-frozen before analysis.
Soil carbon and lipid analysis
The total carbon concentration was analysed by an elemental analyser (Fisons Instruments). The soil organic
carbon content (SOC) was calculated by subtraction of volumetrically-determined inorganic carbon contents (treatment with 15 % hydrochloric acid). Lipid extraction was
done by accelerated solvent extraction (ASE310, DIONEX,
Idstein, Germany) with dichloromethane:methanol (9:1,
v/v). Steroids were derivatized with N,O-Bis (trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA), employing pyridine as a
catalyst (at 70° C for 3 hours). The n-alkane and steroid
patterns were then analysed by gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (Agilent 5971 GC-MSD; HP5-MS column,
30 m in length, 0.25 mm inner diameter, 0.25 μm film;
temperature program from 70° C to 320° C with 7° C per
minute). Alkanes and steroids were identified by typical
mass spectra (lipidlibrary.aocs.org), elution series (Fig.
22) and comparison to data in the literature (Shillito et al.
2011; Lombardo et al. 2013). Lipid contents were expressed
in percent of the sum of the respective lipid class (data
sheet in the appendix, Tab. 2).
Results and discussion
According to the evidence from aerial photography we hypothesised that samples could be grouped according to the
concentration and quality of their organic matter into i) offsite samples (sites 1 and 3), ii) potentially former pasture
land (sites 2 and 4), and iii) a settlement area (site 5).
Soil organic carbon (SOC)
The SOC concentrations in topsoil were assumed to be
higher if soil received above natural organic matter input
by, for example in-situ manuring by cattle in the MOR-13
oval structure or domestic waste application in the settlement area (Haynes/Naidu 1998). However, SOC concentrations did not follow this systematically. The SOC varied
between 1.3 and 6.7 % of dry soil weight (Tab. 2). At sites
3 and 4 the SOC concentration in topsoil was highest;
however, these sites are likely to have had a different land
use (pasture versus natural land). This suggested that
either the SOC contents were not specific for land use, or
that land use inside the oval structure was not all that different from that outside.
Soil lipids
Organic manuring and intensive agricultural land use
were shown to positively affect lipid contents in soil, even
when some centuries of natural land use had elapsed
(Simpson et al. 1999). In a Roman villa complex in south-
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replicate
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
subsite
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
off-site
off-site
off-site
off-site
pasture
pasture
pasture
pasture
off-site
off-site
off-site
off-site
pasture
pasture
pasture
pasture
settlement
settlement
settlement
settlement
comment
2,2
2,7
1,3
2,1
1,8
2,4
4,5
2,1
1,2
2,3
5,8
5,9
2,4
4,9
6,7
4,1
3,1
3,1
1,9
TOC %
0,3
0,4
0,2
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,3
0,1
0,1
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,4
0,5
0,3
0,8
0,9
1,0
0,7
3,4
0,5
0,6
1,3
3,4
0,7
2,1
1,0
2,9
0,6
2,6
2,3
4,6
0,5
0,8
1,7
0,6
short-/long coprochained
stanol
n-alkanes
2,2
1,7
5,9
0,0
4,1
1,4
0,0
3,7
1,0
2,0
0,0
2,4
1,3
2,0
1,8
3,3
2,3
9,8
4,4
12,0
epicoprostanol
74,1
38,2
62,2
73,7
69,3
80,6
56,0
58,0
35,5
52,9
37,0
39,8
72,7
40,3
26,7
38,4
70,0
64,0
50,4
66,1
cholesterol
0,9
3,3
4,0
2,6
0,8
2,9
6,6
3,6
1,4
3,6
3,5
5,3
1,9
9,4
6,0
4,6
2,8
2,0
5,7
2,1
 0,0
14,4
 2,8
 3,1
 1,4
 1,3
 4,2
 2,6
 2,5
 2,7
 4,0
 2,4
 1,8
 4,7
 4,2
 3,5
 0,8
 0,9
 0,0
 0,5
0,0
0,8
1,5
0,9
0,0
0,0
4,3
1,3
5,7
3,6
5,8
6,6
1,5
4,4
8,5
2,4
2,1
1,2
0,0
1,0
6,1
6,5
7,5
4,1
5,5
3,7
9,1
7,4
4,5
4,1
6,9
10,3
7,9
12,2
15,2
14,2
5,5
8,7
11,0
11,4
0,0
25,2
7,9
7,2
4,9
3,0
8,0
11,6
43,8
22,5
31,5
21,0
4,0
11,7
24,6
21,5
9,2
7,9
12,0
3,3
12,4
7,5
6,4
4,2
6,0
5,5
8,5
6,8
4,0
5,6
7,6
7,6
7,1
10,8
8,8
6,3
5,5
3,5
12,3
2,3
cholestanol ethylcopro- campesterol stigmasterol ß-sitosterol stigmastanol
stanol
Tab. 2: Soil organic carbon and lipid proportions in samples from the MOR-13 site. Total, organic, and inorganic carbon (TC, TOC, TIC) are given in % of sample dry weight. The ratio of short- to
long-chained alkanes is calculated by: (Σn-C15–n-C22)/(Σn-C23–n-C33). Sterol contents are given in percent of the sum of all sterols (Eva Lehndorff, INRES Bonn University)
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357
358 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 23: Box-plots: a) the highest concentration and variation in soil organic carbon was observed at the adjacent sites 3 and 4 (approximate
distance: 100 m); b) the proportion of the short-chained n-alkane is highest at site 5; c) ethylcoprostanol as a herbivore marker is almost
entirely absent from the settlement area; d) epicoprostanol as an omnivore marker dominates the sum of total steroids in the settlement
area (graphics: Eva Lehndorff, INRES Bonn University)
ern England pronounced decrease in n-alkane and steroid
contents from the villa to the surroundings were found
(Simpson et al. 1999). For the n-alkanes the proportion
of long-chained, odd-numbered homologues (n-C29, n-C31,
n-C33) was elevated in the surroundings of the villa, that
is, on managed soil. However, at MOR-13 the opposite was
observed: in the settlement area even-numbered, shortchain n-alkanes had the highest percentage in the sum of
n-alkanes (Fig. 23b). This indicates that land use did not
include intensive soil management in the oval area; in
other words, no intensive crop production and manuring
were practised at MOR-13.
Anthropogenic modification of organic matter, probably by fire, was shown to increase the proportions of
the even- and short-chain n-alkanes (n-C16 and n-C18; Eckmeier/Wiesenberg 2009). Hence, here the elevated con-
tribution of these n-alkanes at site 5 gave a first indication of anthropogenic land use in the square settlement
structure.
The steroidal component of soil organic matter is also
dependent on arable land use. In the study of Simpson et
al. (1999) plant- and digestion-derived steroid contents
decreased significantly with distance to the farm site.
At MOR-13, the steroid patterns of sites 1–4 (off-site and
potential pasture land) were dominated by phytosterols
(for example, campesterol, Tab. 2) and a 5ß-stanol of herbivore origin (ethylcoprostanol, Fig. 23c). Site 5 (settlement structure) showed a notable enrichment of epicoprostanol (omnivore faeces), while being depleted in
ethylcoprostanol (Fig. 23c and d). Traces of coprostanol
(the main marker for human faeces input into the soil)
are likely to be abundant in all samples (Tab. 2); however,
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 359
Oval and round enclosures
in the Orkhon Valley –
perspectives
overview (Fig. 24)¹². As a rule, the large oval enclosures
joined to an adjacent and distinctly smaller quadrangular
complex. The latter shows evidence of several platforms
and yields surface finds. On the ground we discovered
that the MOR-15 and MOR-16 complexes similarly connected with an oval enclosure, whose spectrum of ceramic
forms resembles that of MOR-13. A date in the same period
for these complexes seems likely¹³. Until now no closemeshed survey of the surroundings of Karabalgasun had
been undertaken, and hence we cannot make any statements based on surface finds concerning the use of the
areas between the walled enclosures.
If we apply our findings – i.e. that the oval enclosure
MOR-13 was used as a large fenced garden area and that
the small square walled sites represent human settlement
sites – to other complexes, then we can identify possible
areas that served to produce plant foods and supply foodstuffs to the urban population of Karabalgasun. And so
the image of a core city emerges with agricultural farms
scattered around, a context that matches well the description of Tamīn Ibn Bahr: “… this is a great town, rich in
agriculture and surrounded by rustāqs full of cultivation
and villages lying close together” (Minorsky 1948, 283)¹⁴.
The statement of Jagchid and Hyer (1979, 311) is also worth
noting: “The vegetarian doctrine of the religion [Manichaeism] caused the Uighur to try to develop gardening
in the vicinity of their capital in Mongolia; but from the
records available it is unclear as to what happened with
the experiment”. This theory of garden use should be verified at other sites in the future.
A second hypothesis concerns the extent of the Uyghur
capital.
Since the surface material collected suggests that the
enclosed sites north-west of Karabalgasun are contemporary with the town, and given that the best and sometimes
only parallels for the shape and size of these enclosures
are found in the area of the town of Karabalgasun itself,
we propose that the Uyghur capital encompassed a far
larger area than that proposed in older studies (Radloff
1892, pl. 27) and in recent works (Hüttel/Erdenebat 2009,
18; 35 fig. 32).
Thanks to large-scale aerial surveys and the generation of
ortho-images over an area of 714 km2, it was possible to
compare the complex known as MOR-13 with other complexes identified in aerial photographs. While evaluating
Russian aerial photographs taken in 1972 we noticed that
comparable structures can be identified only in Karabalgasun and in the area north-west of the city. This finding
was confirmed, and the close interconnection with the
surroundings of the city is visible in the cartographic
12 Prior to this only a small part of the mapped complex had been
inspected on the ground. The mapping is based on images taken during aerial surveys in 2011.
13 When other walled enclosures in the area between the Spring
Palace of Ögödei qaghan and Karabalgasun yielded pottery sherds
(MOR-14, 17, 79, 80), a spectrum similar to that of MOR-13 was recovered.
14 Some authors, for example Waugh 2010, 103 doubt that this description refers to Karabalgasun.
they did not exceed the limits of reliable detection and analytically coincided with the n-C27-alcohol (Fig. 21). From
the preferential abundance of epicoprostanol we assume
that domesticated, omnivore animals, for example, dogs,
pigs or humans used the square structure in Uyghur times.
The uniformly elevated abundance of herbivore faeces (indicated by ethylcoprostanol) in off-site locations (sites 1
and 3) and within the oval area (sites 2 and 4) indicates
that this is rather a natural signal and that the oval area
was not used to fence in a herd of domesticated animals.
Conclusions
The lipid patterns in the topsoil of a potential settlement area from the Turko-Mongol era differed notably
from those in the surrounding soil. A predominance of
even- and short-chained n-alkanes and epicoprostanol
indicated an input of anthropogenically-modified organic
matter, likely to have been altered by fire, and omnivore faeces; this then confirms human settlement in a
location that has not been under land use since Uyghur
times. The uniform abundance of herbivore markers
(especially ethylcoprostanol) in a potential grazing and
non-grazing area negates the ‘grazing hypothesis’ and
suggests instead that the settlement was surrounded by
an oval, fenced garden area. The results from this study
reveal the high potential of the sampling design when
examining topsoil as an archive for land use history.
Thus, in a next step the analytical approach should be
extended, for example to bile acid and fire residue (black
carbon) analysis, to achieve a more detailed differentiation of the sources of the faecal remains and land use
(Lauer et al. 2014). (E. L.)
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360 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
Fig. 24: Karabalgasun and its surroundings. All the sites with walled enclosures which were identified in the field
or on aerial images are mapped (graphics: Susanne Reichert)
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun The entire usable space to the north-west of the city,
whose extent was contingent upon and constrained by
the natural environment, should be ascribed to the city
and its peripheral districts¹⁵. This would greatly add to the
discussion of the topography and division of the Uyghur
capital into quarters. (J. B.)
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Appendix
Compilation of sherds and artefacts from MOR-13
Finds nos. 1, 8–22, 47, 56, 57, 61, 76, 80, 82, 83, 86 are inaccessible. Location of finds: nos. 1, 2, 6, 8–33, 47–49, 54–57,
61, 62, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86 = stray finds. Stray find no. 82 was
found c. 300 m north of the walled enclosure. Nos. 3–5,
7, 34–46, 50–53, 58–60, 63–79, 85 were from different sections/excavations of test trenches in autumn 2010.
1. Rim sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric: tempered with fine
sand, ochre-grey, slightly porous; surface: well smoothed
with slip, horizontal traces of smoothing; firing: medium;
rim diameter 17 cm. Inv.no. MOR-13/F2008/1–1 (Fig. 19,1).
2. Rim sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; rectangular rim, flanged outwards; traces of working: inside
and outside fine horizontal lines from smoothing; surface:
inside and outside smoothed with slip, finely grained,
colour outside and inside reddish brown (2.5YR 5/3), black
at the rim – perhaps due to secondary burning; fabric: red
(2.5YR 5/6), structure splintery, tempered with stone grit,
grain – coarse 2, evenly distributed, medium amounts;
hardness 5; fired under oxidizing conditions; extant height
2.4 cm, rim diameter 14 cm, opening diameter 13 cm. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 19,2).
3. Rim sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; rim
slanting outwards, edge of rim and inner surface flaked
off; traces of production: outside fine horizontal lines
from smoothing; surface: outside coarsely grained,
temper visible on the surface, smoothed with slip but
mostly weathered, colour grey (10YR 6/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (10YR 5/1), tempered with stone
grit and sand, medium grained, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing conditions;
extant height 2.3 cm, rim diameter c. 24 cm, extant thickness 1.1 cm. Trench 2, section 8–10 m, removal 2, collected
finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/30 (Fig. 19,3).
4. Rim sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware;
rounded rim, horizontally flanged outwards; decoration:
on upper side of rim single rilling; traces of production:
inside and outside fine horizontal lines from smoothing;
surface: outside and inside smoothed with slip, partly
weathered, structure: smooth to chalky, colour outside
and inside very dark grey (10YR 3/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey to very dark grey (10YR 6–3/1), tempered
with quartz, medium grained, evenly distributed, medium
amounts; hardness 2; fired under reducing conditions;
extant height 1.9 cm, rim diameter 18 cm, opening diameter 12 cm, thickness 1 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/24.
Trench 2, section 8–10 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected
finds (Fig. 19,4).
5. Rim sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware;
rounded rim, slightly slanting outwards; decoration:
inside 1 cm below the rim two narrow rillings; surface:
outside flaked off, inside coarsely grained, temper visible
on the surface, colour light grey (2.5Y 7/2); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (2.5Y 6/1), tempered with stone
grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, large amounts;
hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions; extant height
2.8 cm, rim diameter 22 cm, opening diameter 21 cm, width
4.4 cm, extant thickness 1 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/8.
Trench 2, section 10–12 m, removal 2 (Fig. 19,5).
6. Body sherd with remains of attached handle, unglazed ceramic, earthenware, hand-made, freely formed;
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364 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
surface: structure finely grained to chalky, outside colour
dark grey (10YR 4/1), coated with white substance inside
and partly over broken edges; fabric: colour brown (10YR
5/3), tempered with stone grit and sand, partly visible on
the surface, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 2; fired under reducing conditions;
extant height 5.4 cm, diameter of knob attachment 3.1 cm.
Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 19,6).
7. Handle fragment, unglazed ceramic, earthenware;
arched, semi-circular in section; traces of production:
on the inner side coarsely dispersed slip; surface: finely
grained on the outer side, inner side rather smooth, colour
outside light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), inside grey (2.5Y
6/1); fabric: colour light grey (2.5Y 7/2), structure splintery
and coarsely porous, tempered with stone grit, grain –
coarse 2, unevenly distributed particles in small amounts;
hardness 5; fired under reducing conditions; extant
height 5.3 cm, width 2.5–2.7 cm, thickness 1.5–1.6 cm.
Trench 1, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/1
(Fig. 19,7).
8. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
no temper discernible, medium grey; surface: inside
smoothed with slip, horizontal traces of smoothing,
outside very well smoothed with slip; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–2 (Fig. 16,8).
9. Decorated body sherd; unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, greybrown; surface: inside very poorly smoothed with slip
(uneven), outside very well smoothed with slip; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–3 (Fig. 16,9).
10. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of medium-coarse stone
grit, inside grey-brown, outside medium grey; surface:
inside moderately well smoothed without slip, outside
well smoothed with slip; decoration: concentric lozenge
stamps; firing: poor to medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–4
(Fig. 17,10).
11. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
temper not discernible, red-brown; surface: outside well
smoothed with slip, outside flaked off; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–5 (Fig. 16,11).
12. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, greybrown (dark), slightly porous; surface: inside well
smoothed with slip, vertical traces of smoothing, outside
moderately well smoothed with slip; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–6 (Fig. 16,12).
13. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with very small amounts of fine stone grit,
medium grey; surface: inside and outside well smoothed
with slip; decoration: arched stamps; firing: medium. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2008/1–7 (Fig. 17,13).
14. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, medium
grey, slightly porous; surface: inside and outside well
smoothed with slip; decoration: small lozenge pattern,
horizontal scratched lines; firing: medium. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2008/1–8 (Fig. 16,14).
15. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, red-brown,
slightly porous; surface: inside well smoothed, outside
well smoothed with slip; decoration: concentric lozenge
stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–9 (Fig.
16,15).
16. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, inside redbrown, outside grey-brown; surface: inside and outside
well smoothed with slip; decoration: angular stamped
pattern; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–10 (Fig.
16,16).
17. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of medium stone grit,
ochre-red; surface: well smoothed with slip; decoration:
small lozenge stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–11 (Fig. 17,17).
18. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
no temper, medium grey; surface: inside flaked off, outside
well smoothed; decoration: stamped slanting lines; firing:
medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–12 (Fig. 17,18).
19. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, medium
grey; surface: inside moderately well smoothed, outside
well smoothed with slip, decoration: small lozenge
stamps; firing: medium to moderately good. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2008/1–13 (Fig. 17,19).
20. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, core greyred, inside and outside ochre-grey; surface: well smoothed
with slip; decoration: small lozenge stamps or angular indentations. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–14 (Fig. 17,20).
21. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with small amounts of fine stone grit, brick-red;
surface: inside flaked off, outside very well smoothed
with slip; decoration: horizontal scratched line; firing:
medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1–15 (Fig. 18,21).
22. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic; fabric:
tempered with medium amounts of fine and medium
coarse stone grit, light ochre-grey; surface: inside and
Authenticated | [email protected] author's copy
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun outside very well smoothed (almost burnished); decoration: arched stamps; firing: medium. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/1–16 (Fig. 17,22).
23. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware, hand-made; decoration: outside slanting scratched
line (width 0.2 cm); traces of working: outside fine horizontal lines from smoothing; surface: outside smoothed
with slip, structure inside and outside finely grained
to chalky, temper visible on the outside, colour outside
light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), inside dark grey (10YR
4/1); fabric: structure splintery and porous, colour brown
(10YR 5/3), tempered with quartz, medium grained with
some very coarse particles, evenly distributed, medium
amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing conditions;
extant height 4.5 cm, width 3.6 cm, thickness 1 cm. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 18,23).
24. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware, hand-made; decoration: outside horizontal
scratched line (width 0.15 cm); traces of production: inside
and outside fine horizontal lines of smoothing, inside
horizontally applied cordon; surface: structure smooth to
finely grained, colour outside varying from light grey to
reddish yellow (5YR 7/1–6/8), inside reddish yellow (5YR
6/6); fabric: structure splintery, coarsely porous, colour
edges up to 0.3 cm like outer colours, middle part grey
(5YR 5/1), tempered with stone grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly
distributed, large amounts; hardness 3; fired partly under
oxidizing conditions; extant height 3.2 cm, width 3.7 cm,
thickness 0.6–1.1 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig.
18,24).
25. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware, hand-made; decoration: horizontal scratched line
(width 0.1 cm); traces of production: inside and outside
fine horizontal lines of smoothing; surface: outside and
inside smoothed with slip, structure smooth, partly
coated with white substance, colour outside reddish grey
(5YR 5/2), inside reddish brown (5YR 5/3); fabric: structure
splintery, colour reddish grey 0.2 cm from the outside, rest
dark grey (5YR 4/1), tempered with quartz, grain – coarse 1,
evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 4; fired under
reducing conditions; extant height 4 cm, width 2.6 cm,
thickness 0.8–1.2 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig.
18,25).
26. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware, hand-made; decoration: outside curved impressed line (width 0.4 cm); surface: temper visible on the
surface, structure smooth to finely grained, colour outside
reddish yellow (5YR 6/6), inside light brown (7.5YR 6/4);
fabric: structure splintery, colour changing from light
brown (7.5YR 6/4) via brown (7.5YR 5/2) to very dark grey
(7.5YR 3/1), tempered with quartz, grain – coarse 1, evenly
365
distributed, very large amounts; hardness 2; fired partly
under oxidizing conditions; extant height 3.1 cm, width
3.8 cm, thickness 1.2 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2
(Fig. 18,26).
27. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside concentric lozenge stamps;
surface: temper visible on the surface, outside partly
flaked off, colour outside dark grey (5YR 4/1), inside light
reddish brown (5YR 6/4); fabric: structure slightly splintery, colour light reddish brown (5YR 6/4), tempered with
stone grit and grog, grain – coarse 2, evenly distributed,
large amounts; hardness 4; fired under oxidizing conditions?; extant height 4.2 cm, width 3.9 cm, thickness 1 cm.
Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 16,27).
28. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside arched stamps (individual
arches 0.25 cm apart); surface: structure smooth, partly
coated with a white substance, colour outside light grey
(10YR 7/2), inside grey (10YR 6/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour like surface, tempered with stone grit, medium
grained, evenly distributed, medium amounts; hardness
5; fired under reducing conditions; extant height 2.5 cm,
width 3.5 cm, thickness 0.7–0.8 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 16,28).
29. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside lozenge and angular indentations in no apparent pattern; surface: strongly weathered, outside smoothed with slip, inside structure finely
grained, temper visible on the inner surface, colour
outside very pale brown (10YR 7/4), inside grey to reddish
yellow (5YR 6/1–6); fabric: structure splintery, colour red
(2.5YR 5/8) with dark grey lumps (GLEY1 4/N), tempered
with stone grit, medium grained, evenly distributed,
large amounts; hardness 3; fired partly under oxidizing
conditions; extant height 2.7 cm, width 4.7 cm, thickness
0.7–0.9 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 17,29).
30. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside concentric lozenge stamps;
surface: outside smoothed with slip, inside flaked off,
colour outside brown (10YR 5/3); fabric: structure slightly
splintery, colour reddish brown (5YR 5/4), tempered with
stone grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 3; fired under oxidizing conditions?;
extant height 2.6 cm, width 3.2 cm, extant thickness
0.7 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2 (Fig. 16,30).
31. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: pattern of concentric lozenge stamps
above break (individual height c. 1.7 cm, max. width c.
1 cm); surface: structure smooth to chalky, outside colour
grey (10YR 6/1), inside coated with a white substance,
original colour invisible; fabric: structure splintery, colour
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366 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
light grey to grey (10YR 7–6/1), tempered with stone grit,
grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, medium amounts;
hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions; extant height
4.8 cm, width 3.5 cm, thickness 1–1.2 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2009Fall/1 (Fig. 16,31).
32. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside vertical grooves (width up
to 0.5 cm); surface: structure smooth, outside colour light
grey (2.5Y 7/2), inside nearly completely covered with
white substance, colour reddish brown (5YR 5/3); fabric:
structure splintery, colour pinkish grey (5YR 6/2), tempered with stone grit and grog, grain – coarse 1, evenly
distributed, medium amounts; hardness 3; fired under
reducing conditions; extant height 2.7 cm, width 4.1 cm,
thickness 1 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Fall/1 (Fig. 18,32).
33. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside two crossing slightly curved
grooves (width 0.2–0.3 cm); traces of production: fine lines
from smoothing; surface: outside and inside smoothed
with slip, temper visible on the surface, colour outside
grey (5YR 5/1), inside grey (5YR 6/1); fabric: structure
splintery, colour edges like outer sides, core light reddish
brown (5YR 6/4), tempered with quartz and stone grit,
grain – coarse 2, evenly distributed, medium amounts;
hardness 4; fired under oxidizing conditions?; orientation
unclear, 2.1 × 1.8 cm, thickness 0.9 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Spring/3 (Fig. 18,33).
34. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside three horizontal scratched
lines, two only 0.5 cm apart, third 1.8 cm apart, on the
two lines concentric lozenge stamps; traces of production: outside fine lines from smoothing with slip; surface:
outside smoothed with slip, colour outside dark grey (7.5YR
4/1), outside temper visible on the surface, colour grey
(7.5YR 5/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (7.5YR
4/1), tempered with stone grit (white – 10YR 9.5/1), grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, very large amounts; hardness
2; fired under oxidizing conditions?; extant height 4.8 cm,
width 3.7 cm, thickness 1 cm. Trench 2, section 0–2 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/12 (Fig. 17,34).
35. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside one horizontal scratched line
(width 0.2 cm); surface: temper visible on the surface,
outside moderately well smoothed without slip, colour
grey (7.5YR 5/1), inside smoothed with slip, colour grey
(7.5YR 6/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (7.5YR
5/1), tempered with stone grit (white – 10YR 9.5/1); grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, very large amounts; hardness
2; fired under oxidizing conditions?; extant height 3.6 cm,
width 4.8 cm, thickness 0.8-1 cm. Trench 2, section 0–2 m,
collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/12 (Fig. 18:35).
36. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: horizontal grooves (width 0.2 cm);
surface: structure smooth, outside colour dark grey (5YR
4/1), inside and all edges coated with white substance,
colour and fabric, therefore not determined; hardness
3; extant height 4.1 cm, width 2.4 cm, thickness 0.8 cm.
Trench 2, section 4–6 m, removal 1. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/6 (Fig. 18,36).
37. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps and
arched stamps, bordered by horizontal incised line (width
0.15 cm), no stamp completely extant; surface: structure
smooth, colour outside and inside reddish brown (5YR
5/4); fabric: structure splintery, colour yellowish red (5YR
5/8), tempered with sand, fine grained, evenly distributed, medium amounts; hardness 3; fired under oxidizing
conditions?; extant height 3 cm, width 2.7 cm, thickness
0.8 cm. Trench 2, section 6–8 m, layers 7–9, collected
finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/22 (Fig. 17,37).
38. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside concentric lozenge stamps,
strongly weathered; surface: structure chalky, outside
strongly weathered, colour outside and inside light red
(2.5YR 6/8); fabric: structure splintery, colour red (2.5YR
5/8), tempered with quartz and sand, medium grained,
evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 3; fired under
oxidizing conditions; extant height 2.4 cm, width 3.2 cm,
thickness 0.8–0.9 cm. Trench 2, section 6–8 m, layers 7–9,
collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/22 (Fig. 16,38).
39. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: crossing horizontal and slightly
slanting grooves (width up to 0.5 cm, depth 0.2 cm), edges
of displaced fabric; traces of production: outside fine horizontal lines from smoothing; surface: outside smoothed
with slip, structure chalky, colour outside grey (2.5Y 5/1),
inside dark grey (2.5Y 4/1); fabric: structure splintery,
colour grey (2.5Y 6/1), tempered with stone grit, grain –
coarse 2, evenly distributed, medium amounts; hardness
3; fired under reducing conditions; extant height 6.7 cm,
width 7.3 cm, thickness 0.8–1.3 cm. Trench 2, section
6–8 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2010Fall/28 (Fig. 18,39).
40. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside lozenge stamps, barely
visible because of weathering; surface: outside and
inside smoothed with slip, structure smooth to chalky,
colour outside dark grey (2.5Y 4/1), inside light brownish
grey (2.5Y 6/2); fabric: structure splintery, colour reddish
yellow, tempered with stone grit, medium grained, evenly
distributed, medium amounts; hardness 2; fired under
oxidizing conditions?; extant height 2.2 cm, width 3.6 cm,
Authenticated | [email protected] author's copy
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun thickness 1.2 cm. Trench 2, section 6–8 m, layers 7–9,
removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/28
(Fig. 16,40).
41. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside incised concentric arches,
at least two rows but no single motif completely extant;
surface: smooth to chalky, outside smoothed with slip but
weathered, colour outside light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2),
inside light grey (2.5Y 7/2); fabric: structure slightly splintery, colour light grey (2.5Y 7/2), tempered with stone grit,
grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, medium amounts;
hardness 2; fired under reducing conditions; extant height
3.5 cm, width 3.1 cm, thickness 0.9–1 cm. Trench 2, section
6–8 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2010Fall/33 (Fig. 17,41).
42. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware. Decoration: horizontal scratched line (width
1.5 mm, depth 0.5 mm); traces of production: fine horizontal lines caused by smoothing of surface; surface:
structure smooth to finely grained, smoothed with slip
inside and outside, colour outside very dark grey (GLEY1
3/N), inside very dark grey (7.5YR 3/1); fabric: colour dark
grey (7.5YR 4/1) to brown (7.5YR 5/2), structure splintery,
tempered with quartz, evenly distributed, grain – coarse
1, large amounts; hardness 2; fired under reducing conditions; 2.3 cm × 2.5 cm, thickness 0.8–1 cm. Trench 2,
section 8–10 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/25 (Fig. 18,42).
43. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside angular stamped pattern;
surface: outside colour dark grey (7.5YR 4/1), inside surface
completely flaked off; fabric: structure slightly porous and
splintery, colour light red (10R 6/6), tempered with stone
grit and grog, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 2; fired under oxidizing conditions;
2.8 × 2.6 cm, extant thickness 0.7 cm. Trench 2, section
10–12 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/19
(Fig. 17,43).
44. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: concentric lozenge stamps (strongly
eroded); surface: temper visible on the surface, inside and
outside well smoothed, colour outside dark grey (7.5YR
4/1), inside weak red (10R 5/2); fabric: structure splintery,
colour pale red (10R 6/4), tempered with stone grit, grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, very large amounts; hardness
2; fired under oxidizing conditions; 3.6 × 4.4 cm, thickness
0.8 cm. Trench 2, section 10–12 m, collected finds. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2010Fall/19 (Fig. 16,44).
45. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside two horizontal incised lines
(width 0.15 cm) 2.5 cm apart, space in between and lower
367
line intersected by slightly slanting short grooves (length
about 1.5 cm, width up to 0.2 cm; surface: structure finely
grained, outside lower part secondarily blackened, colour
pale brown (10YR 6/3), inside dark grey/dark greyish
brown (10YR 4/1–2); fabric: structure splintery, colour
grey (10YR 5/1), tempered with stone grit, grain – coarse
2, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 3; fired
under reducing conditions; extant height 5.2 cm, width
6.9 cm, thickness 0.9 cm. Trench 2, section 10–12 m,
removal 2. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/9 (Fig. 18,45).
46. Decorated body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware; decoration: outside indented bow (width 0.2 cm);
surface: structure finely grained, temper visible on the
surface, colour outside dark grey (5YR 4/1), inside yellowish red (5YR 5/6); fabric: structure smooth, colour yellowish
red (5YR 5/6), tempered with stone grit and quartz, grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 2;
fired under oxidizing conditions; orientation unclear,
3.5 × 2.3 cm, thickness 1 cm. Trench 2, section 10–12 m,
removal 2. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/9 (Fig. 18,46).
47. 41 body sherds, undecorated, unglazed ceramic.
Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/1.
48. Nine body sherds, undecorated, unglazed
ceramic, earthenware, none with traces of wheel-throwing. – 1) surface: structure smooth, temper visible on the
surface, outside slightly shiny, outside colour very dark
grey (2.5Y 3/1), inside dark grey (2.5Y 4/1); fabric: colour
dark grey to very dark grey (2.5Y 3–4/1), structure splintery, tempered with quartz, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, very large amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing conditions; 3.2 cm × 2.2 cm, thickness 0.7 cm. – 2)
surface: structure smooth, outside smoothed with slip,
slightly shiny, outside and inside colour very dark grey
(GLEY1 3/N); fabric: structure splintery and coarsely
porous, colour very dark grey (GLEY1 3/N), tempered with
stone grit, quartz and grog, medium grained, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing
conditions; 1.9 × 2.3 cm, thickness 0.5 cm. – 3) surface:
structure smooth, temper visible on the surface, outside
smoothed with slip, slightly shiny, colour reddish brown
(5YR 5/4), inside yellowish red (5YR 5/6); fabric: colour
inner half yellowish red (5YR 5/6), outer half reddish grey
(5YR 5/2), structure splintery, tempered with stone grit and
sand, medium grained, evenly distributed, large amounts;
hardness 2; firing partly oxidizing; 2.4 × 3 cm, thickness
1.3 cm. – 4) traces of working: outside horizontal traces
of smoothing, hand-made by coiling; surface: outside
smoothed with slip, structure smooth, temper visible on
the surface, colour outside light brownish grey (10YR 6/2),
inside light red (2.5YR 6/8); fabric: structure splintery,
colour 2 mm from the outside light brownish grey (10YR
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368 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
6/2), rest light red (2.5YR 6/8), tempered with quartz and
stone grit, medium grained with some very coarse particles, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 2; fired
partly under oxidizing conditions; 2.3 × 3.1 cm, thickness
0.6–0.9 cm. – 5) Surface: structure smooth, colour outside
and inside pinkish grey (7.5YR 6/2); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (7.5YR 6/1), tempered with quartz, grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, medium amounts; hardness
3; fired under reducing conditions; 4.1 × 4.1 cm, thickness
0.8 cm. – 6) surface: structure finely grained, temper
visible on the surface, colour outside and inside grey
(7.5YR 6/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour brown (7.5YR
4/2), tempered with stone grit, medium grained, evenly
distributed, large amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing conditions; 3.8 cm × 2.3 cm, thickness 0.7–0.8 cm. – 7)
Surface: structure chalky to smooth, colour outside and
inside grey (10YR 6/1); fabric: structure slightly splintery, colour yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), tempered with
stone grit, evenly distributed, medium grained, medium
amounts; hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions; 2.5
× 2.2 cm, thickness 0.8 cm. – 8) Surface: outside smoothed
with slip, structure smooth, colour light grey (10YR 7/2),
inside flaked off; fabric: structure splintery, colour very
dark grey (10YR 3/1), tempered with stone grit, grain –
coarse 1, evenly distributed, medium amounts; hardness 6;
fired under reducing conditions; 2.1 × 2.9 cm, extant thickness 0.9 cm. – 9) Surface: inside and outside smoothed
with slip, structure smooth, colour outside light brownish
grey (10YR 6/2), inside grey (10YR 6/1); fabric: structure
splintery, colour grey (10YR 5/1), tempered with quartz
and stone grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 4; fired under reducing conditions; 1.8
× 2.2 cm, thickness 1 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/2.
49. Four body sherds, undecorated, unglazed
ceramic, earthenware, none shows traces of wheel-throwing. – 1) Traces of production: outside and inside fine horizontal lines from smoothing; surface: partly coated with
white substance, outside and inside smoothed with slip,
structure chalky, colour outside and inside grey (10YR
6/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (10YR 7/1),
tempered with stone grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, small amounts; hardness 3; fired under reducing
conditions; extant height 4 cm, width 5.8 cm, thickness
0.9 cm. – 2) Surface: outside strongly weathered, inside
structure chalky, colour outside grey (2.5Y 6/1), inside
light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2); fabric: structure slightly
splintery, colour at the edges as outer sides, core dark
grey (2.5Y 4/1), tempered with quartz, fine grained, evenly
distributed, medium amounts; hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions; 3.8 × 3.2 cm, extant thickness 0.7 cm. –
3) Surface: outside smoothed with slip, weathered, struc-
ture smooth to finely grained, inside flaked off, colour
outside dark grey (10YR 4/1); fabric: structure splintery,
colour reddish brown (2.5YR 5/4), tempered with quartz
and stone grit, grain-coarse 1, evenly distributed, large
amounts; hardness 4; fired under oxidizing conditions?;
3.4 × 3 cm, extant thickness 0.9 cm. – 4) Surface: structure
outside chalky to finely grained, inside flaked off, colour
outside pale yellow (2.5Y 7/3); fabric: structure splintery,
colour reddish yellow (5YR 6/6), tempered with stone grit,
grain – coarse 2, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 4; fired under oxidizing conditions?; 3.7 × 3.6 cm,
extant thickness 1.2 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Spring/3.
50. Body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware;
surface: inside and outside smoothed with slip, temper
visible on the surface, colour inside and outside grey
(7.5YR 5/1); fabric: structure splintery, colour grey (7.5YR
6/1), tempered with stone grit, grain – coarse 1, evenly
distributed, very large amounts; hardness 4; fired under
oxidizing conditions?; extant height 4.6 cm, width 7.4 cm,
thickness 0.8–1.1 cm. Trench 2, section 0–2 m, collected
finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/13.
51. Body sherd, unglazed ceramic, earthenware;
surface: nearly completely coated with white substance,
structure outside finely grained, colour inside grey (10YR
5/1), inside flaked off; fabric: structure splintery, colour
and fabric not determinable due to white coating; hardness 4; 6 × 5.5 cm; extant thickness 1.1 cm. Trench 2,
section 6–8 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/34.
52. Ten body sherds, unglazed ceramic, earthenware,
none shows traces of wheel-throwing. – 1) Surface: outside
smoothed with slip, structure chalky, colour outside and
inside dark grey (5YR 4/1); fabric: structure splintery,
colour reddish brown (5YR 5/4), tempered with sand, fine
grained, evenly distributed, large amounts; hardness 2;
fired under oxidizing conditions?; 3.8 × 2.9 cm, thickness
0.8–1 cm. – 2) Traces of production: fine lines of smoothing: surface: outside flaked off, inside smoothed with
slip, colour very dark grey (GLEY1 3/N); fabric: structure
splintery, colour very dark grey (GLEY1 3/N), tempered
with stone grit, grain – coarse 2, evenly distributed, small
amounts; hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions;
3 × 2 cm, extant thickness 0.7 cm. – 3) Eight fragments of
the same ware, surfaces mostly flaked off, surface: structure outside and inside smooth, colour outside and inside
grey (GLEY1 6/N); fabric: structure splintery, colour light
grey (GLEY1 7/N), tempered with stone grit, grain – coarse
1, evenly distributed, small amounts; hardness 2; fired
under reducing conditions; 1.6 × 0.9 × 0.5 cm to 2.7 × 2 ×
1.2 cm. Trench 2, section 8–10 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/26.
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Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun 53. Three body sherds of the same ware, unglazed
ceramic, earthenware; surface: one surface of each sherd
is completely flaked off, fragments too small to determine
whether outside or inside, extant surface smooth, temper
visible on the surface, colour black (5YR 2.5/1); fabric:
structure splintery, colour dark reddish grey (5YR 4/2),
tempered with stone grit and quartz, medium grained
with some very coarse particles, evenly distributed,
large amounts; hardness 3; fired under reducing conditions; 2.4 × 2 × 0.9 cm/1.8 × 1.7 × 0.8 cm/1.8 × 1 × 0.6 cm.
Trench 2, section 10–12 m, removal 2. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/10.
54. Two body sherds, glazed ceramic. – 1) stoneware,
wheel-thrown; traces of production: inside and outside
turning marks; surface: structure smooth, outside glazed,
colour white (2.5Y 8/1), slightly shiny, flaked off in spots;
inside colour light grey (2.5Y 7/2); fabric: colour light grey
(2.5Y 7/2), structure smooth, tempered with black sand or
stone grit, medium grained, evenly distributed, very large
amounts; hardness 8; fired under reducing conditions;
3.5 cm × 2.6 cm; thickness 0.5–0.6 cm. – 2) earthenware,
wheel-thrown; traces of production: outside turning
marks, inside vertical traces of smoothing; surface:
outside engobed, dim, weathered, smooth, colour black
(5YR 2.5/1), inside smoothed with slip, colour red (2.5YR
5/6); fabric: colour red (2.5YR 5/6), structure splintery,
tempered with quartz, grain – coarse 1, evenly distributed, very large amounts; hardness 2; fired under oxidizing conditions; 3.6 cm × 5.6 cm, thickness 0.7–0.8 cm. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2009Spring/1.
55. Body sherd, glazed ceramic, stoneware or porcelain; surface: outside glazed, metallic shine, colour
reddish brown (5YR 4/4), inside structure uneven, thinly
coated with semi-lucent glaze, colour yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6); fabric: structure layered to smooth, colour
very pale brown (10YR 8/2), tempered with particles of
undetermined material, fine grained, evenly distributed,
large amounts; hardness 9; fired under oxidizing conditions?; 1.6 × 1.5 cm, thickness 0.4 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Spring/1.
56. Iron plate, drilled through, broken at the edges.
Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/3 (Fig. 20,56).
57. Iron nail, broken at the extremities. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2008/3 (Fig. 20,57).
58. Iron ball, slightly compressed, perforated in the
centre (round hole, diameter 1.2 cm); height 4.8 cm, diameter 5.8 cm. Trench 2 (x: 2.7 m from A, y: 0.2 m from AB, z:
–0.2 m). Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/17 (Fig. 20,58).
59. Toggle, bone, broken at one end, surface weathered so that inner bone structure is partly visible; now
H-shaped, long sides convex, respectively concave, inner
369
part for strap rounded (extant length c. 2 cm, width
0.5 cm); surface smoothed; extant length 5.2 cm, width
0.5–1.6 cm, thickness 0.5 cm. Trench 2, section 6–8 m,
layers 7–9, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/21
(Fig. 20,59).
60. Worked bone or horn, dense structure; three
sides broken, slightly curved, one end cut at a slant and
smoothed, on the surface inside and outside traces of
teeth marks or other scratches; length 9.1 cm, width 2.3 cm,
thickness 0.5–0.8 cm. Trench 2, section 8–10 m, removal 2,
collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/31 (Fig. 20,60).
61. Animal bone, angular. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/2.
62. Two fragments of bone, probably animal. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2009Spring/4.
63. 15 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
removal 1, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/2.
64. 42 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench
2, section 0–2 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/14.
65. Eight bone fragments. Trench 2, section 2–4 m,
collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/15.
66. 16 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 2–4 m, removal 1, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/3.
67. Eight bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 4–6 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/16.
68. 17 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 4–6 m, removal 1, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/5.
69. 38 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 6–8 m, removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/36.
70. 67 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 6–8 m, layers 7–9, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/23.
71. 97 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 6–8 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/35.
72. 102 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 6–8 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/29.
73. Eleven bone fragments, probably animal. Trench
2, section 8–10 m, removal 1, collected finds. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2010Fall/7.
74. 26 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench
2, section 8–10 m, removal 2, collected finds. Inv. no.
MOR-13/F2010Fall/32.
75. 67 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 8–10 m, layers 7–9, removal 2, collected finds. Inv.
no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/27.
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370 Jan Bemmann et al., Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun
76. 19 bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 10–12 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/20.
77. Two bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 10–12 m, collected finds. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2010Fall/18.
78. 19 bone fragments, mostly rib fragments, two
vertebrae, one tooth, probably animal. Trench 2, section
10-12 m, removal 1. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/37.
79. Two bone fragments, probably animal. Trench 2,
section 10–12 m, removal 2. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/11.
80. 33 fragments of roof tiles. Inv. no. MOR-13/
F2008/6.
81. Piece of roof tile, burnt brick, fragment of round
end tile with round, flatly raised knobs (diameter 1 cm,
height 0.3 cm); surface: unglazed, structure coarsely
grained, colour outside very pale brown (10YR 8/2), inside
flaked off; fabric: grey (10YR 6/1), structure coarsely
porous, tempered with stone grit, medium grained, evenly
distributed, large amounts; hardness 2; fired under reducing conditions; original diameter about 6 cm, 2.8 cm
× 1.8 cm, extant thickness 0.9 cm. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2009
Spring/3 (Fig. 20,81).
82. Piece of roof tile. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/7.
83. Three pieces of slag. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/4.
84. Piece of slag; colour dark reddish brown (2.5YR
3/4) and reddish black (2.5YR 2.5/1); 3.4 × 3.2 × 2.2 cm,
weight 30.6 g. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Spring/2.
85. Two pieces of charcoal, 1.2 cm × 1 cm ×
0.4 cm/1.6 cm × 1.1 cm × 0.8 cm, weight 0.3 g. Trench 2,
section 2–4 m, removal 1. Inv. no. MOR-13/F2010Fall/4.
86. Modern coin, Mongolian, minted 1927, 5 müngü.
Inv. no. MOR-13/F2008/5.
(S. R./H. P.)
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