Resultativity in Chinese and Japanese: Comparative study and aid to teaching and learning Meili Fang Research Associate, Linguistics, SOAS [email protected] 03-02-2015 Research Centre for Japanese Language & Linguistics Oriental Institute, University of Oxford This talk • Introduction to resultativity and comparative study in Chinese (C) and Japanese (J) • Language learner errors • Correspondence between N + V in C and J • What is resultative? • Japanese resultativity • How resultativity is expressed in C • Whats the problems for learners • J & C lexical meanings • Dealing with these problems • In language teaching – drama in the Performance Approach • Conclusion Introduction Japanese Chinese [N case V] 東京へ行く [V N] (去东京) [V Aux N] (去到东京) [prep N (post) V ] (到东京去) [V N](走 路) [V Aux N (prep)] (走 在 路上) [prep N (post) V] (在 路上走) [N case V] 道を歩く Data J structure [N case V] generally corresponds to three structures in Chinese. Language learners have difficulty with: • when do J verbs correspond directly to C verbs? • when and what kind of auxiliaries verb are needed? • when do J verbs correspond to prepositional phrases, or need a postposition? Language learner errors • Errors from Japanese students learning Chinese Link Source text: 妻: 本当に!昨日よりもさらに寒いのかしら? 愛人: ええ。3度ですってよ。 (“… it will be 3°”) Student translation: 会冷三度。 “Three degrees colder” Should be: 会冷到三度。 “Go down to 3 degrees” Language learner errors • Errors from Japanese students learning Chinese Source text: すごくお腹空いちゃった (“I’m extremely hungry”) Student translation: 我饿了! “ I’m hungry” Should be: 我饿死了! (I’m hungry-die) “I’m starving” Language learner errors • Errors from Japanese students learning Chinese Source text: あなたは私を好きになるの。聞こえたわね? (“Do you understand?”) Student translation: 你听得到了吧? (hear-catch) “Can you hear?” Should be: 你听懂了吧? (hear-understand) “Do you understand?” Language learner errors • Errors from Japanese students learning Chinese Source text: なんでお前と海にいかなきゃいけないんだよ。 (“… go to the sea …”) Student translation: 为什么我要跟你一起去海。 (“… go to the sea …”) Should be: 为什么我要跟你一起去海辺。 (“… go to the beach/seaside …”) Language learner errors • Errors from Japanese students learning Chinese Source text: 手紙を書いてから … (“Write a letter”) Student translation: 写信了 … “Write a letter” Should be: 把信写好了 (ba-letter-write-well) “Write a letter (completely)” How J N + V corresponds to C • In my doctoral dissertation(1997) and Fang (2004) Japanese: A. [N case V] 人を 殺す Data Chinese: [V N] 杀人 “kill someone” [V Aux N] 杀死 人 “kill-to-death someone” [prep N V Aux] 把人杀死 “cause someone to be dead” B. [N case V] [V N post] 去 海边 “go to the seaside/beach” 海へ 行く [V Aux N post ] 去到 海边 “go and arrive at the seaside/beach” “go to the sea” [prep N post V] 到海边 去 “arrive at the seaside/beach” This contrast is not only due to J distinguishing the combinational meaning of the N + V via the case particle, but also due to the J verb showing stronger semantic resultativity. In other words, because in C the lexico-grammatical relation between the noun and verb is more constrained by combinational subcategorisation, different structures are needed to express corresponding meanings. [A] Japanese 人を殺す “kill someone” [N case V] phrases translate into three different structures in C: – 杀人: simply an action ’kill’ + object[V N], called 动宾结 构‘Verb-object structure’ – 杀 死人: [action+ result + object] [V Aux N], called 动补 结构‘Verb-complement structure’ – 把人杀死: [preposition + object + action + result] [prep N V Aux], called 介词结构‘preposition structure’, and preposition ‘ba+ N V Aux’ called 处置文‘disposal structure’ (highly affected) What is resultative? • indicates a completed or achieved action, or change of state or situation link • often expressed as part of lexical meaning of verb, eg compare: J korosu 殺す E kill C shā 杀 • J, C can have different resultativity in lexical meaning of equivalent verbs: J: *彼を殺したが、彼は死らなかった。 E: *I killed him, but he didn’t die. C: 我杀了他, 他没死。 • C verb杀 shows only action, not result A contrastive example • for J non-resultative we could use “attempt 意図性”: J: 彼を殺そうとしたが、彼は死らなかった。 E: I tried to kill him but he didn’t die. • but J しようとする “attempt” expresses action already started (Miyajima 1994:428-435), while C打算/想要/试图 “attempt” does not entail action already started • so the J sentence no longer corresponds to C. We would need to change both clauses: 我原本打算杀死他的,没想到他没死。 “Originally I planned to kill him but somehow he didn’t die” How resultativity is expressed in J • verbs resultativity generally C < J < E (Miyajima 1994) • (transitive verb represents the process of action, intransitive verb represents the result.) Miyajima(1994): Transitive Intransitive 電話をかける … made a phone call 電話がかかる … got through 大学を受ける 大学に受かる “… took the examination” “… passed the examination” ドアを開けたけれど, 開かなかった。 ??”I opened the door but the door didn’t open.” How resultativity is expressed in J • compound verb: 押し開ける 殴り倒す 揺すり起こす 蹴り殺す “push open” “knock down” “shake awake” “kick to death” • action resulting in change:Kageyama (2006:208) calls this type 結果述語 resultative predicates: グラスがこなごなに割れた “The glass broke to bits” … 部屋を白く塗った “… painted the room white” 床をきれいに掃いた “… swept the floor clean” 靴をピカピカに磨く “polish the shoes shiny and clean” How resultativity is expressed in C • in C auxiliary verbs provide resultative meaning: -掉fall, drop, 通through, 破,断break, 死die, 到to, 成 become, turn into , 好good, 見see, 起up, 起来begin an action, 完finish,上up, 下down, 回back, 进into, 入into, 出 out (of), 开open, 光light, 去go, 懂understand, 湿wet, 干dry, 清楚clear,干净clean… – C: 那栋房子盖了三年了, 还没盖好。 J: ??あの建物三年間も立てたが, いまだに立たない。 E: ??“ That house was built for 3 years, still not built.” – C: 电话我打了,但没打通。 J: 電話をかけたが、かからなかった。 E: I called, but didn’t get through. • ‘preposition structure’介词结构 J & C lexical meanings • generally, common verb lexical meanings correspond: Japanese Chinese 出る “leave / go out ” 出 “out / get out“ 行く “go” 去 “go” 歩く “walk” 走 “walk” • but their grammatical meaning are different • Japanese NLを+VM phrase Chinese VM+NL 国を 出る“leaving a country” 田舎を 出る“leave hometown” 東京へ 行く“go to Tokyo” 山へ 行く“go to mountain” 出 国“go out from the country” 离开乡下“ leave hometown“ 去 東京“go to Tokyo” 去 山上“go to mountain-top of” Problems for learners Japanese Chinese Nを/へ/から 行く 去 N 山道を 行く 走 山路 [V Aux N] 走过 山路 [prep N V] 从/朝/沿着/在 路走过/走下去 To show the meaning “walk along a mountain road” C needs ‘走’ to indicate “motion with manner”. J verb 行く “go” is generally ‘去’ in C, but here it needs to be ‘走’ because J verb 行く can show the action in process, while C verb ‘去’ can only show direction or arrival. Also: problem of C preposition. In case above, C noun can follow different prepositions. link Dealing with these problems • V and auxiliary verbs. Depending on the main verb, different meanings. Examples: eg. -起来 up 1. get up from the bottom 站起来“立ち上るstand up”, 叫起来“呼び起こすwake up ” 捡起来“拾う pick up ”, 2. beginning an action 烧起来 “燃え上がるburn up”, 打起来“戦い始めるfight” 3. stable (=记住 keep in mind=stable) 记起来“覚えてしまうremember” ,绑起来“縛り上げるtied up ”, 抓起来“捕まえる catch”, 4. try the action 看起来“みため looks ”, 听起来“聞こえsound ”, 穿起来“ 着 るwear ” Dealing with these problems eg. -死 die 1. action range (“to die for”) 恨死“死ぬほど恨むhate”, 饿死“死ぬほどお腹が空く starve”, 爱死“死ぬほど愛するlove(love it to death)”, 想死 你了 I really miss you, 2. concrete action 想死“死にたいwant to die”, 找死 court death. 3. causal of death 烧死 “焼死するburned to death”, 溺 死 “溺死するdrown” , 病死“ 病死するdie of disease ”. Applying this with learners • Student group drama script composed in MT • Students translated … • Teacher corrected … Conclusion • there is no complete theory and choices in real conversation can be very subtle • theory-neutral analysis and description of patterns helps students • “Performance approach” involves learner groups developing (and translating) their own drama scripts – their own stories • learner investment and motivation makes learning experience stronger Link References Fang, Meili. 2014. A Performance Approach to Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. Koubun. Tokyo, Japan. [in Japanese] -- Spoken Hokkien 2010. A textbook and CD for basic Hokkien. London: LWW-CETL/SOASUCL -- 2007. Spoken Chinese. London: Mandaras -- 2004. Location and Motion: A Comparative Study of Chinese and Japanese Grammar. Tokyo: Hakuteisya -- 2004. “A comparative study of Japanese and Chinese [Location]” Japanese Studies: Explanation and Appreciation. Shibundo pp. 76-92, July 2004 -- 2002. “Location Noun and Motion verb: A Comparative Study of Japanese and Chinese Grammar.” Japanese Linguistics No 11, pp.55-78, April 2002, The National Association for Japanese Language. Tokyo, Japan -- 2002. “Phrasal Combinations of Movement and Direction: A Comparative Study of Japanese and Chinese Grammar”. TaishoGengogakuKenkyu 12, pp. 88-104, December -- 2001. “Deriving the meanings of Verb and Noun combinations, Studies in Comparative Japanese and Chinese Grammar.” Japanese Studies: Explanation and Appreciation, pp. 109-118, July 2001: Shibundo -- 1999. “The meaning of grammatical categories, Studies in Comparative Japanese and Chinese Grammar.” Japanese Studies: Explanation and Appreciation, January 1999: Shibundo -- 1997. A Contrastive Study of Verb-Object Collocations Chinese and Japanese, Studies in Comparative Japanese and Chinese Grammar. Ochanomizu University Kageyama, Tarou. 1996. Verb semantics. Kurosio press Miyajima, Tatsuo. 1994. Lexical analysis. Mugisyobou press
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