JoumaIoflntemationalEconomicStudies（1998),No.12,47-55 o1998ThelnstituIco｢ComparativcEconomicStudies,HoseiUniversity InternationalLabourMigrationandWorkers， ＲｅｍｉｔｔａｎｃｅｉｎＡｓｉａ ＹｏｓｈｉｅＳｈｉｍａｎｅ Ｅｍ"omicsDepq"ｍｅ"LTAeJnpα〃Reseα"hIjzsZitzJZe,LmTired １．Ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ Inadditiontointer-regionaltradeandinvestment，labourmigrationisalsoa commonfbａｔｕｒｅｉｎＡｓｉａａｎｄｉｎｓｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｔheworkers,remittanceplaysan importantroletosupportbalanceofpaymentsdencitfbralongdecade．Ｕnliketrade andinvestmenthowever,workersmigrationhasnotcontributedmuchtoeconomic growthinthosecountrieslnordertoutilizereturnedmigrantsandremittanceto affecteconomicgrowthbetter,somepreconditionsareneeded 2．TheActualSituationofMigrationaｎｄＲｅｍｉｔｔａｎｃｅ ItakefburNewlylndustrializingEconomies（NIES:SouthKorea，Taiwan， HongKongandSingapore),fburAssociationofSouthEastAsia､Nations(ASEAN： Malaysia,Thailand,Philippineandlndonesia）andfburSouthAsianCountries (India,Pakistan,BangladeshandSriLanka)toanalyzetheactualsituationofmigra‐ tioninAsiaMigrantcanbeofvarioustypessuchascontractedworkers,emigratio､， refngeesandsoon,buthereanalysisisfbcusedoncontractedworkerswhointendto earnmoneyandtoreturntheirhomecountriesaftersomeperiod・Workers，remit‐ tanceisdefinedasapartofthelabourincomeeamedabroadbythecontractedwork‐ ｅｒｓｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｓｅｎｔｂａｃｋｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｈｏｍｅｃountriesi)． （１）TheActualSituationofMigrationandRemittance a・TheGeneralSituationofLabourMigration Trendsofthelabourmigratiｏｎｗｅｒｅｃａｕｓｅｄｂｙｔｗｏｏｉｌｓｈｏｃｋｓｄｕｒｉngtheseven- tiesAtthattime，ｓｏmeAsiancountriesencouragedlabourmigrationtotheGulf countriestoearnfbreigncurrencywhichwasbadIyneededtosupporttheiroilim‐ portsandrepaymentoffbreigndebt・ Thenumberofthemigrantworke応fiPomthePhilippines，Thailand，Indonesia andfburSouthAsiaasatotalreachedL7millioninl992、Inthosecountries,labour migrationisalsoregardedaＳａｔｏoltoeasedomesticunemploymentproblems・Howevertheproportionofthelabourfbrcewhomigrateisatmost２％inSriLanka,ａｎｄ 4７ lntcmationaILabouTMigrationaｎｄＷｏ｢kc庵，RcmittanccinAsia muchlowerinothercountries,ｓｏｉｔｃａｎｎｏｔｂｅｓａｉｄｔｏｈａｖｅｅａｓｅｄｔｈｅunemployment problemmuch Eventoday,majorrecipientsofmigrantworkersaretheGulfcountries,buttheir importancehasbeendecreasingsincel983andTaiwan,SouthKorea，andMalaysia havehostedincreasingnumbers（Tablel〕Alargepartofthelabourmigrationto theGulfareawasofconstructionWorkers，andengineersandotherspecialistsand theirmcreasednumbershavelaterreHectingtheincreaseddemand・Mostofthe labourmigrationtotheAsiancountrieshasbeenofunskilled-workersengagingin serviceindustriesandalargepartofitisfemaleworkers， Inthehostingcountries,thenegativeefTbctsoflabourmigrationsuchasdelayin thechangesintheindustrialstructureandanincreasedburdenonsocialsecuritiesare oftendiscussed、Butinthelabourexportingcountries，meritssuchastheeasingof unemploymentproblems,theincreaseoffbreignreserves，thedevelopmentofwork‐ ersjobskillsandsoon,areoftenclaimedbyproponentsHowever,theactualexis‐ ｔｅｎｃｅｏｆｓｕｃｈｍｅｒｉｔｓｈａｖｅｙｅｔｔｏｂｅｐｒoven・Sometimesreturningmigrantsoriginally fromruralareasworsentheunemploymentprobleminurbanareasbyelectingtostay thereevenwhentherearenojobsavailable・Also,retummigrantsfindfbwopportu‐ nitiestoutilizeskillsacquiredabroadbecauseofthedifTbrencesintechnicalleveland industrialstructurebetweentheirhomecountriesandthehostcountrieswherethey onceworked． TablelASianLabourMi印ationbyDestinationsl993 (Number5Migating） lIlliAlBangIade ］’７０４０１１１８６００ 4０ 、’ＩＣ RｅｎｏＤＫｃ ｒ Ｉｊ mｎＵｄ ]９９６ ｍｌＩＯ（ 4９７１４１６－７８４，Z４４ＳＯＩＨ Sourcc：Wickramasekara,Ｐ.,Ｒｅ“"１，℃"“ｍ７１ｅｍｐｏｍびMjgmlio〃i〃化ｉｎ,1995,Ｔａｂｌｃ６． （Ｒｃ化rencedocumcmatlhcSymposium“MigrationaIudthcLabourMarkctiｎＡｓｉａｉｍＬｈｃＹｃｎｒ２０００” whichwasheIdundcrthcjointauspicesoftheGovernmcnIo｢Japan,thcOECDandthcJapanlnstitute ofLabour） b・GeneralSituationofLabourRemittance TheHowoftheremittanceinthel970，ｓｗａｓｒｅｇａｒｄｅｄａｓａｐａｒｔｏｆｔｈｅｆｌｏｗｏｆ Oil-DollarsfiPomtheGulfareatotｈｅｒｅｓｔｏｆｔｈｅｗｏｒｌｄ ｌｎｔｈｅｌ９８０ｓ,aftertheexternaldebtcrises,thecapitalflowsfromthedeveloped countriestothedevelopingcountriesdecreasedanddevelopingAsiancountriestried toincreaselabourexportinordertoobtainfbreigncurrency． ４８ YoshieShimane Chartl DependenceontheRemittance ４５ ChiIla ４０ ◆ ５０５０５０５０ ３３２２１１ （家）：呵匹』Ｑｏ、四口目］。ご二目三 ｼ…:T… 、◆RepofKorca SingaPore ◆，ndonesia◆ India Philippines Pakistan ◆◆◆ SriLanka Banglade部 ５１０１５２０２５３０３５ Rcmittancc／FolUgnCurrcncyEarnilugsRatio（％） Sourcc：ＩＭＦ,Balancco「PaymentsStatistics Chart2BalanceofPaymentsStructureoftheTmditionalLabOurExporlingCountries 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 迩獺鵯iiW:lMMl1MiLlilLliMillll ０ ０ ０ｍ ０ ０ ５ ｍ 卯伽 ５０５ ２２ １ ０ ００ ▲“▲▲▲ Note：Tmditionallabourexportiuugcountricsaに；thePhiIippines,India,Pakistan,BanglndeshandSriLanka、 Source：ＩＭＦ,BalanccofPaymcntsStatistics Thedegreeofdependenceontheremittancetoearnfbreigncurrencyisthehighestin theSouthAsiancountries（Chartｌ)．Ｔｈｅａｍｏｕｎｔｏｆｒｅｍｉｔｔａｎｃｅｉｓｅｑｕａｌｔｏthe amountoftradedeficitinBangladeshInIndia,PakistanandSriLanka,ｉｔｉｓｅｑｕａｌ ｔｏ８０ｔｏ９０％oftradedefIcitandinPhilippineitisalmostequalto５０％ofthetrade deficit、IncontrasttothePhilippines,Indonesia,whichhasaboutthesamelevelof industrializationasthePhilippmes，labourmigrationhasnotbeensignificantin number・ThisdiffbrencecanbeattributabletothedifYbrencesinthepolicyofthetwo governmentsandthenumberofthepeoplewhospeakEnglish・ＴｈｅｆｂｕｒＮＩＥｓ 4９ InternationalLabourMigrationandWorkers，RemittanceinAsia receivemorefbreignlabourthantheyexporL HereldefineSouthAsiancountriesandthePhilippinesastraditionallabour exportingcountries,asalargepartoftheirtradedeficitisfmancedbylabourremit‐ tanceChart2showsthatinthosetraditionallabourexportingcountries，fbreign capitalflowsinthefbrmofremittanceisalargerandmorestablesourceoffbreign currencythanfbreigndirectinvestment． （２）BackgroundoftheLabourMigration Manycountriesbothreceiveandexpｏｒｔｌａｂｏｕｒａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，andthewage levelsoflabourexportingcountriesarenotthelowest、Ｆｒｏｍthis，wecantellthe backgroundofthelabourmigrationisnotsimplyattributabletothewagelevels,but ismorecomplex・Ｔｈｅbackgroundofthelabourmigrationscanbeidentifiedas fbllows； a・PolicyandlnstitutionalFramework Thepolicyandinstitutionalframeworkplaysaveryimportantroleinlabour migration， Asfbrthepolicy,somegovernmentdeHnelabourmigrationasamajortoolto earnfbreignCurrency，andencourageworkerstomigratethroughvariouspolicy tools、Forexample，inthePhilippines，governmenttrainsworkerstomeetthe demandofthelabourreceivingcountries・ Tosupportgovernmenteffbrts,privatesectorcompaniesalsoplayasuplimental role、ForexampleinMalaysia，therearemorethanl70privatecompaniestohelp migrationprocedure． blnternationalizationoftheLabourQualification EspeciaUyfbrtheskilled-workers，internationalizationofthelabourqualiHcationisoneofthefactorswhichpromoteslabourmigrationThisiswhysomeｃｏｕＬ ｔｒｉｅｓｓｕｃｈａｓｌｎｄｉａａｒｅａｂｌｅｔｏexportmanyskilled-workers・Indiaeducational institutionsoffertraininginhigh-techskillstomatchinternationalstandardsand historicallyhavebeensendingmanygraduateabroad c、IncreasedForeignDirectlnvestment lntroductionoffbreigndirectinvestlnentalsopromotelabourmigration．Work‐ ersfromruralareaswhoonceworkedporafbreigncompanyinanurbanareadonot nonnallyretumtotheirhometownsbutstayintheurbanareaorfindanewjobin fbreigncountries・Ｉ、part,thisisoftenbecausetheyhavefbunditratherdifficultto beacceptedｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙｏｎｃｅｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅｅｘｐｅriencedthecultureofurbanlife， especiallyinthecaseoffemales． d・Internationalizationoflnfbrmation lncreasedavailabilityofinfbrmationthroughmass-mediaorlabourmigration itselfencouragesmigrationAsmorelabourersworkabroad，moremigrationis encouragedbecausemoreinfbrmationaboutopportunitiesispassedamongtheir relativesoraquaintances・Thismovemtntiscalledthe``MigrationChain,,． 5０ YoshieShimanc 3．ＩｍｐａｃｔｏｎｔｈｅＥｃｏｎｏｍｉｃＤｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔａｎｄｌｍｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓ ｆｂｒｔｈｅＦｕｔｕｒｅ （１）ImpactontheEconomicDevelopment WehaveseenthatthereisactivelabourmigrationinAsiaandfbrthosetradi‐ tionallabourexportingcountries,remittancehasbeenanimportantwayoffinancing extemalimbalances・Intraditionallabourexportingcountries,exportationofgoods willnotbeexpectedtoexpandrapidlybecauseofthelackoftechnologyandpolicies ofputtingmoreemphasisonimportsubstitutioninsomecountries・Atthesametime labourshortagesinMalaysiaandSingaporeisbecomingsevereandthedemandfbr labourimportisincreasing・Consideringthoseconditions,iｔismoreprobablethatin thetraditionallabourexportingcountries,relianceonthelabourmigrationandtheir remittancetofinanceexternalbalancewillbecontinuetobequitehighfbrsometime・ Nextwemightconsiderifitis,possibletoutilizethelabourmigrationandtheir remittancenotonlytofinanceextemaldefYcitbutalsotoenhanceeconomicdevelop‐ ment・Ifitispossible,ｗｅｓｈｏｕｌｄｔｈｅｎａｓｋｗｈａｔｋｉｎｄｏｆｃｏｎｄｉtionsareneeded、 Toanswerabovequestions,Ihavecomparedtheimpactoflabourmigrationon theeconomicdevelopmentinSouthKoreaandtraditionallabourexportingcountries・ SouthKoreaisatypicalcaseofafbrmerlabourexportingcountrywhicktookaset ofpoliciestoencouragelabourmigrationandutilizedremittancefbritseconomic developmentandhassincegraduatedfiFomthestatusofthelabourexportingcountry toonewhichimportslabour・ Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｗｏｍａｉｎｐointsfbrthiscomparativestudy・Oneiswhetherremit‐ tancetothehomecountryisdonethroughfbrmalchannelsorinfbrmalchannels・If thelabourincomeisconsumedabroadorremittedthroughinfbrmalchannels,remit‐ tancecountedinthebalanceofpaymentsbecomesverysmallanddoesnotcontribute toeasingtheexternalpaymentproblem、Theotheriswhetherremittedlabour incomeisutilizedtofInanceinvestmentinthestrategicallyimportantareaofindus‐ triesinthehomecountry・Evenwhenremittancehasbeendonethroughthefbnnal channels,ifitisutilizedfbrtheincreaseofimportsorinvestedinthoseareaswhich donotcontributetolongtermgrowth,impactontheeconomicdevelopmentbecomes limited． aChanneloftheRemittance Asfbrthechanneloftheremittance,Iwillexaminwhetheri）Migrantworkers labourincomeisspentabroadorremittedtotheirhomecountries,andii）remittance isdonethroughfbrmalchannelsorinfbrmalchannels・ Therearenotmanystatisticsavailaｂｌｅｗｈｉｃｈｓｈｏｗｈｏｗｍｉgrantworkerslabour incomeisspent，ＢｕｔｉｔｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｔｈａｔｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆｍｉｇrantlabourfromAsiancoun‐ tries,workersaimtosaveandremitlabourincometotheirhomeii)．Soitcanbesaid thatmigrantsfi･omthetraditionallabourexportingcountrieshavethesame charactor、Asfbrthewayofremittance,therearesomeestimateswhichshowthat migrantsofthetraditionallabourexportingcountriestendtoremitthroughtheinfbr‐ malroutes（Table２)．Incontrast,migrantsfromSouthKorearemittedabout９０％ oftheirlabourincomethroughthcbankingsystemiii)． ５１ lntcmatiomalLabourMigrationandWorkers，RcmittanceinAsia Table2InfDrmalRemittancesasaPersentageofTotalRemittances Bangladesh lmdin Korea Pakistan Philippines SriLnruka Thailand ijll幽市Ｉ Source Ｍａｈｍｕｄ（1989） EscAoO987） HyunO989） ILO/ARTEPO987） TanandCanlasO989） RodrigoandJayatissa Tingrabadth（1989） Sourcc：AthukoraIa,Ｐ.，EnhancmgDevelopmentlmpacto「MigrantRcmittances：A RevicwofAsianExpcrienccs1InterIMltionalLabourOrganization，1993,ｐ,８． AccordingtoAthukorala,migrantsけomthePhilippines,Pakistan，andlndia,remit throughinfbrmalchannelsfbrthefbllowingfburreasons,ｉ）over-valuationofthe localculTencies,ii）restrictionsoftradeandcapitalaccounttransactions,iii）low interestratesofthefbrmalfinancialsectorandiv）asaresultofabovethree,the fbrmalfinancialnetworkisunder-developediw)． However,alsoinSouthKorea,conditionsi）andii）changedgraduallyduring l980s,sothatabovefburpointsdonotsuffIcientllyexplainthereasonwhythelabour incomeisremittedthroughinfbrmalchannelsincaseofthetraditionalIabourexport- ingcountriesotherthanSouthKorea、Ｉｗｏｕｌｄｐａｙｍoreattentiontothefactthati） SouthKoreanmigrantswereobligedtoremitmorethan8０％oftheirlabourincome totheirhomecountryandii）thebankingnetworkofSouthKoreanbanksaredevel‐ opedbytheSouthKoreangovernmentandflnancialauthority・Also,iii）thefact thatSouthKoreancurrencyＷonlackedtheconvertibilitybutlabourincomewere paidintheWonv)． ThosefactorsidentifiedintheSouthKoreancasedonotalwayssucceedinencouragingmoreremittancetobedonethroughfbrmalchannels、TheThaiandPhilippinegovernmentshavetriedtointroduceoractuallyintroducedpoliciessimilarto SouthKorea,s,buttheyfailedtogetsigniHcantresultｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｍ・Inaddition，to fbrcecompanieswhichemployfbrwhichmigrantworkerstopaywagesintheir employees,homecountriescurrencyorthroughtheirhomecountry，sbankingsystem arenotrealisticpolicyoptions、ThepolicyinterventionoftheSouthKoreangovem‐ mentweremadeefYbctivepartlybythepoliticalcircumstancesoｆｂｅｍｇｕｎｄｅｒｐｒｅｓ‐ ｓｕｒｅｆｒｏｍＮｏｒｔｈＫｏｒｅａ Ｔｏｒｅｌｙｏｎｔｈｅｐolicyoptionsofcorrectingover-valuationoftheirculTencyorto deregulatingrestrictionsregardingtradeandcapitalaccounttransactionstoenhance theremittancethroughfbrmalchannelsisratherdangerous・Becausederegulating capitalaccounttransactionscancausecapitalnight・Atthemoment,thegovernment policygoaloftraditionallabourexportingcountriesarethecombinationofi）tokeep over-valuationoftheircurrenciesandreguratingcapitalaccounttransactionsandii） tointroducesomeincentivemeasurestoremittancesuchasadmittingfbreigncur‐ rencyholdingofremittedmcomeandputsomepremiumonfbreigncurrencydepositsinthebankingsystem、Thiskindofincentiveschemehashadastrongeffbctto encouragefbreigncurrencyremittance、Ｉｎｌｎｄｉａｉｎｌａｔｅｌ９８０，s,ｔhefbreigncurrency depositsoftheNon-Residentlndians(NRIs)becameequivalenttoabout30％ofthe 5２ YoShieShimane currentaccountdeficit・However,ｉｎearly1990,s,inthefaceoftheGulfCrisis,those fbreignculTencydepositsweredrawnoutfiPomthecountryandworsenedthefbreign exchangecrisisinlndia・Fromthisexperience，relyingonincentiveschemecanbe saidtobeariskyoption． ｂ・ImpactonlndustrialDevelopment Thesecondpointofcomparisoniswhetherremittedlabourincomeisinvestedin thestrategicallyimportantareasofindustryornot・Ingeneral，remittedlabour incomewouldi）beinvestedinthoseareasdirectlyviathefinancialmarketorii） stimulateinvestmentasdemandincreasesduetoincreaseddisposableincome・In mostofthetraditionallabourexportingcountries,however,financialmarketplaysa limitedroleineithermobilisingsavingbecaｕｓｅｏｆｌａｃｋｏｆｔｒｕｓｔａｍｏｎｇｓａｖｅｒｓｏｒ ｐrovidingfimdstoindustrialistsbecauseofthelackofabilityofbankstoinvestigate investmentprOjectproposals、Atthesametime,returningmigrantstendtoprefer fbreign-madedurablegoodslikehomeappliancesafterhavingbecomeawareoftheir valuewhilestayingabroadThistrendisencouragedbythepolicytopermitreduced importdutiesongoodsbroughtbackbyreturningmigrantsasincentivestowork abroadLikewise,increaseddemandwouldnotmeanincreaseddemandfbrdomesticallyproducedgoodsbutincreaseimports・ Incontrasttoabovetypicalsituationinthedevelopingcountries,ｉｎKorea,ｉ） investmentwasfimdedbyinternalgenerationofcompanieswhichraisedprofitinthe Gulfareaandnotfimdedthroughfinancialmarket,ii）thegovemmentadopteda policytodiscountpricesofdomesticaUymadehomeappliancesfbrretummigrants inordertoincreasedemandfbrthoseindustries・Theflrstpointwasmadepossible becauseKoreanconglomerateshadthrivedbyeamingproHtｓｆｉ｢omconstruction prQjectsintheGulfarea、Koreanconstructioncompanieshadadvantagesindoing businesstherebecausegovernmentprovidedbudgetaryandfinanciallypreferencial treatmenttothem,aswellastoexportingcompanies、Thesecondpointwasmade possiblebecausetherewerebaseofimportsubstitutionofdurablegoodsunderthe FirstDevelopmentPlaｎ（1962-66)andothergovemment，spolicies・TheWorldBank mentionedintheEastAsianMiraclethatintroductionoffbreignfimdsandtechnologiesandexportpromotionmeasurescontributedtoeconomicdevelopmentmtheEast Asiavj)．Ｂｕｔｉｎｌ９６０,ｓａｎｄ1970,s,theattempttointroducefbreigndirectinvestment wasnotsuccessfUlbecauseSouthKorealackedinternationaltrust・Inaddition，ex- portationwasstagnantbecauseofoldequipmentandtechnology・Undersuchconditions,labourexportandKoreanbusinessventuresintheGulfareacontributedtoease fbreigncurrencyshortageandallowneededimportsofcapitalgoodsand intermediallygoodsD Insometraditionallabourexportingcountries,likePakistan,governmenttriesto promoteinvestmentbyreturnmigrantinthemselvesbyin“SelfLEmployment Schemes,,whichutilisestheirincomeearnedabroadandincludeslowerrateoflend‐ ingButmanyreturnmigrantfmdsitmoreattractiveandsafbrtoinvestinrealestate toguaranteestableincomelikeasubstitutefbrpensionorretailbusinessorother shortterminvestmentthantoinvestinmanuftlcturing． （２）ImpactoftlneStructuralAdjustmentPolicies BecauseoftheGulfCrisis,remittanceshomtheGulfareahavedecreascdand 5３ lmtemationalLabourMigrationandWorkers，RemittanceinAsia mosttraditionallabourexportingcountrieshaddifTicultyinrepayingextemaldebtor import・ThiswasthereasonwhytheyintroducedtheStructuralAdjustmentPolicies aftertheGulfCrises、 ThebeliefbehindtheStructuralAdjustmentPoliciesis,,，fundamentalproblem ofdevelopingcountriesarecausedbygovemmentintemvention,,、Thisbeliefseems ataglancetoexplainthereasonwhylabourmigrationandtheirremittancescould nothavecontributedeconomicgrowthForexample，governmenttriedtoincrease efficiencyofuseoffbreignculTencyandtosubstituteimportsbyover-valuationof thecurrencyandrestrictionoftradeandcapitalaccounttransactions，such internventionpolicieshadnegativeeffbctslikediscouragingremittancethrough fbrmalchannels・Anotherexampleisthatofincentiveschemestoencourageremittancethroughfbrmalchannelsbyofferinghigherinterestratemcreasedvolatilityof capitalmovement・ Itistruethatover-valuationofCurrency,regulationoftradeandcapitalaccount transactionsandcontrolofinterestrateshaddiscouragedremittanceandfinancial intermediation．Andbycorrectingallthoseinterventions,incentivestomigrateand remittohomewouldbestimulated、However,wemustnotbetoooptimisticbecause toomuchmigrationcouldbeabottlenecktoindustrialization,ａｎｄｔｏｏｍｕｃｈｒｅｍｉｔ‐ tancecouldreducecompetitivenessofexportsbystrengtheningCurrency・Thereare aheadysomesignsoftroublｅｓｕｃｈａｓinIndia,wheremostgraduatesofhighertech‐ nologicalinstituteschoosetoworkabroad,andinPakistan,wherereturmlnigrantare notwillmｇｔｏｗｏｒｋａｔｈｏｍｅｂｅｃａｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｗａｇｅｇapandwaitfbrnextchancetowork abroadInSriLanka,teachersofvocationalschoolthemselvesareeagertofindjobs abroadandthiscausedasenousproblemi、qualityofthevocationaleducatio、 system，Ｓｏｍｅａｒｇｕｅｔｈａｔｔｈｉｓｋｉｎｄｏｆｂｒａｉｎｄｒaincannotbeabottleneckofdevelopmentbecausethereisn,tademandlbrityetatthepre-industrializationstage・Non theless,inasensethatevenatthepre-industrializationstage,thewagelevelofengi‐ neers，hasbecomeclosertotheinternationalaverage,thisissurelyoneofthedisad‐ vantagesofstartingtheindustrializationprocess・Underthecurrentsituationwhere notonlycapitalbutalsolabourmovesbeyondnationalborders，wecannotassume thatbyde-regulatingtrade，somecomparativelyadvantageousindustrieswhichare determmedaccordingtocapitalandlabourallocationofeachcountrywouldgrow・ Labourmigrationfromdevelopingcountriestodevelopedcountriescancreatethe situationwheredevelopingcountriespayfbreducationandtrainingoflabourand developedcountriesutilizethosehumanresources,whichisasimilarproblemtothat betweenubanandruralareawithinnationalboundaries． （３）TasksoftheTraditiOnalLabourExportingCountriesfOrtheEconomic Development ThesituationwherelabourmovesbeyondnationalbordersmakesitdifHcultfbr developingcountriestorealizecomparativeadvantageofhavingcheapandabundant labour，Thetaskfbrdevelopingcountriesiｓｔｏｕｔilizetheirlabourdomesticallyand thisrequiresmoreactiveenterprises・Thecorefimctionofenterprise，sactivitiesisto combinelabour,capital,technologyandotherresourceslbrproduction、 Toestablishandenhancetheactivityofdomesticenterprises,vocationaltraining tomeetdemanｄｆｂｒｄｏｍｅｓｔｉｃｍａｒｋｅｔｓｈａｖｅｔｏｂｅｇｉｖenmoreemphasis・Alsointro‐ ducingfbreigndirectinvestmeｎｔｃａｎｂｅａｕｓｅｆＵｌｗａｙｏｆｐｒｏｍｏｔｉｎｇａｎenterprise，ｓ 5４ YoshieShimanc activities・ ＴｈｅｒｅｗａｓａｎａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔｉｎＪａｐａｎｔｈａｔｗeshouldallowmorefbreignworkersｔｏ ｗｏｒｋｉｎＪａｐａｎａｓｏｎｅｏｆｗａｙｓｏｆｐｒｏｍotingeconomiccooperationwithdeveloping countries・Behindthisargument,therewasabeliefthatworkerscanaquireskillsin Japanandutilizethｅｍａｔｈｏｍｅ・Butitismorelikelythattheirchancetoutilizethose skillsisverylimited・Therefbritisbettertocreateaproductionbaseindeveloping countriｅｓａｎｄｔｒａｉｎｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｔｏｍｅｅｔｄｅｍａｎｄｏfthoseenterpnses． Notes ｉ）IntheBalanceofPaymentManualoflnternationalMonetaryFund,remittanceis devidedintothreecategories（Labourlncome,WorkersRemittances,MigrantTrans‐ hers)．Althoughthosethreetermsareverypreciselydefined,itisdiffilculttodistinguishactualflowofmoney ii）Athukorala,Ｐ.,EnhancingDevelopmentlmpactofMigrantRemittances:AReview ofAsianExperiences,IntemationalLabourOrganization，1993,ｐ､９． iii）Athukorala,Ｐ.,ｏｐ・Cit.,ｐｌＬ Ｗ）Athukorala,Ｐ.,ｏｐｃｉｔ.,ｐ､６． ｉｖ）Athukorala,Ｐ.,ｏｐｃｉｔ.,ｐ､６． Ｖ）Ｋｉｍ,Ｓ,ContractMigrationintheRepublicofKorea:Intema Ｖ）Ｋｉｍ,Ｓ,ContractMigrationintheRepublicofKorea:IntemationalMigrationfbr Employment,IntemationalLabourOrganization，1982,ｐ２６． Ｖi）WorldBank,TheEastAsianMiracle,OxfbrdUniversityPress， 1９９３ 5５
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