SEDIMENTARY
GEOLOGY
ELSEVIER
Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
Sedimentology and palaeo-environment of the Upper Visean
anhydrite of the Franco-Belgian Carboniferous Basin
(Saint-Ghislain borehole, southern Belgium)
Thierry De Putter a, Jean-Marie Rouchy b, Alain Herbosch a, Eddy Keppens c,
Catherine Pierre d Eric Groessens e
Universit~ Libre de Bruxelles, D~pt. des Sciences de la Terre et de l'Environnement, CP 160 / 02, 50, av. F.D. Roosevelt,
B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
b Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Laboratoire de G~ologie (CNRS URA 723), 43, rue Buffon, F- 75005 Paris, France
c Vrije Universiteit Brusse~ Geochronologie, Pleinlaan, 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
a Universit~ Pierre et Marie Curie, L.O.D.Y.C, 4, Pl. Jussieu, 75252 Paris cedex 05, France
e Service G~ologique de Belgique, 13, rue Jenner, B-1040 Brussels, Belgium
a
(Received January 27, 1993; revised version accepted September 27, 1993)
Abstract
The Upper Visean (Carboniferous) evaporitic basin of the Franco-Belgian Variscan domain is represented by the
thick anhydrite series cored at Saint-Ghislain (Hainaut, southern Belgium) and Epinoy 1 (northern France).
Although the sedimentary record has been modified by post-depositional events (early and late diagenesis,
tectonics), a study based on sedimentology, stable isotope data (sulphates and carbonates) and micropalaeontology
of the Upper Visean (V3) stratigraphic interval from Saint-Ghislain, allows reconstruction of the evaporitic
sedimentation processes and the establishment of a palaeogeographic framework. Most of these Ca-sulphate
deposits were subtidal. Deposition occurred in a shallow-water, marine-fed lagoon or "salina" filled by a cyclic
shoaling-upward sequence mainly composed of Ca-sulphates associated with carbonates.
1. Introduction
The Lower Carboniferous of Belgium is composed essentially of carbonate deposits which
formed a large platform running along the London-Brabant massif. Since the beginning of the
century, it has been the object of numerous studies, mainly palaeontologic and stratigraphic in
nature (Conil and Lys, 1964; Conil et al., 1990).
Delmer (1972) predicted the existence of
Palaeozoic evaporites in the region covered today
by the Cretaceous deposits of the Haine Basin.
Delmer considered that the morphology of the
bottom of the basin resulted from the halokinetic
deformation and dissolution of Middle Devonian
(Givetian) evaporites known laterally in the boreholes of Annapes, Tournai and Vieux-Leuze, located to the northwest of Saint-Ghislain (Legrand,
1960; Van Tassel, 1960). The Visean evaporites
were discovered four years later in the SaintGhislain borehole (Fig. 1) (Dejonghe et al., 1976).
The cumulated thickness of the Devonian-Di-
0037-0738/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDI 0037-0738(93)E0121-U
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T De Putter et aL ~Sedimentary Geology O0 (1994) 77 03
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Fig. 1. Locationmap.
nantian beds (5300 m) did not allow verification
of the extent of the Middle Devonian evaporites
because the borehole ended in the Upper Devonian (Frasnian) at a depth of 5403.25 m. Delmer
(1977) suggested that the great thickness of the
Dinantian beds (2550 m), by comparison with the
600-700 m of the same formations usually observed in outcrops, indicated a high rate of sedimentation in a trough subsequently named the
"Sillon borain" by Michot (1980). The southern
border of this trough remains unknown because
the sediments are buried beneath the Dinant
thrust sheet whose northern limit corresponds to
the "Midi Overthrust" (or Variscan front) (Fig.
1). Seven years later the petroleum borehole of
Epinoy 1 (50 km to the southwest of SaintGhislain), drilled to the south of the Variscan
front, revealed an anhydrite-bearing formation,
more than 900 m thick, occurring in an overturned position under the Midi Overthrust and
cut by a system of internal thrust sheets
(Laumondais et al., 1984). This discovery showed
that the Visean evaporites occupied an area larger
than the "Sillon borain" and were affected by
Hercynian compressive deformations (Rouchy et
al., 1984; Laumondais et al., 1984).
These evaporites, and their lateral equivalents
(represented by carbonate a n d / o r siliceous pseudomorphs of Ca-sulphate minerals within the carbonate platform deposits), have been the subject
of several stratigraphic, sedimentologic and geochemical studies (Rouchy et al., 1984, 1987; Pierre
et al., 1984; Pierre, 1986; Pierre and Rouchy,
1986). Their discovery revived the debate about
the formation of certain major Visean (V3a) breccias in this area, especially the "Grande Br~che",
favouring the hypothesis of in-situ collapse-solution of evaporites, although the chronology of the
dissolution varies from author to author (Rouchy
et al., 1984, 1987; Mamet et al., 1986; de Magn6e
et al., 1986).
Synthesis of the currently available data shows
that further progress will only be possible through
a study of the evaporitic facies, and their lateral
equivalent carbonate rocks, within a defined
stratigraphic interval. The good stratigraphic resolution available for these formations, and the
continuous coring across the Visean series, offer
an exceptional opportunity for such an approach.
It also offers an opportunity to study the continuous sedimentation record, thus providing a reference succession for the interpretation of thick
Fig. 2. Lithologiccolumnand sedimentologicdata of the Saint-Ghislainborehole, includingsedimentarystructuresof the anhydrite
and carbonate layers,carbonate-calciumsulphateratio, sequentialanalysisusingthe majorcarbonate mierofaciesdescribedin the
text and gamma-raydata.
T. De Putter et al. / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
COMPOSITION
%100|0 llO 40 20 0
calcium s u l f a t e
,c.
.0:040so a0,00~
SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS
Ii JJ,I~,
Microfacl6s
! 2 s 4 s 6 T a . 910
e
e
anhydrite
LITHOLOGY
STRUCTURES
ANHYDRITE
~
STRUCTURES
CARBONATES
~
~iii~carbonates
nodular ~
s t r e t c h e d nodules
highly d e f o r m e d
~enterolitic
~
mosaic
ieminated carbonates I
[massive carbonates ~breccies
conglomerates ~siumps
~mud-cracks
~bird's
eyes
teepees
(~ g o n l a t i t e s
(~ c r i n o i d s
gypsum
<> p o r p h y r o t o p i c
~ poikilotopic
.~.siiicifi^ ^ ^ ^ paeudomorphs
anhydrlte
anhydrlte
"" c a t i o n s
79
80
T. De Putter et al. ~Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77 ~93
evaporitic sequences formed in intra-platform lagoons. The study, carried out on both the anhydrite and carbonate deposits, is mainly based on
high-resolution observations of the sedimentology
and microfaunal assemblages, and stable isotope
measurements on the sulphates and carbonates.
2. Stratigraphic background
The 760 m thick evaporite bearing formation is
situated within the predominantly carbonate Dinantian sedimentary succession of more than 2500
m (Groessens et al., 1979). In this interval, the
evaporites appear as massive layers of anhydrite,
although thinner beds and scattered pseudomorphs are still present in the underlying deposits. The studied sequences correspond to the
V3 foraminiferal biozone of the European Visean
which occurs between 2100 m and 1936.50 m
(Groessens et al., 1979) (Fig. 2). This stratigraphic
zone of the Dinantian in the Franco-Belgian
basin is equivalent to the Holkerian and to the
base of the Asbian (U.K. stratigraphy), and to the
base of the Upper Missisippian (U.S. stratigraphy).
The formation is composed of about 85% anhydrite and 15% carbonate (Fig. 2).
3. Ca-sulphate deposits: petrography and stable
isotope composition
3.1. Petrography
Nodular anhydrite. The anhydrite generally occurs as dm- to m-thick layers characterized by a
dominant nodular facies (Fig. 3). The cm- to
dm-sized nodules generally display ellipsoidal to
subspheric shapes. All the structures classically
described for nodular anhydrite (Maiklem et al.,
1969; Holliday, 1971) may be observed in the
cores. These are: scattered or coalescent nodules,
mosaic or chicken wire, wispy, massive, sometimes enterolithic (Groessens et al., 1979; Rouchy
et al., 1984, 1987; De Putter et al., 1991).
The nodular structures have been obliterated
locally as a result of tectonically induced defor-
Fig. 3. Common nodular facies observed within the massive
anhydrite. Where the nodules are in contact with each other
they give rise to a chicken-wire-like pattern (lower part of the
photo) while other nodules display angular to elongated shapes
which could indicate gypsum precursors. Saint-Ghislain borehole, 2002.60 m.
mation which produced: (1) elongation of the
nodules along a plane oblique to the stratification; (2) mechanical lamination, microfolds and,
with increasing deformation, textures evoking a
gneissic facies (Groessens et al., 1979; Rouchy et
al., 1984, 1987). At places, the undeformed cmsize nodules are truncated by a generation of
stratiform stylolites.
Pseudomorphs after gypsum
(1) Lenticular crystals appear as biconvex
lenses of several 100/xm to 2 mm in length and
are mainly observed in the homogeneous or laminated micrites (Fig. 4). This gypsum habit usually
grows interstitially within a host sediment in both
emergent (phreatic and vadose conditions) and
subaqueous conditions. They are replaced by clear
equigranular sparite a n d / o r by clear anhydrite.
T. De Putter et al. / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
81
(2) Relics of selenite gypsum may be recognized through cm-size nodules of anhydrite which
exhibit preferred orientation sub-perpendicular
to the original bedding of the carbonate (Rouchy
et al., 1984). The tops of individual nodules show
a triangular shape with the apex pointing upwards (Fig. 5). This suggests that the former
gypsum was monocrystalline rather than twinned
(Loucks and Longman, 1982; Shearman, 1983;
Warren and Kendall, 1985). The pseudomorphs
are either scattered, or grouped, to form layers of
vertically oriented nodules resembling those of
selenitic crusts. Locally, they are associated with
relics of lenticular crystals.
The formation of selenite is now well documented in modem and ancient evaporitic settings
where it results mainly from subaqueous precipitation of crystals nucleated at the bottom of evap-
Fig. 5. Nodular anhydrite in which the nodules are elongated
in a vertical to subvertical direction (dashed lines) indicating
that they represent pseudomorphs after selenitic gypsum
crystals. These crystals may be interpreted as resulting
from primary subaqueous growth. Saint-Ghislain borehole,
2080.40 m.
Fig. 4. Triangular-shaped crystals (gypsum pseudomorphs)
developed in laminated limestones of possibly algal origin.
The overlying calcareous laminae are usually deformed and
some laminae may compensate the induced relief indicating
a very early diagenetic growth. Saint-Ghislain borehole,
1958.93 m.
oritic pools (Shearman and Orti Cabo, 1978;
Rouchy, 1982; Warren, 1982; Orti Cabo et al.,
1984; Schreiber, 1988, among others).
Because the Visean rocks have been buried as
deeply as 2500 m, we may consider that the
dehydration of gypsum to anhydrite was due to
an increase in temperature and pressure with
burial. This replacement may partially preserve
the former crystalline morphologies, or obliterate
them, leading to the development of nodular to
mosaic facies which are similar to the structure of
the early diagenetic anhydrite (Rouchy, 1980;
Shearman, 1983). Accordingly, it is difficult to
estimate the relative proportions of anhydrite resulting from the two processes. Moreover, the
tectonism has contributed to the destruction of
the original gypsum fabric.
(3) The gypsum cement is represented by cm-
82
T. De Putter et at/Sedimentao' Geology 90 (1994) 77-03
sized irregular masses of poikilotopic anhydrite
within carbonate sediments (Fig. 2, symbol to the
right of the carbonate structure column). The
anhydrite masses are aggregates of hypidiotopic
anhydrite laths of a few 100/zm in length and do
not display any preferred orientation or mechanical deformation. They are easily recognized on a
polished surface because of their iridescence,
which is similar to that of labradorite. The host
sediment is generally composed of highly porous
carbonates, such as packstone or grainstone, with
"micropeloids", peloids or ooids. The poikilotopic anhydrite is often developed in laminated
carbonates, occurring at the top of shallowing-upward sequences (described below). The anhydrite
commonly includes particles of uncemented carbonate in which it grew, except at 2054.60 m,
where an isopachous siliceous cement surrounds
the ooids (De Putter, 1991).
The characteristics of these anhydritic masses
(irregular boundaries, inclusive growth) are similar to those of the monocrystalline gypsum cements which generally develop in coarse-grained
carbonates (with ooids, peloids or shells). This
gypsum cement incorporates, and partially replaces, the carbonate components, and it generally plugs the porosity. The formation of such
gypsum cements may be related to processes of
capillary concentration of interstitial solutions in
exposed sediments. These cements could be compared with those described by Logan (1987) in
the upper part of outcropping sedimentary profiles in Lake MacLeod (Western Australia). The
further transformation of gypsum into anhydrite
could also result from burial-controlled dehydration.
(4) Miscellaneous pseudomorphs occur
throughout the laminated carbonates as different
varieties of undeformed anhydrite: (1) ram- to
cm-sized arborescent crystalline structures; (2)
crystals with triangular shapes and apices oriented upwards. These crystals are sometimes replaced by calcite (Fig. 4). The plastic deformation
of the host sediment, and the compensation of
the resultant relief through the deposition of the
overlying layers, indicates that growth of these
crystals took place early. They are inferred to
have had a gypsum precursor.
Porphyrotopic anhydrite and "lined" fissures
These anhydrite facies are usually developed
within micritic deposits through the incorporation
of a significant fraction of the host sediment.
They are composed of ram- to mm-sized idiotopic
monocrystals. The faces of the crystals are commonly emphasized by a rim of limpid anhydrite of
several tens of micrometres, while the crystal
centres contain abundant inclusions of micrite.
These crystals can be scattered within the carbonates, surrounding the deformed anhydritic nodules, emphasizing glide surfaces or microfolds in
the deformed carbonate layers.
The "lined" fissures, 100 t~m to 2 mm in
width, are filled by anhydrite crystals whose size
generally equals the width of the fissure. These
crystals are devoid of micritic inclusions while the
fissures are lined by an approximately 150 Izm
thick layer of micrite-rich porphyrotopic crystals
growing centripetally into the carbonate from the
border of the fissure (Fig. 6).
Porphyrotopes and "lined" fissures are always
devoid of any trace of tectonic deformation. They
can be associated with both sedimentary discontinuities or stylolitic joints which seem to cut the
anhydrite (Fig. 7). A decrease in crystal size is
observed locally as one moves away from these
discontinuities.
Rouchy et al. (1984, 1987) considered this anhydrite to be of late diagenetic origin, its growth
having occurred within fine-grained carbonates
by incorporation and replacement of the matrix.
The close relationships with diagenetic and tectonic discontinuities (stylolites, edges of deformed nodules, microfolds, glide planes) indicates that their growth was favoured by post-depositional events. In contrast, the apparent truncation of the porphyrotopic and fissure-filling anhydrite by stylolites would suggest an early diagenetic formation. Nevertheless, the higher concentration of porphyrotopic and fissure-filling anhydrite along stylolites (or glide planes) as well as
their decrease in size and concentration with
increasing distance from these discontinuities,
suggest that such discontinuities controlled the
growth of the anhydrite. As in Finkel and Wilkinson (1990), who considered the stylolites as a
source of the cements, we suggest that the diage-
T. De Putter et aL / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
83
netic and tectonic discontinuities acted as conduits for the cementing fluids.
3.2. Stable isotope data (180/s4S)
Previous isotopic data (~180//834S) on the sulphates of the Visean anhydrites from the SaintGhislain and Epinoy 1 boreholes clearly indicated
their marine origin (Pierre et al., 1984; Pierre,
1986; Pierre and Rouchy, 1986). For this study,
six samples characteristic of the different facies
(nodular, laminated, pseudomorphs after gypsum) were selected from the V3 anhydrite, between 2082 m and 1960 m. The measured values
(13.0 < 8 1 s O ~ S M O W < 15.4; 15.3 < ~34SO~o
CDT < 17.4) fall within the range of 8 values
characteristic of Visean marine sulphates (Fig. 8).
Fig. 7. Porphyrotopic anhydrite (arrows) developed within
limestone layers separated by styloliticjoints. Note that the
carbonate layers can be entirely invaded by the anhydfite.
Saint-Ghislain borehole, 2100.63 m.
The highest values, measured in the upper part of
the interval, may be related to increased bacterial
activity at the time of anhydrite deposition.
4. Carbonate deposits
4.1. Macrofacies
Fig. 6. Lined fissures. The fissures are filled by limpid anhydrite while a layer of dirty micritic-rich crystals of porphyrotopic anhydrite lines the fissure. Note the thin peripheral rim
of limpid anhydrite which emphasizes the limit of the lining.
The idiotopic crystal on the fight is quartz. Saint-Ghislain
borehole, 2057.65 m.
The carbonates, which represent about 15% of
the sediments over the interval studied, appear as
decimetre-thick intercalations generally composed of grey, black or beige homogeneous or
laminated mudstone. The beige layers are
dolomitic. Both the basal and the uppermost parts
of the section are characterized by dark-coloured
facies, richer in bioclasts, and by the presence of
cherts. These cherty occurrences appear either as
centimetre-size, black, kidney-like nodules in the
84
7~ De Putter et al. /Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
basal deposits or as black, grey or beige centimetre-thick stratiform ribbons near the top.
The lower half of the interval contains twelve
sequences, each 10 to 20 cm in thickness and
each showing a similar succession of facies from
base to top: (1) black wackestone with small bioclasts, 2) wackestone or packstone with large bioclasts and mm- to cm-size subspheric coated
grains, and (3) laminated oolitic grainstone (mmthick laminae). Goniatites are occasionally present in the first two layers of these sequences
(Fig. 9). They belong to the MiJnsteroceratide
genera, probably to Miinsteroceras or Dzhaprakoceras (D. Korn, pers. commun., 1990).
Various sedimentary structures are present in
the laminated carbonates: breccias, "microtepees", desiccation cracks. The breccias are of two
main types: (1) micro-breccia composed of millimetre- to centimetre-size flakes of light-grey
laminated carbonates within a black fine-grained
matrix (Fig. 10); and (2) breccia made up of
layered and centimetre-size fragments of carbonates with small anhydrite nodules. The microtepees and the desiccation cracks have no more
Fig. 9. Miinsteroceratid goniatite (cross-section) in grey bioctastic carbonate (brachiopods). Saint-Ghislain borehole,
2056.20 m.
than a few centimetres in amplitude (Fig. 11).
Stratiform stylolites and two generations of millimetre- to centimetre-wide fissures are commonly observed. The younger set corresponds to
oblique fissures while the later one is composed
of vertically oriented fissures filled by anhydrite
or carbonates (calcite or dolomite), sometimes
associated with native sulphur.
I.- 20
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U
In 11)
qr
g
IS
4.2. Microfacies
0
o o
D
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D~e
41,,
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ee
e e
13
6~eO SMOW
Fig. 8. Sulphur and oxygen isotope composition of sulphate
from anhydrite deposits. The six samples from Saint-Ghislain
(SG 01 to SG 06) analyzed for this study are represented by
squares while data previously obtained on Saint-Ghislain and
Epinoy 1 cores (Pierre et al., 1984; Pierre, 1986; Pierre and
Rouchy, 1986) are indicated, respectively, by diamonds and
dots.
Ten microfacies have been recognized in the
Saint-Ghislain cores. Six of them (MF1 to MF6)
are scarce in the interval studied (Fig. 2) while
four which are classified MF7 to 10 are more
frequent and are characteristic of the Visean in
the Franco-Belgian basin.
Bioturbated and cross-bedded bioclastic wackestone (MF1), This laminated wackestone is composed of small non-micritized debris of a wide
variety of marine fossils (including brachiopods,
echinoderms, ostracods, trilobites) and rare fragments of palaeoberesellids which together indicate a normal marine environment. Sporadic
T. De Putter et al. / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
!
Fig. 10. Micro-breccia with desiccation flakes of beige laminar
(algal) carbonate displaced by the growth of anhydrite nodules. Saint-Ghislain borehole, 1973.45 m.
cross-bedding points to a variable energy rate.
The bioturbation features (horizontal galeries and
burrows) indicate subtidal conditions. This micro-
i i~
Fig. 11. Tepee structure ("micro-tepee") in dark grey laminated carbonate. Saint-Ghislain borehole, 1992.50 m.
85
facies could be compared with that of distal tempestites (Tucker, 1981).
Bioclastic wakestone or packstone (MF2). This
highly bioturbated sediment contains numerous
organisms and bioclasts (brachiopods, mollusks,
foraminifers, echinoderms, calcispheres, dissociated valves of ostracods, trilobites) associated with
fragments of palaeoberesellids and issinellids.
Shells and fragments are often bioeroded and
micritized. A shallow open marine environment
may be inferred.
Bioclastic wackestone with oncoids (MF3). The
organisms and bioclasts comprise brachiopods,
mollusks, echinoderms, foraminifers and ostracods (with dissociated valves). The oncoids, a few
hundred tzm to mm in diameter, are made up of
a dense, cryptalgal, concentric laminated cortex
developed around organisms, bioclasts or bioclastic lumps. These features, and specifically the
structure of the oncoid coating, indicate a relatively high-energy marine environment (Peryt,
1983; Dahanayake, 1983).
Bioclastic wackestone (or pack,stone) with algal
lumps and intraclasts (MF4). Though abundant,
the bioclasts are composed of less diversified
organisms than in the previous microfacies
(MF1-3). They often appear coated by cryptalgal
micrite and sometimes form the nuclei of irregular-shaped oncoids approximately 500/zm in size.
The environment becomes more restricted and
the presence of algal intraclasts and lumps results
from the mechanical disintegration of algal mats
in the vicinity, during more energetic events.
Bioturbated mudstone (or wackestone) with algal micropeloids and coated bioclasts (MF5). The
poorly diversified assemblage of organisms comprises brachiopods, ostracods with connected
valves and calcispheres associated with scarce
trilobites and archeogastropods. Shells and bioclasts are often strongly coated and micritized.
Small algal micritic peloids (20-30/xm in diameter, "micropeloids") are abundant. All these
characteristics argue for a restricted lagoonal environment.
Laminated wackestone (or packstone) with algae and algal peloids (MF6). This laminated sediment contains recrystallized fragments of
palaeoberesellids and issinellids, micritic peloids,
86
T. De Putter et aL / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
fragments of brachiopods and rare calcispheres.
This microfacies is rare in the interval studied
and probably results from the disintegration of
palaeoberesellid and issinellid bafflestones in the
intertidal zone.
Conglomeratic wackestone or packstone with algal micrite intraclasts (MF7). The abraded and
subrounded algal micritic intraclasts of about 100
#m to 1 mm in size are usually included in a
sediment whose micritic matrix contains numerous micropeloids which occasionally constitute
the nuclei of ooids (cf. below, MF8). The microfauna is scarce, poorly diversified, endemic and
mainly composed of small ostracodes, sponge
spicules and numerous archeogastropods, these
latter organisms indicating intertidal conditions
(Burchette and Riding, 1977).
Algal boundstone and packstone with micropeloids (MF8). This microfacies, relatively common in the cores as well as in the laterally equivalent outcrops, is composed of an algal boundstone (the so-called "spongiostrome" boundstone
in Franco-Belgian terminology, see Giirich, 1906)
which has frequently decayed to a packstone with
micritic micropeloids (20-30 tzm in diameter).
The algal mats are typically made up of an alternation of dark micritic and lighter microsparitic
laminae. The dark laminae consist of elongated
or elliptical micritic peloids (40-500 /zm). Their
elongation is generally parallel to stratification.
The lighter microsparitic laminae are richer in
micropeloids and in various forms of fenestrae
(10 ~m to several mm). The algal mats themselves excepted, the microfauna is limited to a
few bioclasts (ostracodes, mollusks) and the microflora is rare and poorly preserved. The packstones are composed exclusively of micritic micropeloids (20-30 /xm) surrounded by calcitic microspar, which locally form the nuclei of radial
ooids (500/xm in diameter). Sometimes, this microfacies shows radiaxial fibrous calcite crusts
and asymmetric radial cements similar to those
observed in the Corenne borehole by De Putter
and Herbosch (1990). The algal mats are classically reported in shallow restricted to hypersaline
conditions and intertidal settings, while the abundance of fenestrae and the occasional occurrence
of micritic bridges and glaebules indicate that this
sediment was subaerially exposed and even sporadically subjected to pedogenetic processes
(Shinn, 1968; Purser, 1980).
Mudstone with ostracodes and sponge spicules
(MF9). This microfacies consists of a homogeneous mudstone including a few small bioclasts,
usually less than 150 to 200 /xm and mainly
composed of ostracodes, abundant sponge
spicules and rare fragments of brachiopods. The
abundance of organisms tolerating high salinity
rates in this muddy microfacies could be indicative of the intertidal zone.
Laminar mudstone (MF10). The laminar mudstone is sometimes dolomitized and can be altered to fine-grained microspar or cloudy
dolomite composed of hypidiotopic crystals less
than 50 /xm in size. It is devoid of organisms
a n d / o r bioclasts and shows occasionally small
irregular fenestrae, several 10 ~m in size. Diffuse
clouds of a black material (100/xm) occur occasionally. The laminites are made of alternating
homogeneous mudstone and wackestone/
packstone with small recrystallized bioclasts. This
laminated mudstone could represent micritized
algal mats or storm sediments deposited periodically over the coastal plain.
4.3. Depositional conditions
Based on the abundance of microfacies 8, 9
and 10, the application of the criteria generally
used for the reconstruction of the carbonate platform system (Wilson, 1975; Fliigel, 1982) suggests
that the carbonates were deposited in the upper
subtidal zone or in the inter- to supratidal zones.
Nevertheless, the dark laminites with gypsum
pseudomorphs evoke the algal laminites described in most modern hypersaline lagoons. The
poor diversity of the faunal assemblages (rare
ostracodes, sponge spicules) and the high micrite
content are also commonly observed in such restricted settings (Guelorget and Perthui~t, 1983;
Orti Cabo et al., 1984; Rouchy et al., 1984; Knoll,
1985).
The diversification of the fauna (e.g. foraminifers, echinoderms, goniatites) observed at the
base of the sequences indicates episodic reftUing
by normal marine water. Individual shallowing-
T. De Putter et al. / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
upward sequences record the progressive restriction of a marine setting due to eustatic variations
of small amplitude (De Putter and Pr6at, 1989).
The increasing restriction is responsible for the
reduction of the biological diversity, the growth
of algal mats and, finally, the precipitation of
evaporites.
87
4'
2,
00
0'
-2
al
I~,
B
-4~
C
=A'
-6
II
-a-'
4.4. Cathodoluminescence and stable isotope data
(180, lsC)
=A
-10£
-12 ¸
m
=
l
w
l
~
l
w
l
l
l
l
l
l
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8
The carbonate cements are (1) a rare nonluminescent first phase which predates the formation of (2) a frequent dull luminescent second
phase. The samples analyzed for stable isotope
composition have been extracted by drilling from
the surface of the sample which has been used
for thin-section making, after accurate selection
of the appropriate areas on both the thin-section
and the sample, based on CL (cathodoluminescence) and microscope photographs.
The non-luminescent phase is found in three
major types of cavities: (1) fenestrae in the packstones with "micropeloids" which are cemented
by cloudy microspar; (2) ghosts of dissolved
lenticular gypsum crystals; (3) equigranular clear
sparite containing minute inclusions of Casulphate in interparticle pores (10-100 /~m in
width) between breccia fragments.
The difficulties in sampling such cements allowed only two isotopic analyses in this study. A
previous result obtained on the sparitic filling of
a lenticular gypsum ghost gave 8 1 8 0 = -9.5%o
PDB and 813C = -8.5%o PDB (Pierre, 1986) (A
in Fig. 12); the measurement performed for this
study on sparite filling a fissure gave 8180 =
-12.5%o PDB and 813C = -5.2%0 PDB (A' in
Fig. 12). These 81aO values are consistent with
either meteoric diagenesis (i.e. meteoric waters
and low temperatures) or burial diagenesis (i.e.
lSO-enriched formation waters and moderately
high temperatures) (A and A' in Fig. 12). However, the lack of petrographic evidence in support
of meteoric diagenetic processes leads us to favour
the second alternative. The low 813C values indicate that oxidation of organic carbon possibly
related to bacterial sulphate reduction occurred
l
l
-6
l
l
-4
l
l
-2
0
2
4
~ 1So*/. pDB
Fig. 12. Oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of carbonate cements. A and A' represent non-luminescent cements,
B and C dull luminescent calcites and dolomites, respectively.
The non-designated values correspond to erratic values which
are difficult to interpret.
in the solutions from which these carbonates precipitated (Pierre, 1986).
The dull luminescent phase characterizes the
carbonate matrix of the sediment including the
small crystals of cloudy hypidiotopic dolomite. It
is also represented by the clear equigranular
sparite with anhydrite inclusions which constitutes the single phase filling of the vertical or
subvertical fissures.
The isotopic composition of these cements has
been measured on 9 samples; the values range
between -13.3 a n d - 4.9 for the 8180 and between - 0 . 7 and +2.1 for 813C, with average
values 8180 = - 9 . 5 and 813C = +0.5 (B in Fig.
12). The values obtained on the dolomites (7
samples) cover a wide range of variation both for
180 and 13C ( - 1 1 . 1 < 8 1 8 0 % o P D B < + 0 . 5 ,
-10.3 < 813C%0 PDB < +0.9) (C in Fig. 12).
These values fall within the range of values for
dull luminescent carbonates for which a deep
burial origin has been suggested (Grover and
Read, 1983; Moore, 1989). The 8180 values of
the dolomites are about 4.5%0 higher than the
carbonate values. This difference is at least 1%o
larger than the experimental enrichment factor
between cogenetic calcite and dolomite precipitated in the temperature range 80-100°C, i.e.
thermal conditions slightly higher than the pre-
8~
"l~ De Putter et al. / SedimentaD, Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
sent-day ones in the borehole (Fritz and Smith,
1970; Matthews and Katz, 1977). This means that
the dolomites and the calcites are not cogenetic
and that carbonates precipitated at lower temperatures.
The isotopic composition of these two carbonate cements, as well as their relative quantitative
importance, clearly indicate that the cementation
processes took place mainly during burial diagenesis. These conclusions are consistent with the
regional pattern of "trough" sedimentation undergoing continuous subsidence.
5. Discussion
The anhydritic sequence of Saint-Ghislain occurs within an extensive marine carbonate platform (Fig. 13). The marine origin of the brines
from which the sulphate evaporites were precipi-
...................
EOGRAPHY OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
POSITIVE AREAS
m
DEEP MARINE
SHALES g ELASTICS
DEEP MARINE SHALES
~ENISH
;, BASIN
ii,~
X
"\~
~
~
"~"
.~
.,~k..~v>4
~
~"
~
'
~
SHALLOWMARINE
SHALES & CARBONATES
DELTAIC.COASTAL &
SHALLOWMAR,NE CLAST,CS
SHALLOWMARINE
CARBONATES & ELASTICS
SHALLOWMARINE
CARBONATES I OOLITES
EVAPORITES
\
_*30os \
(~,o Latitude )
PALAEOGEOGRAPHI£ SKETCH OF THE CARBONATE &
LONDON-BRABANT
BOULOGNEAREA ~
'
-
-
~
(Northern France) , ~ - ~
"- :-'," -' ~
OEEpER~
~
;
"' :",-,2,'c"-~" " ~}='L','-'',~' ~'':, '-,
~
l
l
l ~l
ALGAL
FACIES
' ~
~
I~N/~BONATE,
l
~
~ ~ ....
--~
(?)
~.
;
~
EVAPORffE BELGIANPLATFORM ( UPPERVISEAN )
SHALLOW
SHALLOW MARINE
NAMUR
LAGOONAL___T___
~
INCLUDING
SUPRATIOALCARBONATES
PLATFU
~
~
INCREASED
SUBSIDENCE
RATE
Modified from Zieg[er ( 1982 } with data from B~esset at (1984),
Habich f (1979), Le 5atl el, at (1992), Ramsay (1991) & West el" at ( 1968 )
l~
l l
, ~
~ l,~
I
l
~
~
~ ' F A C I ~
Ee eR ARINE
(aE~MAN'~ULM''FA~IE~)
SEILLES
AREA
_, sok~
verl,icat scale exaggerated.
Th DE PUTTER ; 1991
~/
Fig. 13. Paleogeographic sketch (upper figure) of northwestern Europe during the Dinantian. Modified from Ziegler (1982), with
data from West et al. (1968), Habicht (1979), Bless et al. (1984), Ramsay (1991) and Le Gall et al. (1992). The studied area forms
the southeast part of a large carbonate platform surrounding an elongated massif composed of the Welsh high and the
London-Brabant massif. The outer limit of the platform is unknown as it is buried under Hercynian age thrusting but it could be
represented by discontinuous structural highs such as the Normannian and Mid-German highs (Ziegler, 1982). The lower figure is a
possible model of the Franco-Belgian carbonate platform and evaporitic basins in the Visean. The evaporitic basins of
Saint-Ghislain and Epinoy 1 could be interpreted as shallow subsiding areas within the platform.
T. De Putter et aL / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
tated is demonstrated by the sedimentology, the
stable isotope composition of the sulphates, and
the microfauna. The evaporitic depositional environments could be interpreted by two different
hypotheses: (1) early diagenetic evaporites formed
in supratidal settings; (2) mostly subaqueous deposition in hypersaline coastal lagoons or basins.
The abundance of nodular facies could argue
for early diagenetic anhydrite formed within a
supratidal sabkha system. However, the pure
composition of some anhydrite intervals over
thicknesses of several decametres does not correspond with the sedimentary characteristics expected for such a hydrological system. Continuous sabkha deposition, probably enhanced by
subsidence, would give a superposition of anhydrite layers within a carbonate matrix and not
massive anhydrite. Moreover, the ghosts of selenite and lenticular gypsum crystals clearly indicate
that gypsum was a major component of the seN
1°
HIGHSTAND
LONDON
BRABANT
MASSIF
I
89
quence before its dehydration during burial diagenesis. The presence of predominantly vertically
standing selenite crystals shows that at least part
of this gypsum crystallized subaqueously, at the
bottom of hypersaline pools. Nevertheless, this
does not preclude episodes of aerial exposure
responsible for the precipitation of evaporites in
the phreatic and capillary zones (monocrystalline
gypsum cements, nodular anhydrite, some lenticular gypsum crystals), mud cracks and asymmetric
cementation of the carbonate interlayers. Moreover, evaporites may also have been deposited
simultaneously in subaqueous conditions in the
residual brine ponds and from underground waters in the carbonate deposits exposed nearby.
Episodic phases of lateral progradation of the
sabkha, toward the lagoon, as has been commonly
reported in modern supratidal fiats in the Persian
Gulf, could also explain the alternation of subaqueous conditions and subaerial exposures.
S
SHALLOW
CARBONATE
PLATFORM
[
SILL
"AVESNES
RIDGE"
I
SHALLOW
BASIN
(~SILLON B O R A I N " )
I
free inflow
2 °
LOWSTAND
LONDON
BRABANT
MASSIF
E~
f ~
SABKHA
I
\ ~ ~ . . .
BARRIER ?
"AVESNES
RIDGE"
SALINA
( H Y P E R S A L I N E BRINE )
LEGEND
[~
shallow platform carbonate (mostly laminated)
biociesUc limestone
gypsite (coarse-grained selenite gypsum)
lenticular gypsum crystal
nodular enhydrite
i
,
50kin
I
i
I
I
Fig. 14. Interpretative N-S profile through the France-Belgian carbonate platform showing the relations between the carbonate
and evaporitic depositional environments during periods of free connection with the open sea (A) and of restriction (B).
90
T. De Putter et al. ~Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
The occurrence in the sedimentary succession
of shallow marine deposits, evaporites and organisms of open marine and deeper affinities (goniatites) indicate that large fluctuations in water
depth and composition took place. Gypsum precipitation from shallow subperennial brines characterizes periods of lowstanding water occurring
when the basin was isolated or closed from the
open sea. As in many modern evaporitic lagoons,
the level of the brines was thus lower than that of
the marine reservoir. Reduced inputs of marine
water continued to enter the lagoon by direct
inflow through narrow straits, or by underground
seepage across the barrier. Nevertheless, normal
marine conditions were episodically re-established in response to sea level rises which refilled
the lagoon by marine water passing over the
barrier.
Although its extent could be larger than that
suggested by the few known occurrences of anhydrite, the Saint-Ghislain evaporitic basin must be
considered as a relatively shallow lagoon (salina)
experiencing alternating periods of restriction, responsible for evaporitic conditions and even desiccation stages, and refills by marine water (Figs.
13 and 14). The high frequency of these fluctuations could be due to shallow-water conditions
coupled with small-amplitude eustatic variations
rather than tectonic factors. Evaporitic lagoons in
extensive carbonate platforms have no equivalent
in modern environments. Although there is a
tremendous difference in size, the organization of
the sedimentary environments in the SaintGhislain area during the evaporitic stages could,
nevertheless, be compared to the sedimentary
systems described on Bonaire in the Netherlands
Antilles (Lucia, 1968) and along the Persian Gulf
(Purser, 1985), where hypersaline ponds are surrounded by extensive peripheral supratidal flats.
In addition to the alteration of the sedimentary record by post-depositional events, the
palaeogeographic reconstruction remains difficult
due to the disappearance of the southern limit of
the basin beneath the Midi Overthrust. The regional thickening of the Devonian and Carboniferous series and the thickness of the SaintGhislain anhydritic formation (760 m) are classically considered as the indication of a highly
subsiding area beginning in the Devonian (Delmer, 1977). According to Ziegler (1982), the area
was part of an east-west elongate gulf located
between the London-Brabant massif to the north
and the Normannian high and the Mid-German
high to the south and to the southeast, respectively (Fig. 13). These highs may have been islands of an archipelago (i.e. morphologic barriers
contributing to the restriction and isolation of
lagoons during negative eustatic variations). Nevertheless, the position of the southern highs remains highly speculative and they could have
been located farther to the south. It is clear that
the area occupied by the evaporitic deposits
(Saint-Ghislain and Epinoy 1) was part of a depression which existed from Devonian to Mesozoic times, but the size of the basins may vary
from that of small pull-apart basins (A. Khatir,
pers. commun., 1992) to that of a larger subsiding
area between the Brabant high and a southern
fault system (Nord-Artois and Faille Bordi~re
(M. Hennebert, pers. commun., 1991).
Two hypotheses may be proposed for the morphology of the evaporitic basin:
(1) A " minimalist" hypothesis would propose
that the Saint-Ghislain region was occupied by a
small subsiding depression of several km to tens
of km in width, isolated within the carbonate
platform.
(2) Alternatively, the Saint-Ghislain area could
have been a large evaporitic domain located south
of the carbonate platform and subdivided into
large evaporitic lagoons and shoals covered with
carbonate deposits (Fig. 14). This hypothesis is
supported by the significant thickness of the
Saint-Ghislain (and Epinoy 1) evaporitic formations and by the presence of thick breccia resulting partially from the dissolution of the evaporites. The local deformation of these evaporites by
the Hercynian compression provides further support (Rouchy et al., 1987).
The anhydritic sequence of the Saint-Ghislain
borehole demonstrates that this area, as well as
its southern counterpart represented by the series
of the Epinoy 1 borehole, constitute the remains
of an evaporitic basin of great size. Although
there are difficulties in accurately interpreting
the sedimentary record, this study allows the re-
T. De Putter et al. / Sedimentary Geology 90 (1994) 77-93
construction of the depositional conditions of the
shallow-water evaporites in a lagoon located
within a large marine carbonate platform. Fluctuations in the water level explain the coeval deposition of evaporites by subaqueous precipitation
in hypersaline ponds and by crystallization within
supratidal fiats bordering the lagoons.
6. Acknowledgements
Cores and thin sections of the Saint-Ghislain
borehole have been kindly provided by L. Dejonghe, Director of the Belgian Geological Survey. The research of Thierry De Putter has been
carried out as part of his doctoral thesis at the
Universit6 Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium) which is
subsidized by an I.R.S.I.A. grant (Belgium). The
study of the Belgian Visean breccias was supported by the Belgian Fonds National de la
Recherche Scientifique (Nr. 2.9005.88). Financial
support has been provided by the MusEum
National d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris (ASP
"Br~ches pal6ozo'iques"). We are very grateful to
F. Ricci-Lucchi and T.V. Burchette for their
helpful and constructive reviews. We thank D.
Korn (Tiibingen, Germany) for the identification
of the goniatites. Finally, we are grateful to Mrs
N. Cromps and A. Cambreleng for the drawings.
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