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In g .h ab i l .D r .S ab in eKun s t D e k and e rM a th em a t i s ch -N a tu rw i s s en s ch a f t l i ch enF a ku l t ä t : P r o f .D r .E lm a rKu l k e Gu t a ch t e r : 1 .P r o f .D r .A l e x and e rK app e s 2 .P r o f .D r .A l l anH a l l g r en 3 .P r o f .D r .Th om a sL oh s e T a gd e rmünd l i ch enP rü fun g : 0 2 . 0 2 . 2 0 1 7 Zu sammen fa s sung G a l ak t i s ch eundex t r a g a l ak t i s ch eOb j ek t es indind e rL ag eg e l ad en eT e i l ch en(d i ek o s m i s ch eS t r ah lun g )zus eh rh oh en En e rg i enzub e s ch l eun ig en .A l l e rd ing ss indno chv i e l eF r ag enb e zü g l i chd i e s e r Ob j ek t eundd e rB e s ch l eun igung sm e ch an i sm enoff en .Sow oh l G amm a s t r ah lun ga l sau ch N eu t r in o sw e rd env ond en B e s ch l eun igung so r t enk o sm i s ch e r S t r ah lunge rw a r t e t .Ih rN a chw e i se rmög l i ch td i eS tud i ed i e s e rk o sm i s ch en T e i l ch enb e s ch l eun ig e r .G amm a s t r ah lun g wu rd ev ong a l ak t i s ch enundex t r a -g a l ak t i s ch en Ob j ek t en b eob a ch t e t .Fü rv i e l ed i e s e r Ob j ek t ei s te sj edo chn i ch te ind eu t igobd i e s eG amm a s t r ah lunge inR e su l t a td e rB e s ch l eun i gungk o sm i s ch e rS t r ah l eni s tod e rdu r chand e r eP ro z e s s ee r z eug t wu rd e .Fü rN eu t r in o sb e s t eh td i e s eZw e id eu t igk e i tn i ch t ,s i es inde ind eu t ig e Spu r end e rB e s ch l eun i gun gk o sm i s ch e rS t r ah l en .D i e sm a ch ts i ezuid e a l en Bo t en .D e r a s t rophy s ik a l i s ch eN eu t r in oflu s s wu rd ev omI c eCub eN eu t r ino Ob s e rv a to r iumamSüd po lg em e s s en .E in z e ln e Qu e l l end i e s e sF lu s s e sk onn t enno chn i ch tau fg e lö s tw e rd en .D e r Südh imm e lb eh e im a t e tv i e l eg a l ak t i s ch e Ob j ek t e ,un t e r And e r end a sZ en t rumd e rG a l ax i e ,v ond en en G amm a s t r ah lun gimGeV undTeVB e r e i chb eob a ch t e tw i rd .D i eD e t ek t ionv onN eu t r in o sw ä r ee inB ew e i sfü rd i eB e s ch l eun igungk o sm i s ch e rS t r ah lungv on d i e s en Ob j ek t enundwü rd eRü ck s ch lü s s eau fih r eUmg ebungundih r eB e s ch l eun igung s m e ch an i sm ene r l aub en .D e rN a chw e i sd i e s e rN eu t r ino sm i tI c eCub ew i rddu r chd ens eh r g roß enUn t e r g rundv ona tm o sph ä r i s ch en My on ene r s chw e r t .Fü rd i e s e rA rb e i twu rd ee in e D a t en s e l ek t i onen tw i ck e l td i ed en Un t e rg runddu r ch V e rw endungd e säuß e r en D e t ek to r t e i l sundd e rEv en t t opo l o g i er edu z i e r t .D i eAn a ly s ei s tau fd i eS e l ek t ionv on My on spu r en au sW e ch s e lw i rkun g env on My onn eu t r ino sinn e rh a lbd e sD e t ek to rv o lum en ssp e z i a l i s i e r t . En e rg i ev e r lu s t eund R i ch tun gd e rr e su l t i e r end en My on spu rw e rd enr ek on s t ru i e r t .D i e s e In fo rm a t i on en w e rd env e rw end e tumn a chpo t en t i e l l en Qu e l l ena s t rophy s ik a l i s ch e rN eu t r inoim R ahm ene in e run g eb inn t enL ik e l ihood an a ly s ezusu ch en .D a t end i ezw i s ch en 2011und2 0 1 5m i tI c eCub eg en omm enwu rd enw e rd enfü rd i e s e An a ly s ev e rw end e t .Im G eg en s a t zzuf rüh e r enA rb e i t enl i e g td e rF oku sau fN eu t r ino sm i tEn e rg i enzw i s ch ene in p a a rTeVund1 00TeV.Ind i e s emEn e rg i eb e r e i chw i rdd i eS en s i t iv i t ä tfü rd i eD e t ek t ion e in e rN eu t r in opunk tqu e l l eume in enF ak to rzw e i(od e rb e s s e r )v e rb e s s e r t .D i eR e su l t a t e fü re in eL i s t ev on9 6Qu e l lk and id a t enundfü re in eoff en eSu ch eamg e s am t enSüdh imm e l w e rd enp r ä s en t i e r t .E swu rd ek e in es ign ifik an t eAbw e i chungv ond e rUn t e rg rundhypo th e s e g e fund en .D a r au sr e su l t i e r enL im i t a t ion enfü rN eu t r ino em i s s ion en . Ab s t ra c t Th e r ea r ea c c e l e r a t o r sinth eun iv e r s eth a tc ana c c e l e r a t ech a rg edp a r t i c l e s( co sm i c r ay s )tov e ryh i ghen e r g i e s . M anyqu e s t ion sr eg a rd ingth e s ea c c e l e r a to r sa r es t i l lop en . G amm ar ay sandn eu t r in o sa r ep a r t i c l e sexp e c t edf roms i t e so fco sm i cr aya c c e l e r a t ion andc anb eu s edt os tudyth eenv i ronm en tanda c c e l e r a t ion m e ch an i sm so fth e s es i t e s . Wh i l esou r c e sf o rbo thg a l a c t i candex t r a -g a l a c t i cg amm ar ay sh av eb e enob s e rv ed ,i t i so f t enun c l e a r wh e th e rth e s eg amm ar ay sa r eby -p rodu c t so fco sm i cr aya c c e l e r a t ion . Th i samb i gu i tyd o e sn o tex i s tf o rn eu t r ino sm ak ingth emid e a lt r a c e r sfo rco sm i cr ay a c c e l e r a t i on . Ana s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r inofluxh a sb e en m e a su r edbyth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r , lo c a t eda tth eS ou thP o l e .H ow ev e r ,s ing l esou r c e sh av eno tb e enr e so lv edy e t . Th ep a r t o fth eskyv i s ib l ef r omth es ou th e rnh em i sph e r eho s t sth eG a l a c t i cC en t r eand m anyo th e r g a l a c t i cs ou r c e sob s e rv edinG eV andTeVg amm a r ay s .D e t e c t iono fn eu t r ino sf romth e s e sou r c e sw ou ldid en t i fyth ema sa c c e l e r a t ions i t e sandl e adtoab e t t e rund e r s t and ingo f th eenv i r onm en to fth ea c c e l e r a t i ons i t e sandth ea c c e l e r a t ion m e ch an i sm s . How ev e r ,th i s i sd iffi cu l tdu et oth ev a s tb a ck g r oundo fa tmo sph e r i c muon sa l sod e t e c t edinth eI c eCub e d e t e c to r . F o rth i sth e s i sad a t as e l e c t ion w a sd ev e lop edth a tr edu c e sth i sb a ckg round byu s ingth eou t e rp a r to fth ed e t e c to ra sv e tor eg ionandth etopo logyo fth eev en t . Th i ss e l e c t i onf o cu s s e sonth es e l e c t iono f muon t r a ck sf rom muon -n eu t r inoin t e r a c t ion s in s id eth ed e t e c t o rv o lum e . Th ed i r e c t ionandth een e rgy -p rofi l eo fth e s et r a ck sc anb e r e con s t ru c t ed . Th i sin f o rm a t i oni su s edtos e a r chfo rpo t en t i a lsou r c e so fn eu t r ino su s ing anunb inn edl ik e l ih ood m e th od . Th i san a ly s i su s e sd a t at ak enb e tw e en2011and2015 . Incon t r a s tt oe a r l i e rI c eCub ean a ly s e sth i san a ly s i si sop t im i z edfo ren e rg i e sb e tw e ena f ewTeVand1 00TeVandimp r ov e sth es en s i t iv i tyo fth ed e t e c to rfo rapo in t l ik esou r c e byf a c to ro ftw o( o rb e t t e r )inth i sen e rgyr ang ecomp a r edtoo th e rI c eCub ean a ly s e s w i ths im i l a rl iv e t im e .R e su l t sf o ral i s to f96sou r c e sob s e rv edin TeVg amm a r ay sand asky s c ana r ep r e s en t ed .N os i gn ifi c an tov e rflu c tu a t ionh a sb e enob s e rv edandl im i t son th en eu t r in oem i s s i ono fth es ou r c e sa r eg iv en . Con ten t s 1 .In t rodu c t ion 2 . Theh ighene rgyun ive r se 2 .1 . Th ed i s c ov e ryo fc o sm i cr ay s .......................... 2 .2 . M e s s en g e r s .................................... 2 . 2 . 1 . Ch a r g edp a r t i c l e s............................. 2 . 2 . 2 . N eu t r on s ................................. 2 . 2 . 3 . V e ryh i gh en e r g e t i c(VHE )G amm ar ay s................ 2 . 2 . 4 . N eu t r in o s................................. 2 .3 . C o sm i ca c c e l e r a t o r s................................ 2 . 3 . 1 . A c c e l e r a t i on m e ch an i sm......................... 2 . 3 . 2 . G a l a c t i cs ou r c ec and id a t e sfo rco sm i cr ay s............... 2 . 3 . 3 . Ex t r a g a l a c t i cs ou r c ec and id a t e sfo rco sm i cr ay s ........... 2 .4 . Ob s e rv edg amm as ou r c e s ............................ 2 .5 . P r o sp e c t so fn eu t r in oa s t r onomyandi t simp a c t................ 2 . 5 . 1 . Exp e c t edn eu t r in o sf romth eg a l axy .................. 2 . 5 . 2 . Exp e c t edn eu t r in o sf romex t r a -g a l a c t i csou r c ec and id a t e s...... 1 3 3 3 4 8 8 10 11 11 12 15 15 19 21 23 3 . Thep r in c ip leo fh igh -ene rgyneu t r inode te c t ionandneu t r inote le s cope s 25 3 .1 . Phy s i c so fn eu t r in od e t e c t i on.......................... 25 3 . 1 . 1 . Th en eu t r in oa sane l em en t a ryp a r t i c l e................. 25 3 . 1 . 2 . Th eC e r enk oveff e c t........................... 27 3 . 1 . 3 . En e r gyl o s s e so fch a rg edp a r t i c l e s.................... 28 3 . 1 . 4 . S i gn a tu r e s................................. 28 3 . 1 . 5 . P r op a g a t i ono fph o ton s ......................... 31 3 .2 . N eu t r in ot e l e s c op ep r o j e c t s........................... 31 3 . 2 . 1 . DUMAND ,ANTARESandKM3N eT ................. 32 3 . 2 . 2 . B a ik a lexp e r im en t ,NT200and GVD.................. 33 3 . 2 . 3 . AMANDA................................. 33 3 .3 . Th eI c eCub eN eu t r in o Ob s e rv a to ry....................... 34 3 . 3 . 1 . D ep l oym en tandl ay ou to fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r............ 34 3 . 3 . 2 . Th eD i g i t a l Op t i c a l Modu l e-DOM .................. 34 3 . 3 . 3 .I c ep r op e r t i e sa tth eSou thpo l e..................... 36 3 . 3 . 4 . D a t aa cqu i s i t i ona tth eSou thP o l e................... 37 3 .4 . D e t e c t o rs imu l a t i onandb a ckg rounde s t im a t ionu s edfo rth i san a ly s i s ... 38 v 4 . ST eVE–asea r chfo rpo in t l ik eT eVneu t r inosou r ce sinthesou the rnsky 41 4 .1 . G amm ar ays ou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky.................... 41 4 .2 . Ch a l l en g e sf o rI c eCub e.............................. 42 4 .3 .S t r a t e gyo fth i sw o rk............................... 43 4 . 3 . 1 . S t a r t in gt r a ck s.............................. 43 4 . 3 . 2 . A tm o sph e r i cs e l fv e to .......................... 44 4 . 3 . 3 . S e a r ch in gf o rT eVeu t r ino sf rompo in t l ik esou r c e s .......... 44 4 .4 . P r ev i ou sm e a su r em en t s ............................. 45 4 . 4 . 1 . ANTARESr e su l t s............................ 45 4 . 4 . 2 .I c eCub es e a r ch e sw i thth rough -go ingev en t s.............. 46 4 . 4 . 3 .I c eCub es e a r ch e sw i ths t a r t ingev en t s ................. 47 5 . Even tse le c t ionandre con s t ru c t ion 51 5 .1 . M o t iv a t i on .................................... 51 5 .2 . Ev en tr e c on s t ru c t i onandv a r i ab l e s....................... 51 5 . 2 . 1 . Wh i chp r op e r t i e so fanev en tn e edtob er e con s t ru c t ed ?....... 51 5 . 2 . 2 . An gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t ion ......................... 52 5 . 2 . 3 . L en g thr e c on s t ru c t i on.......................... 56 5 . 2 . 4 . F i r s tgu e s sen e r gyr e con s t ru c t ion.................... 57 5 . 2 . 5 . T opo l o gyanden e r gyr e con s t ru c t ion.................. 58 5 . 2 . 6 . Ex c lud in gc o in c id en tev en t s....................... 59 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t i on.................................. 60 5 . 3 . 1 . L ev e l2 .................................. 60 5 . 3 . 2 . L ev e l3 .................................. 61 5 . 3 . 3 . F u r th e rr e c on s t ru c t ionandfin a lev en ts e l e c t ion............ 63 5 . 3 . 4 . Ev en t sinST eVEth a tapp e a rinHESE , MESEo rLESE....... 74 5 . 3 . 5 . D a t aqu a l i ty ............................... 76 6 . Po in t l ik esou r ceana ly s i sandre su l t s 79 6 .1 . Th eunb inn edl ik e l ih ood m e thod........................ 79 6 .2 .S en s i t iv i t i e s.................................... 82 6 .3 .S tud i e so fsy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e s....................... 86 6 .4 . R e su l t sf o rth eS ou r c eC a t a log ......................... 89 6 .5 . R e su l t sf o rth ea l l skys c an ........................... 90 6 . 5 . 1 . D i s cu s s i ono fth er e su l t s......................... 96 6 .6 .F u tu r eapp l i c a t i ono fth eST eVEev en ts amp l e................101 6 . 6 . 1 . P a tht oac omb in edsou th e rnskyI c eCub es amp l e ..........103 7 . Con c lu s ion sand Ou t look 105 7 .1 . Summ a ryandimp l i c a t i on s ...........................105 7 .2 . Ou t l ook......................................106 8 .A cknow ledgemen t s v i 109 B ib l iog raphy 111 A . Ove r t ra in ingp lo t sfo rIC86 Ise le c t ion 129 B . BDTva r iab le sfo rIC86 Ise le c t ion 133 C . BDTva r iab le sfo rIC86 I I+se le c t ion 145 v i i L i s to fT ab le s 3 .1 .In i t i a lc ompo s i t i ono f(νe : νµ : ντ )andcompo s i t iona f t e rm ix ing..... 27 5 .1 . An gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i on su s edfo rST eVE ................... 55 5 .2 . V a r i ab l e su s edinBDTt r a in ing . Th er anki sc a l cu l a t edbycoun t inghow o f t eni ti su s edinth efin a lt r e e s( a f t e rp run ing )ando rd e r ingth ev a r i ab l e s f r omo f t enu s edt or a r e lyu s ed .......................... 67 5 .3 . P a r am e t r i z a t i onp a r am e t e r sfo rangu l a re r ro re s t im a to rco r r e c t ion ..... 74 6 .1 . 6 .2 . 6 .3 . 6 .4 . 6 .5 . 6 .6 . 6 .7 . R e su l t sf o rb in a r i e s................................ R e su l t sf o rSNR.................................. R e su l t sf o rPWN................................. R e su l t sf o rc lu s t e r s................................ R e su l t sf o run id en t ifi eds ou r c e s......................... R e su l t sf o rex t r ag a l a c t i cs ou r c e s........................ R e su l t sf o rm i s c e l l an e ou ss ou r c e s........................ 91 91 92 93 93 94 95 ix L i s to fF igu re s 2 .1 . C o sm i cr aysp e c t rum............................... 2 .2 . H i l l a s ’p l o t .................................... 2 .3 . A tm o sph e r i cl ep t onsp e c t r a........................... 2 .4 . VHE -γd e t e c t o r s................................. 2 .5 . G a l a c t i cp l an ew i thF e rm i -LATandHESS................... 2 .6 . SED W 5 1C.................................... 2 .7 . SEDC r abN ebu l a ................................ 2 .8 . SED3C 2 7 9.................................... 2 .9 . VHEg amm ar ay sm e anf r e ep a th........................ 2 .10 .F e rm iandI c eCub ed iffu s eflux ......................... 2 .11 .S e c ond a ryp a r t i c l eSED............................. 2 .12 .G a l a c t i cT eVs ou r c e s............................... 4 6 7 10 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 3 .1 .F eynm and i a g r amD IS.............................. 3 .2 . C r o s s s e c t i on sf o rCCandNC.......................... 3 .3 . En e r gyl o s s.................................... 3 .4 .In t e r a c t i onS i gn a tu r e s.............................. 3 .5 . R an g eo f mu on sinw a t e r............................. 3 .6 . ANTARESl ay ou t................................. 3 .7 . D r aw in go fI c eCub e ............................... 3 .8 . D r aw in go fth eDOM............................... 3 .9 . Op t i c a li c ep r op e r t i e s .............................. 25 26 28 29 31 33 35 36 37 4 .1 . T eVC a ts ou r c e sskym ap............................. 4 .2 . T eVC a ts ou r c e sh i s t o g r am............................ 4 .3 . A tm o sph e r i c mu on sandn eu t r ino s ....................... 4 .4 . V e t op r ob ab i l i ty ................................. 4 .5 .S en s i t iv i tyANTARESandI c eCub eth rough -go ing.............. 4 .6 .I c eCub ev e t or e g i on ............................... 4 .7 .S en s i t iv i tyANTARESandI c eCub eth rough -go ingand MESEcomb in ed ... 41 42 43 45 46 47 49 5 .1 . 5 .2 . 5 .3 . 5 .4 . 5 .5 . 5 .6 . 52 53 54 55 57 57 Ev en tt opo l o gyandv a r i ab l e s.......................... En e r gyl o s sr a t i o................................. A r r iv a lt im ed i s t r ibu t i on............................. An gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i onc omp a r i son....................... L eng thr e c on s t ru c t i ons t epI........................... L eng thr e c on s t ru c t i ons t epI I.......................... x i 5 .7 . C o in c id en tev en t s................................. 60 5 .8 . FSSv e t or e g i on.................................. 61 5 .9 . C omp a r i s onl ev e ltw oandth r e e......................... 62 5 .10 .L ev e lth r e ev a r i ab l e s............................... 62 5 .11 .BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t i on M a t r ix(S ign a l )................... 64 5 .12 .BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t i on M a t r ix(B a ckg round )................ 65 5 .13 .BDTsk e t ch.................................... 65 5 .14 .C o s ( z en i th )v a r i ab l e ............................... 67 5 .15 .BDTs c o r ed i s t r ibu t i on.............................. 70 5 .16 .BDTs c o r es e l e c t i on ............................... 70 5 .17 .Ov e r t r a inch e ck.................................. 71 5 .18 .Eff e c t iv ea r e aandan gu l a rr e so lu t iono fth eST eVEs amp l e......... 72 5 .19 .Z en i thd ep end en c eo fth eeff e c t iv ea r e ao fth eST eVEs amp l e........ 72 5 .20 .Numb e ro fs imu l a t edn eu t r inoandd a t aev en t sinST eVE .......... 73 5 .21 .E r r o re s t im a t o rc o r r e c t i on............................ 73 5 .22 .En e r gyr e c on s t ru c t i onp e r f o rm an c e....................... 74 5 .23 .BDTs c o r e so f MESEev en t s........................... 75 5 .24 .BDTs c o r e so fLESEev en t s........................... 76 5 .25 .Ev en tt opo l o gyf o rh a l fd i s ab l edd e t e c to r ................... 77 5 .26 .F i l t e rr a t e(p a r t i a l )................................ 78 5 .27 .Cumu l a t iv el iv e t im e............................... 78 6 .1 . Sk e t cho fTS ,s en s i t iv i ty ,upp e rl im i tandd i s cov e rypo t en t i a l ........ 81 ✷ i tt ob a ck g r oundTS............................ 82 6 .2 . χ-F 6 .3 .Z en i thd ep end en c eo fηandNd✳ 2 o✳ f ....................... 8 6 .4 . ST eVEs en s i t iv i t i e s -d iff e r en tcu toffs c en a r io s................. 83 6 .5 .S en s i t iv i ty1 00TeVcu t off............................ 84 6 .6 . D iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i t i e s ............................. 84 6 .7 . D iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i t i e s(ST eVE) ....................... 85 6 .8 . LLHc omp a r i s on ................................. 85 6 .9 .S t a t i s t i c ss tudyr and oms e ed .......................... 86 6 .10 .Sy s t em a t i cs tudy OMeffi c i en cy-10% ..................... 87 6 .11 .Sy s t em a t i cs tudyn om in a l OMeffi c i en cy ................... 87 6 .12 .Sy s t em a t i cs tudy OMeffi c i en cy +10%..................... 88 6 .13 .Sy s t em a t i cs tudys t a r t in gn e s sandab so rp t ion................. 89 6 .14 .S ou r c e l i s tpo s t t r i a lp -v a lu e........................... 90 6 .15 .A l lskypo s t t r i a lp -v a lu e............................. 95 6 .16 .F ou ry e a rskym ap................................. 96 6 .17 .Upp e rl im i t sf o rsp e c ifi cs ou r c e mod e l s(SNR )................. 98 6 .18 .Upp e rl im i t sf o rsp e c ifi cs ou r c e mod e l s(PWN )................ 99 6 .19 .DMRFexp l an a t i on................................ 99 6 .20 .Upp e rl im i t sf o rG a l a c t i cC en t r e ........................100 6 .21 .ST eVEd i s c ov e rypo t en t i a landth ea s t rophy s i c a lflux.............100 x i i 6 .22 .ST eVEupp e rl im i t sandth ea s t rophy s i c a lflux ................101 6 .23 .Imp r ov edan gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t ion........................102 6 .24 .Sk e t cho fm e r g in gs ch em e............................104 7 .1 .S en s i t iv i tyg a ininf o l l ow in gy e a r s........................107 A .1 . Ov e r t r a inch e ck..................................129 A .2 . BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t i on M a t r ix(S ign a lIC86 I )...............130 A .3 . BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t i on M a t r ix(B a ckg round ,IC86 I ) ...........131 B .1 .sp l in ed i rt r a ckl en g th..............................133 B .2 .an g l ed iff......................................133 B .3 .r l o g l........................................134 B .4 .en e r gyind e t e c t o r ................................134 B .5 .l en g tht os t a r tc on t................................135 B .6 .sp l in end i rd om s.................................135 B .7 .p r een e r gy.....................................136 B .8 .c o gz........................................136 B .9 .c o gy........................................137 B .10 .h a l fl en g th.....................................137 B .11 .h l cd i s.......................................138 B .12 . t r a ckh i t ss ep a r a t i onl en g th...........................138 B .13 .p r el en g th.....................................139 B .14 . t r a ckh i t sd i s t r ibu t i onsm oo thn e s s .......................139 B .15 . s t a r ten e r gy....................................140 B .16 . l en g th.......................................140 B .17 . sp l in ec o sz en i th .................................141 B .18 . l fsp e ed ......................................141 B .19 . l en g tht ol e av e ..................................142 B .20 . c o gx........................................142 B .21 .av gd omd i s tqt o td om .............................143 C .1 .sp l in ed i rt r a ckl en g th..............................145 C .2 .an g l ed iff......................................145 C .3 .r l o g l........................................146 C .4 .en e r gyind e t e c t o r ................................146 C .5 .l en g tht os t a r tc on t................................147 C .6 .sp l in end i rd om s.................................147 C .7 .p r een e r gy.....................................148 C .8 .c o gz........................................148 C .9 .c o gy........................................149 C .10 .h a l fl en g th.....................................149 C .11 .h l cd i s.......................................150 C .12 . t r a ckh i t ss ep a r a t i onl en g th...........................150 x i i i C .13 .p r el en g th.....................................151 C .14 . t r a ckh i t sd i s t r ibu t i onsm oo thn e s s .......................151 C .15 . s t a r ten e r gy....................................152 C .16 . l en g th.......................................152 C .17 . sp l in ec o sz en i th .................................153 C .18 . l en g tht ol e av e ..................................153 C .19 . c o gx........................................154 C .20 .av gd omd i s tqt o td om .............................154 x iv 1 .In t roduc t ion M e a su r em en t so fth ei on i z a t i ono fE a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r et ak enby V iktor Franz He s s in1912l e adt oth eaw a r en e s sth a tE a r thi sbomb a rd edbych a r g edp a r t i c l e sf romsp a c e ( co sm i cr ay s ) . Th i sm o t iv a t ed m anyfo l low -upexp e r im en t s , wh i cht r i edtoan sw e rth e mo s tfund am en t a lqu e s t i on son ec anim ag in ei fan ewth ingi sd i s cov e r ed . Wh e r edoth e s e p a r t i c l e sc om ef r om ,wh i chen e r gyd oth eyc a r ryw i thth em ,wh e r edoth eyg e tth een e rgy f rom ,wh a ti sth eabund an c eo fch em i c a le l em en t samongth eco sm i cr ay sa r eju s tsom eo f th em ? Wh i l es om eo fth e s equ e s t i on sl ik eth een e rgyandch em i c a lcompo s i t iono fth ep a r t i c l e sa r en ows om ewh a tan sw e r ed ,o th e rqu e s t ion sl ik eth eo r ig ino fco sm i cr ay sandth e i r a c c e l e r a t i on m e ch an i sm sr em a inun an sw e r edp rob l em sinth efi e ldo fa s t rop a r t i c l ephy s i c s . N eu t r ino sc an b eu s edt oan sw e rth e s equ e s t ion s . Th e i rab i l i tytot r av e ll a rg ed i s t an c e sw i th ou tsuff e r in gab s o rp t i onandd efl e c t ion m ak e sth emid e a l . How ev e r ,th es am e p rop e r t i e sm ak eth emch a l l en g in gt od e t e c t .L a rg ev o lum e so fin s t rum en t ed m a t e r i a la r e r equ i r edt od e t e c tasuffi c i en tnumb e ro fh igh en e rgya s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s .N eu t r ino s c anb er e c on s t ru c t edbyth ed e t e c t iono fl igh tem i t t edbyth ep rop ag a t iono fs e cond a ry p a r t i c l e sth r ou ghth i sm a t e r i a lp r odu c edwh enth eyin t e r a c tw i th m a t t e r . Th el a r g e s to f th e s ed e t e c t o r si sth eI c eCub ed e t e c to rbu i l ta tth eSou thP o l e .I tu s e sth eg l a c i a li c e 3 b e tw e en1 45 0mt o2 45 0ma sm ed ium w i thanin s t rum en t edv o lum eo f1km.I c eCub e h a sd e t e c t eda s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r in o s ,bu tth e i rsou r c e sa r es t i l lunknown . ayf romth etowno fB ad S a a row Th ea imo fth i sth e s i s ,w r i t t enr ough ly 30kmaw wh e r e He s sl and eda f t e rh i sm e a su r em en t sin1912 ,i stofindo rcon s t r a inth epo t en t i a l s i t e so fp r odu c t i onf o ra s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r ino sm e a su r edbyI c eCub eu s ingfou ry e a r so f d a t ao fI c eCub et ak enb e tw e en M ay2011and M ay2015 . Th efo cu sl i e sonth eSou th e rn sky ,wh i chh o s t sal a r g enumb e ro fg a l a c t i csou r c ec and id a t e sfo rco sm i cr ayandn eu t r ino p rodu c t ion .H e r eth em a inch a l l en g ei sth esupp r e s s iono fth eb a ckg roundo fa tmo sph e r i c muon s ,am oun t in gt oa lm o s t1 0 0b i l l iond e t e c t edev en t se a chy e a r–comp a r edtoon lya h and fu lo fev en t sexp e c t edf r omag a l a c t i csou r c e . Th i san a ly s i sa ch i ev e sth i sbyfo cu s s ing on" s t a r t in gt r a ck "– mu onn eu t r ino sin t e r a c t ing w i th inth ed e t e c to rv o lum e ,p rodu c inga mu ont r a ckth a tc anb eu s edt oe s t im a t eth en eu t r inod i r e c t ionw i thgoodr e so lu t ion . F o l low ingth i sin t r odu c t i on ch ap t e r2 p rov id e s asumm a ry ov e rth ed e t e c t ed co s m i cr ay s ,g amm ar ay sandn eu t r in o s ,d i s cu s s e showth e s eob s e rv a t ion sc anb econn e c t ed andin t rodu c e sp r ed i c t i on sf o rn eu t r inoem i s s ionf rom po t en t i a lsou r c e s . Ch ap t e r3 d e s c r ib e sh ow n eu t r in o sin t e r a c tand howth eyc an b ed e t e c t ed . S ev e r a ld e t e c to r s , amongth emth eI c eCub ed e t e c t o r ,u s edfo rth i san a ly s i s ,a r ecomp a r ed . Th ep r in c ip a l 1 s e a r chs t r a t e gyo fth i ss e a r chandth er e su l t so fp r ev iou ss e a r ch e sfo rn eu t r inoem i s s ion a r ed i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 . Ch ap t e r5fo cu s s e sonth eev en ts e l e c t ionandsum sup th ep rop e r t i e so fth es e l e c t edev en t su s edfo rth i san a ly s i s .Inch ap t e r6th eunb inn ed l ik e l ihood m e th od u s edinth i ss e a r chandth er e su l t so fth i san a ly s i sa r eexp l a in ed andd i s cu s s ed . Th el a s tch ap t e r ,ch ap t e r7 ,summ a r i z e sth i sw o rkandp r e s en t sab r i e f ov e rv i ewov e rfu tu r ed ev e l opm en t s . 2 2 . Theh ighene rgyun ive r se 2 .1 . Thed i scove ryo fco sm icra y s In1912V ictorFranz He s s inv e s t ig a t edth enumb e ro fch a rg edp a r t i c l e sinth eE a r th ’ s a tmo sph e r ev i ai on i z a t i on m e a su r em en t s .E a r l i e rm e a su r em en t sind i c a t edth a tth e i rr a t e w ou ldd e c r e a s e ,i fth em e a su r em en tw a st ak enonah ighbu i ld ingo rinab a l loon . Th i s w a sund e r s t oodt ob edu et oth el a rg e rd i s t an c etoth eg round , wh e r ech a rg edp a r t i c l e s a r eexp e c t eddu et oth en a tu r a lr ad io a c t iv i tyo fth eE a r th . Go ingtoa l t i tud e so fov e r5 00 0mHe s s foundth a tth er a t ew a s no tcon t inuou s ly d e c r e a s in g–a son ew ou ldexp e c tby E a r th -boundr ad io a c t iv i tya lon e ,bu tin c r e a s ing ina l t i tud e sabov e1 50 0m[ 1 ] .H ein t e rp r e t edth i sa sth eex i s t en c eo fano th e rsou r c eo f ch a rg edp a r t i c l e sa r r iv in gf r omou t s id eth eE a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r e wh i chb e c am eknowna s co sm icray s. H i s m e a su r em en t sw e r esub s equ en t ly v e r ifi edand h ew a saw a rd edth e Nob e lP r i z e inPhy s i c s1 9 3 7f o rh i sd i s c ov e ry . Ov e rth ecom ingd e c ad e sth es tudyo fco sm i cr ay sl ed toth ed i s c ov e ryo fs ev e r a ln ewp a r t i c l e s ,l ik epo s i t ron sin1930 , muon sin1936 ,andbo th p ion sandk a on sin1 9 4 7[ 1 ] . By m e a su r ingth e i rcompo s i t ion ,en e rg i e sandabund an c e th eund e r s t and in go fou run iv e r s ew a sg r e a t lyimp rov ed . How ev e r ,th esou r c e so fco sm i c r ay sh av en o tb e enid en t ifi edy e t . 2 .2 . Me s senge r s Inadd i t iont oth ech a r g edp a r t i c l e sm en t ion edabov e ,n eu t r a lp a r t i c l e s ,pho ton sandn eu t r ino s ,f r omou t s id eth eE a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r eh av eb e enob s e rv ed .I ti ssu sp e c t edth a t th es am es i t e sth a ta c c e l e r a t ech a r g edp a r t i c l e sa r ea l sor e spon s ib l efo rth ep rodu c t iono f h ighen e r g e t i cn eu t r a lp a r t i c l e s .A c co rd ing ly ,th i ss e c t iond i s cu s s e sfi r s tp rop e r t i e so fth e m e a su r edi onsp e c t rumandh owt od e t e c tco sm i cr ay s . Ad i s cu s s iononhowg amm ar ay s c anb ep r odu c edandd e t e c t edf o l l ow sins e c t ion2 . 2 .3 .E l e c t ron s ,po s i t ron s ,n eu t r on sand n eu t r ino sa r eb r i eflyd i s cu s s ed . 3 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e 2 .2 .1 . Cha rgedpa r t ic le s Ion s M agn e t i cfi e ld sbo thing a l ax i e sandinin t e r -g a l a c t i csp a c ed efl e c tch a rg edp a r t i c l e s . Thu s , th er e con s t ru c t edd i r e c t i ono fth ep a r t i c l edo e sl ik e lyno tpo in ttoth esou r c eo fth ep a r t i c l e andth e i ra r r iv a ld i r e c t i onc ann o tb eu s edtoe s t ab l i shth e i ro r ig in . How ev e r ,en e rgy d i s t r ibu t i onandc ompo s i t i on1c anb ee s t im a t ed .Ing en e r a lth een e rgyd i s t r ibu t ionfo l low s apow e r l aw[ 1 ] ,s e eeq .2 . 1 : N( E) dE=KE−γdE✳ (2 .1 ) sa l s okn owna sth e" sp e c t r a lind ex" . A sc anb es e enin F ig . 2 .1 Th eexpon en t γi th em e a su r edsp e c t r a lind exo fth een e rgysp e c t rumv a r i e sw i then e rgy . Asp e c t r a l F igu re2 .1 : Th een e r gysp e c t rumo fco sm i cr ay sa sm e a su r edbys ev e r a lexp e r im en t sand th r e epopu l a t i on sm od e l so fco sm i cr ay sfi t t edtoth ed a t a . Tw och ang e sin th esp e c t r a lind exa tth e"kn e e"andth e" ank l e"a r eind i c a t edbya r row s . Th i sp l o ti sa m od ifi edv e r s ionf romF ig .4bin[2 ] . 15✳ 5eV ch ang ea tabou t1 0 ,th es o c a l l ed"kn e e" ,c anb ein t e rp r e t eda sth et r an s i t ion b e tw e entw og a l a c t i cc ompon en t s(popu l a t ion1andpopu l a t ion2in F ig .2 .1 )o fth e 1 Th eabundan c eo fion so fch em i ca le l em en t s( l ik eH , HEo rFE ) 4 2 .2 . M e s s eng e r s sp e c t rum[ 2 ] . Th er e g i onb e tw e en"kn e e"and" ank l e"(popu l a t ion2 )c anb eexp l a in ed byth eh e av i e re l em en t sa c c e l e r a t edinth eg a l axy[2 ,3 ] . Th er eg iona tth e" ank l e"and abov e(popu l a t i on3 )i sth ou gh tt ob eo fex t r a -g a l a c t i co r ig in[4 ] . Th i si sb e c au s ea t th e s een e r g i e sth em a gn e t i cfi e ld so fth eg a l axyw ou ldb etoosm a l ltocon t a inth ep a r t i c l e s . Th ef e a tu r e so fth ec o sm i cr aysp e c t rum cou ld a l so b e exp l a in ed w i th a pu r e ly g a l a c t i co r i g ino fc o sm i cr ay s[ 5 ] . I t w a s po in t ed ou t byH illa s th a tth e en e rgy o fth e ob s e rv ed co sm i cr ay c an l im i tth epo s s ib l ea c c e l e r a t i ons i t e s[6 ] . Th ea s sump t ioni sth a tth ep a r t i c l eh a sto r em a ininth es i t edu r in ga c c e l e r a t i on . Thu s ,th es i z eo fth es i t eandth em agn e t i cfi e ld s ini th av et ob esuffi c i en t lyl a r g etos a t i s fyth i sa s sump t ion . Ar e l a t iv i s t i cp a r t i c l ein as t a t i cm a gn e t i cfi e ldn o rm a lt oth ep a r t i c a l sv e lo c i ty w i l lfo l lowacy c l ew i thr ad iu s E[ 1× 1015eV] r= ✶ ✳✵✽ ZB[µG] [ p c][ 6 ] . H e r e ,Ei sth een e rgyo fth ep a r t i c l e ,B i sth em agn e t i c fi e ldandZth ea t om i cnumb e ro fth ee l em en t . Th ed i am e t e ro fth ec i r c l ed efin edbyr i sth em in im a ls i z e( dsite = ✷ r)f o rana c c e l e r a t ions i t eandg iv e sad i r e c tconn e c t ion b e tw e en m ax im a lpo s s ib l een e r gyandth em agn e t i cfi e ld sands i z eo fana c c e l e r a t ions i t e Emax ∼dsiteZB–h e av i e re l em en t sc anr e a chh igh e ren e rg i e sinana c c e l e r a t ions i t e . Th i sa rgum en t by H illa sc an b eu s edto p lo tsou r c ec l a s s e sb a s edonth e i r m ag n e t i cfi e ld sands i z e s( s e eF i g .2 . 2 ) .F o l low ingth i sa rgum en tsom esou r c ec l a s s e s ,l ik e sup e rnov ar emn an t sa r ea l r e adyex c lud eda sp rodu c t ions i t e sfo ru l t r ah igh en e rg e t i c 18eV co sm i cr ay s(UHECR s ;E >1 0×1 0 ) . E le c t ron sandpo s i t ron s Du etoth e i rsm a l lm a s se l e c t r on s( andpo s i t ron s )loo s een e rgyqu i ck lycomp a r edtoion s inth ep r e s en c eo fm a gn e t i cfi e ld s ,r ad i a t iono rm a t t e r[8 ] . M e a su r em en t so fth ee l e c t r on andpo s i t r onsp e c t rumh av eb e enp e r fo rm edbys ev e r a lexp e r im en t s[9–11 ] . Anob s e rv ed r i s einth epo s i t r on e l e c t r onr a t i oa taf ew100G eVi so f t ens e ena sanind i c a to rfo ralo c a l 2 l s a rw indn ebu l a[12 ] ,o rah in t a c c e l e r a to ro fe l e c t r on sandpo s i t r on s ,l ik ean e a rby pu fo rd a rk m a t t e r[ 1 3 ,1 4 ] . A tmo sphe r i cin te ra c t ion s I fch a rg edp a r t i c l e sa r r iv ea tE a r thth eyc anp en e t r a t eth eE a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r e . Ev en tu a l ly ,th ep r im a ryp a r t i c l e sin t e r a c tw i thap a r t i c l eo fth ea tmo sph e r eandp rodu c es ev e r a l s e cond a ryp a r t i c l e s , wh i chi ss im i l a rt op a r t i c l ein t e r a c t ion sin m an -m ad ea c c e l e r a to r s [1 ] . Th e s es e c ond a ryp a r t i c l e sc anin t e r a c tag a inanda" show e r"o fp a r t i c l e si sp rodu c ed . S e cond a ryp r odu c ede l e c t r on sandpho ton sp rop ag a t einaso c a l l ed" e l e c t ro -m agn e t i c c a s c ad e"in wh i che l e c t r on -po s i t r onp a i r sa r ep rodu c edandth ech a r g edl ep ton slo s e en e rgyv i aB r em s s t r ah lun gun t i lth ec r e a t edpho ton sdono th av eenoughen e rgyto 2 Inth ew o rko f[12 ]th eV e lapu l sa rw i thad i s tan c eo fabou t3 00p cf romEa r th . 5 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e F igu re2 .2 :P o s s ib l ea c c e l e r a t i ons i t e sp l a c eda c co rd ingtoth e i rm agn e t i cfi e ld sands i z e sh ownf o rn eu t r ons t a r s(n s ) , wh i t edw a r f s(wd ) ,sun spo t s( s s ) ,m agn e t i c s t a r s(m s ) ,a c t iv eg a l a c t i cnu c l e i( ag ) ,in t e r s t e l l a rsp a c e( i s ) ,SNR s( sn ) ,r a d i og a l axyl ob e s( r g ) ,g a l a c t i cd i sk(d )andh a lo(h ) ,c lu s t e r so fg a l ax i e s ( c l ) , b l a z a r s(b l )andg amm ar aybu r s t(gb )andin t e rg a l a c t i cm ed ium( ig ) .D i a g on a ld a sh edl in e sind i c a t eth em ax imumen e rgytowh i chp ro ton sc anb e a c c e l e r a t edbyth eg iv encomb in a t iono fm agn e t i cfi e ld sands i z e .So l idl in e s sh owth em ax imumen e rgyto wh i chap ro tonc anb ea c c e l e r a t edbysho ck a c c e l e r a t i ono fd iff e r en teffi c i en cy( s e e[7 ]ands e c t ion2 .3fo r mo r ed e t a i l . T ak enf r om[ 7 ] . c r e a t en ewe l e c t r on -po s i t r onp a i r s . Su chane l e c t ro -m agn e t i cc a s c ad ei sa l sop rodu c edi f aco sm i cg amm ar ayo re l e c t r on /po s i t ronp en e t r a t e sth ea tmo sph e r e . Th ep rodu c ed h ad r on sin t e r a c ta g a in w i th p a r t i c l e sinth ea tmo sph e r eo rd e c ay . Th e mo s tabund an th ad r on i cd e c ay sa r eth ed e c ay so fP ion sand K aon s ,in wh i ch n eu t r ino sandch a r g edl ep t on s ,su cha s muon s ,c anb ec r e a t ed . Muon sh av eal iv e t im e −6s[ o fabou t2 ✳ 2×1 0 1 5 ] .S in c eth eyo f t ena r eh igh lyr e l a t iv i s t i cth eyc anr e a chth e su r f a c eandev enp en e t r a t eth eE a r ths ev e r a lkmd e ep . Th esp e c t rumo fa tmo sph e r i c muon s[16 ] ,andbo tha tm o sph e r i c muonn eu t r ino s[17 ]ande l e c t ronn eu t r ino s[18 ]h a s b e en m e a su r ed ,s e eF i g .2 . 3 . 6 -2 -1 -1 eVcm ss r) E2 νΦν (G co nv en t io na lν -3 10 KM+AT IC 2 KM+GAMMA KM+ZS -1 1 0 QGS JETI I -03+ZS S IBYLL2 .1+ZS EPOS1 .61+ZS -4 10 -5 10 -6 10 3 211 2 EDµ(E ) ,cmss r G eV 2 .2 . M e s s eng e r s -2 e e -8 10 Hondaνµ(HKKMS2007 ) Hondaνe(HKKMS2007 ) mod i f iedHonda νe -9 10 3 10 4 10 Ba r to lνe 5 1 0 Eµ,G eV νe (2014 ) p rom p tν µ, ν 2 1 νe (DeepCo re2013 ) co nv en t io na lν 10-7 L 3+C o sm i c ,2 0 0 4 C o sm oALEPH ,2 0 0 7 LVD ,1 9 9 8 F r e j u s ,1 9 9 0 MSU ,1 9 9 4 A r t y om o v s k ,1 9 8 5 | | | |MACROb B a k s a n ,1 9 9 2 e s tf i t νµ ( fo rwa rdfo ld ing ) µ 3 1 0 νµ (un fo ld ing ) -10 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 log (E /GeV ) ν 10 F igu re 2 .3 :M e a su r em en t so fth ea to sph e r i c muon( l e f t )andn eu t r ino( r igh t )sp e c t rum . T ak enf r om :l e f t[ 1 9 ]r i gh t[18 ] Du eto en e r gy -d ep end en t en e r gylo s s e sinth ea tmo sph e r eth e ob s e rv edsp e c t rum 3. A fo rn eu t r in o sand mu on si ss t e ep e rth anth ep r im a ryco sm i cr aysp e c t rum th igh e r p r im a ry p a r t i c l een e r g i e sn o t on ly P ion sand K aon s bu ta l so h e av i e r M e son s( l ik e th eD -M e son )c anb ep r odu c edins ign ifi c an tnumb e r s[20 ] . Th e s e M e son sd e c ayso r ap id ly( "p r omp t " )th a tth e i ren e r gylo s sdu r ingp rop ag a t ionth r oughth ea tmo sph e r ei s sm a l l . Thu s ,th e i rsp e c t rumi sexp e c t edtofo l lowth esp e c t rumo fth ep r im a ryco sm i cr ay s . How ev e r , th i s "p r omp t " flux h a s no tb e en m e a su r ed con c lu s iv e ly[16 , 18 ] . An ov e r a l ld e c r e a s eins t a t i s t i cdu et oth es t e epsp e c t r a lind exa th igh e ren e rg i e sandth e ev ens t e ep e rsp e c t r a lind exf o ren e r g i e sh igh e rth anth e"kn e e"o fth eco sm i cr ay s–and inth ec a s eo fn eu t r in o sth eex i s t en c eo fth ea s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux– m ak eth i sa ch a l l eng in gt a sk . De te c t ion Th e r ea r etw od iff e r en tapp r o a ch e stod e t e c tco sm i cr ay s . A tlowen e rg i e sflux e sa r e s t i l lh ighen ou ght ob ed e t e c t edd i r e c t ly w i thth el im i t edd e t e c to ra r e ao fabou t1m2 o fb a l loon sh i ghinth ea tm o sph e r eo rs a t e l l i t e s . Mod e rnd e t e c to r sc and e t e rm in ebo th th ee l em en ttyp eo fi on sd e t e c t edandth e i ren e rgy .D i r e c td e t e c t ionc anb eu s edupto∼ 100TeV[ 2 1 ] . A th igh e ren e r g i e sd i r e c td e t e c t i on b e com e s mo r ech a l l eng ing . W i thth ed e c r e a s e influxth enumb e ro fexp e c t edev en t sch ang e sf romabou t10ev en t sp e rs e cond w i th 2d a100cm e t e c t o rinth er an g eo f1GeV[21 ]toon ep a r t i c l eay e a rp e rkm2 a tth e 3 A sp e c t ra lind exo f3 .7compa r edto2 .7fo rp r ima ryco sm i cray sw i then e rg i e sb e lowth e"kn e e" . 7 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e en e rgyo fth e" ank l e "[ 2 2 ] . C o sm i cr ay sa tth e s een e rg i e sandabov ea r eth enu su a l ly d e t e c t edby m e a su r in gp r op e r t i e so fth ep a r t i c l eshow e rth eyp rodu c e( s e es e c t ion2 .2 .1 ) . Th ee l e c t r o -m a gn e t i cc ompon en t ,th enumb e ro fp rodu c ed muon so rth eob s e rv a t ion o fth e flu o r e s c en c el i gh tp r odu c edinth ea tmo sph e r e byth eshow e r[21 ]a r ea l lb e u s edtor e c on s t ru c tth een e r gyo fth ep a r t i c l eth a tp rodu c edth eshow e r . How ev e r ,th e ind i r e c td e t e c t i on m ak e si td iffi cu l ttod e t e rm in eth ech em i c a le l em en to fth eco sm i cr ay . Cu r r en t lyth i si son lypo s s ib l eonas t a t i s t i c a lb a s i s[21 ] . 2 .2 .2 . Neu t ron s A s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r on sc ou ld b ep rodu c ed byth ein t e r a c t ion so f bo th p ro ton sw i th p ro ton sandp r o t on sw i thph o t on s[23 ] . H e av i e rnu c l e ic ana l soc r e a t en eu t ron sv i a sp a l l a t iono rph o t od i s in t e g r a t i on . Infi r s to rd e rth een e rgyo fth ep rodu c edn eu t ron d ep end sonth een e r gyp e rnu c l e on . H en c e ,ani ronnu c l eu sh a stoh av e56t im e sth e en e rgyo fap r o t onnu c l eu st oc r e a t ean eu t rono fs am een e rgy . S in c en eu t r on sa r ech a r g e l e s sth ey a r e no td efl e c t ed by m agn e t i cfi e ld s . Th e r e fo r e ,th ed i r e c t i on a lr e c on s t ru c t i ono fan eu t ron w ou ldpo in ttoi t ssou r c e . How ev e r , i t s m e anl i f e t im eo f8 86spu t sc on s t r a in sonth ed i s t an c ef rom wh i ch n eu t ron sa r e exp e c t edt or e a ch E a r thb e f o r eth eyd e c ay . T ak ingr e l a t iv i s t i ceff e c t sin toa c coun ti t s m e ant r av e ld i s t an c ei sabou t 9 ✳ 2p ca t1PeV. Ina i rshow e rexp e r im en t sapo t en t i a l n eu t rons i gn a lw ou ld m an i f e s ti t s e l finana c c e s so fp ro tonl ik eev en t sind i r e c t iono fi t s sou r c e .H ow ev e r ,ad ed i c a t eds e a r ch e sbybo thth eP i e r r eAug e rOb s e rv a to ry[24 ]andth e I c eCub e Ob s e rv a t o ry[ 2 5 ]h av en o ty e td i s cov e r edanyn eu t ronsou r c e . 2 .2 .3 .V e ryh igh -ene rge t ic(VHE ) Gammara y s G amm ar ay sa r en o td efl e c t edby m agn e t i cfi e ld s . Thu s ,th e i rr e con s t ru c t edd i r e c t ioni s mo r el ik e lyt opo in tt oth e i rs ou r c e . P rodu c t ion D e sp i t eth ef a c tth a tov e r1 5 0s ou r c e so fV e ry H ighEn e rgy(VHE )g amm ar ay s(Eγ > 100GeV)h av eb e enid en t ifi ed[ 2 6 ] ,i ti so f t enun c l e a rhowth eyp rodu c eth e s eg amm a r ay s .Inth ef o l l ow in gp a r a g r aph stw osu sp e c t edp rodu c t ion m e ch an i sm sa r ed i s cu s s ed . Lep ton i cp rodu c t ion Th efi r s tm e ch an i smhowg amm ar ay sc anb ep rodu c edi s" l ep ton i c p rodu c t ion " .E l e c t r on sa r ea c c e l e r a t edinasou r c er eg ion . Th ein t e r a c t ion sb e tw e enth e s e e l e c t ron sandph o t on so rm a gn e t i cfi e ld sc anp rodu c eg amm ar ay sinv a r iou sw ay s . Wh en th eys c a t t e rw i thph o t on sinth eamb i en tenv i ronm en tth eyc ant r an s f e rp a r to fth e i r en e rgytoth eph o t on . Th i sp r o c e s si sa l soc a l l edinv e r s eComp ton( IC )s c a t t e r ing( s e e[1 ] ) . Asp e c i a lc a s eo fICs c a t t e r in gi ss e l f syn ch ro t ronComp tonr ad i a t ion .H e r eth ee l e c t ron 8 2 .2 . M e s s eng e r s in t e r a c t sw i thaph o t onth a tw a sp rodu c edv i asyn ch ro t ron . G amm ar ay sc ana l sob e em i t t edbye l e c t r on ssuff e r in gB r em s s t r ah lunglo s s e so rem i t t ingsyn ch ro t ronr ad i a t ion . Had ron i cp rodu c t ion Th es e c ondop t iono fVHEg amm ar ayp rodu c t ioni sth ein t e r a c t ion o fh igh en e r gych a r g edh ad r on i cp a r t i c l e s ,l ik ep ro ton s ,w i tho th e rm a t t e r(pp)o rr ad i a t ion ( pγ) .N eu t r a lm e s on sl ik eπ✵✱ K✵✱ D✵✱ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳c anb ep rodu c eda ss e cond a ryp a r t i c l e s . Wh en th e s em e s on sd e c ayth eyc anp r odu c e VHEg amm ar ay s .I fin s t e adch a rg ed m e son sa r e p rodu c ed ,th e i rd i r e c td e c ayp r odu c t sc anb en eu t r ino s ,du etoch a rg eandl ep ton -numb e r con s e rv a t i on .A ts om epo in tinth ed e c aych a ino fach a rg ed m e sonan eu t r inoh a stob e p rodu c ed . Th ef o l l ow in gex amp l e s ,t ak enf rom[27 ] ,showth ep rodu c t iono fl igh tm e son s inpγandppin t e r a c t i on sa sw e l la sth eex emp l a ryp rodu c t iono fn eu t r ino sinth ed e c ay o fach a rg ed m e s on sandph o t on sinth ed e c ayo fn eu t r a lm e son s: p+ p p+ γ → π✵+π±✱K± +✳ ✳ ✳ π✵→ + π → π− → ✷ γ µ+ +νµ → µ− +✖ νµ → e+ +νµ +✖ νµ +νe e− +✖ νµ +νµ +✖ νe (2 .2 ) (2 .3 ) (2 .4 ) (2 .5 ) De te c t ion A tth e mom en tth r e ed i s t in c tm e th od sfo rth es e a r cho fa s t rophy s i c a lg amm ar ay sex i s t . S in c eth eVHEg amm ar ay sin t e r a c tw i thth ea tmo sph e r eo fE a r thd i r e c td e t e c t ioni son ly po s s ib l einsp a c e . Th eF e rm i -LATs a t e l l i t e[28 ]w a sl aun ch edin2008 .I tc an m e a su r e g amm ar ay sinth een e r gyr an g eb e tw e en20 MeVand2TeV. Th ed e t e c t ionp r in c ip l e i sp a i rconv e r s i on . Th eg amm ar ayp r odu c e sane l e c t ronpo s i t ronp a i r . Th i sp a i rth en p rop ag a t e sth r ou ghth ed e t e c t o ra l l ow ingfo rbo thangu l a randen e rgyr e con s t ru c t ion .A t h igh e ren e r g i e sth enumb e ro fexp e c t edev en t si slow e r . Thu si ti stoosm a l ltod e t e c t g amm ar ay sa sen e r g i e sabov eaf ewTeV. A tth e s e en e r g i e sa i r C e r enk ovt e l e s cop e sa r eu s ed . Th ey d e t e c tth e C e r enk ov l igh t(d e t a i l sw i l lb ed i s cu s s edin3 . 1 .2 )em i t t edbyth es e cond a ryp a r t i c l e s wh i cha r e p rodu c ed wh enth eph o t onin t e r a c t sw i thth eE a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r e( s e es e c t ion2 .2 .1 ) . Th r e em a j o rt e l e s c op ea r r ay sa r eop e r a t eda tth e mom en t . HESS[29 ]i slo c a t edinth e sou th e rnh em i sph e r eand VER ITAS[30 ]and MAG IC[31 ]a r elo c a t edinth eno r th e rn h em i sph e r e . Th e numb e ro fp r odu c ed C e r enk ov pho ton si s sm a l l . Th e r e fo r e , ob s e rv a t ioni s on lypo s s ib l ea tn i gh tandinr e g i on sw i thou tl igh tpo l lu t ion . Inadd i t ionc loud sc an r edu c eth eav a i l ab l eob s e rv a t i ont im e ,s in c eth esou r c eo fth el igh ti sa th igha l t i tud ein th ea tmo sph e r e . Th i sl e ad st oana c t iv ep e r iodo fd a t at ak ingo fabou t10%p e rannum[32 ] . 9 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e On e po s s ib i l i tyt od e t e c tth ein t e r a c t ion so fg amm ar ay sw i thth ea tmo sph e r ein d ep end en to fd ay t im eando th e reff e c t sl ik ec loud si sth ed e t e c t iono fth ee l e c t ro -m agn e t i c show e ronth eg r ound . Th i sc anb edon ew i thl a rg e rin s t rum en t edv o lum e so ft r an sp a r en t m a t e r i a l(u su a l ly w a t e r ) . Th eC e r enk ovl igh tem i t t edinth i sm a t e r i a li sth end e t e c t ed andu s edt or e c on s t ru c ten e r gyandd i r e c t iono fth eg amm ar ayth a tp rodu c edth eshow e r . Th i sw a t e rC e r enk ovt e chn iqu eh a sb e enu s edsu c c e s s fu linth eM i l ag rod e t e c to r[33 ]and i snowu s edinHAWCd e t e c t o r[ 3 4 ] . Wh i l e angu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i on and h igh e rb a ckg round comp a r ed to a i r C e r enk ov t e l e s cop e sa r ed i s adv an t a g e ou s ,th ed e t e c to rup t im ei sno tl im i t edby w e a th e ro rl igh t cond i t ion s . Thu s ,i tc anop e r a t ew i thanon s topdu tycy c l e . Ano th e radv an t ag ei sth e l a rg e rfi e ldo fv i ew .A i rC e r enk ovt e l e s cop e son lyob s e rv easm a l lp a r to fth esky( abou t 5 °fo rth e1 2md i am e t e rHESSt e l e s cop e s[29 ] ) . W a t e rC e r enk ovt e l e s cop e sonth eo th e r h anda r ea lw ay sob s e rv in gth een t i r eov e rh e adsky(2s r )[35 ] . Th ed iff e r en ten e rgyr ang e s o fth eth r e ed e t e c t ion m e th od sandr equ i r edob s e rv a t iont im e stod e t e c tasp e c ifi cflux a r ev i su a l i z edinF i g .2 . 4 . F igu re2 .4 :D iff e r en t i a lg amm ar ays en s i t iv i tyfo rs a t e l l i t e s(F e rm i ) ,a i rc e r enk ovd e t e c t o r s(V e r i t a s /HESS )anda i rshow e rg amm ar ayd e t e c to r s(HAWC ) .T ak en f r om[ 3 4 ] . 2 .2 .4 . Neu t r ino s A sa l r e adyd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 .3 ,i f VHEg amm ar ay sa r ep rodu c edh ad ron i c a l ly n eu t r ino sa r eexp e c t eda sw e l l .H en c e ,p r ed i c t ion sc anb em ad eonth eexp e c t edn eu t r ino fluxb a s edonth em e a su r ed VHEg amm ar ayflux . Th ed e t e c t iono rnon -d e t e c t iono f n eu t r ino sf r omas ou r c ec anth enb eu s edtov e r i fyo rd i s f av ou rh ad ron i cp rodu c t ion incomp a r i s ont ol ep t on i cp r odu c t i on . Add i t ion a l ly ,n eu t r ino sc anb ea m e s s eng e rf rom 10 2 .3 . Co sm i ca c c e l e r a to r s env i ronm en t swh i chg amm ar ay sc anno tl e av e .N eu t r ino sa r ed i s cu s s edin mo r ed e t a i lin s e c t ion2 . 5andch ap t e r3 . 2 .3 . Co sm icacce le ra to r s 2 .3 .1 .A cce le ra t ion mechan i sm A sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 1 ,ch a r g edp a r t i c l e sf romsp a c ea r eob s e rv edov e rm anyd e c ad e s o fen e rg i e s . Th e i ren e r gyd i s t r ibu t ionfo l low sapow e r l aw . Apo t en t i a la c c e l e r a t ion m e ch an i smn e ed st obo thp r ed i c tapow e r l awl ik esh ap eo fth esp e c t rumanda c c e l e r a t e uptoth eh i gh e s ten e r g i e s . ico Ferm i ("F e rm ia c c e l e r a t ion" )in 1949 A m e ch an i sm , fi r s tp r opo s ed by Enr [36 ] ,s e em st ofu lfi lth e s er equ i r em en t s . Th efo l low ingexp l an a t ion sandfo rmu l ano t a t ion s a r ein sp i r edby[ 8 ] .Ferm ish ow edth a tp a r t i c l e scou ldg a inen e rgybyth eco l l i s ionand r efl e c t ion w i th m ov in gm o l e cu l a rc loud sw i th inou rg a l axy . Onav e r ag e ,th ep a r t i c l e w ou ldg a inen e r gyp r opo r t i on a lt oth esqu a r eo fth ev e lo c i tyo fth ec loudV: ✽ V ∆E = E ✸ c ✷ ✳ (2 .6 ) H e r e andinth ef o l l ow in g ,i ti sa s sum edth a tth ea c c e l e r a t ed p a r t i c l e sa r eh igh ly r e l a t iv i s t i c( v∼c ) . Ac ru c i a lpo in ti sth eg a inonas to ch a s t i cb a s i s .I fac loud mov e saw ay f romth ep a r t i c l e ,th ep a r t i c l ew i l llo s een e rgyin s t e ado fg a in ingen e rgyinth ec a s eo fa c loud mov in gt ow a rd sth ep a r t i c l e . Du etoth eh igh e rr e l a t iv ev e lo c i tyinth el a t t e rc a s e th ep a r t i c l eg a in sen e r gyonav e rage[36 ] . Add i t ion a l ly ,th esp e c t r a len e rgyd i s t r ibu t ion w i l lfo l lowapow e r l aw . How ev e r ,i ts e em sl ik eth ep r opo s ed m e ch an i smi stoos low , bo th du etoth elow v e lo c i tyo fth ec l oudandth ef o l l ow ingco l l i s ion s .I fth ep a r t i c l ew e r etoon lyexp e r i en c e V h e ad -onc o l l i s i on s ,th een e r gyg a in w ou ldb ep ropo r t ion a ltoth e c andno tth esqu a r e . Thu s ,i tw ou ldb e mu ch m o r eeffi c i en t . On eenv i r onm en tin wh i chc o sm i cr ay sc an b ea c c e l e r a t edinth i seffi c i en t m ann e r a r esho ck s . Ash o cki sth ebo rd e rb e tw e entw or eg ion so fd iff e r en tp l a sm aconfigu r a t ion . Inf ron to fth esh o ckw av e(up s t r e amr eg ion )g a si sa tr e s to rs low ly mov ing .B eh indth e sho ck(down s t r e amr e g i on )w av eth eg a si s mov ingw i thav e lo c i tyh igh e rth enth esp e ed o fsoundinth i sm ed ium . I f ar e l a t iv i s t i cp a r t i c l ec r o s s e sth esho ckf rom down s t r e amto up s t r e am and v i c e v e r s a ,i tw i l lg a inen e r gyinth ep r o c e s s . Th eav e r ag een e rgyg a info rap a r t i c l ec ro s s ing 11 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e on c ef romup s t r e amt od own s t r e amandb a cki s : ✹V ∆E = ✳ E ✸c (2 .7 ) Comp a r in gequ a t i on s2 . 6and2 . 7 ,a c c e l e r a t ioninsho ck si s mo r eeffi c i en tdu etoth e fi r s t -o rd e rt e rminV c om p a r e d t o t h e s e c o n d o r d e r t e rm . c Th ea c c e l e r a t ed p a r t i c l ec ana lw ay sl e av eth er eg iono fa c c e l e r a t ion w i thac e r t a in p rob ab i l i ty . R ep e a t eda c c e l e r a t i onande s c ap ep rob ab i l i tyl e adtoar e su l t ingsp e c t r a l en e rgyd i s t r ibu t i onth a tf o l l ow sapow e r l aw[8 ] . Th esp e c t r a lind exi stw o–h a rd e rth an th eob s e rv edsp e c t r a lind exo fth eco sm i cr ay s .I fon eco r r e c t sfo ren e r gy -d ep end en t en e rgylo s s e sb e tw e enth ea c c e l e r a t ions i t eandE a r th[37 ] ,th eexp e c t edsp e c t r a lind ex w i l lb e com es o f t e randc anexp l a inth eob s e rv edon e4. Th ev e ryeffi c i en ta c c e l e r a t i on ,th eco r r e c tsp e c t r a lind exandth ep r ed i c t iono fa c c e l e r a t ions i t e sandenv i r onm en t sm ak efi r s t -o rd e rsho cka c c e l e r a t ionah igh lyf av ou r ed mod e lw i th inth ea s t r ophy s i c a lc ommun i ty . How ev e r ,th een t i r em e ch an i smp r e s en t ed a s sum e sr e l a t iv i s t i cp a r t i c l e sinth efi r s tp l a c e . Thu s ,i tc anno texp l a inhowth e s ep a r t i c l e s w e r ea c c e l e r a t edupt oth i spo in t . Th esp e c t r a lind exo ftw oi sa l sono tfix ed[ 38 ]–by v a ry ingp a r am e t e r so fth ea c c e l e r a t ions i t e ,l ik ea s sum ingr e l a t iv i s t i csho ck s ,th eind ex c anv a ry[ 3 9 ] . Ing en e r a l ,p a r t i c l e sc ana l s ob ea c c e l e r a t edine l e c t r i cfi e ld s . How ev e r ,th eabund an c e o funbounde l e c t r on sandi on sinsp a c em ak e si tv e rych a l l eng ingtobu i l tupe l e c t r i cfi e ld s th a ta r ec ap ab l eo fa c c e l e r a t in gp a r t i c l e supt oth eh igh e s ten e rg i e s . On eenv i ronm en tin wh i chth i sc ou ldb epo s s ib l ea r ea r e a sw i ths t rong m agn e t i cfi e ld s .I fzon e so fd iff e r en t m agn e t i cpo l a r i tya r ec l o s et oe a cho th e r ,m agn e t i cr e conn e c t ionc ano c cu r . Wh i l eth e en t i r ep r o c e s sw ou ldr equ i r eanexp l an a t iono fm agn e tohyd rodyn am i c sinmo r ed e t a i lth an f e a s ib l einth es c op eo fth i sch ap t e r ,acomp r eh en s iv er ev i ewo fth etop i cc anb efoundin [40 ] .B r i eflysumm a r i z edth eph en om enonc anb ed e s c r ib eda saconv e r s ionf rom m agn e t i c fi e lden e rgyin t oth ek in e t i cen e r gyo fap a r t i c l ev i ae l e c t r i cfi e ld sinth er e conn e c t ionl ay e r . I tc anb esh own[ 4 1 ]th a tth i sp r o c e s si sc ap ab l eo fa c c e l e r a t ingp a r t i c l e stoth eh igh e s t en e rg i e s . 2 .3 .2 . Ga lac t icsou rcecand ida te sfo rco sm icra y s Th eg a l a c t i cc en t e randth em a j o r i tyo fob s e rv edg a l a c t i cg amm ar aysou r c e si slo c a t ed inth esou th e rnsky . A sa l r e ady m en t ion edins e c t ion2 .2 .1 ,co sm i cr ay suptoa tl e a s t 1 5 ✳ 5 10 eVa r esu sp e c t edt ob ea c c e l e r a t edinou rg a l axy . 4 Ob s e rv edsp e c t ra lind exb e lowth ekn e e :2 .7 ,sp e c t ra lind exbyfi r s t -o rd e rf e rm ia c c e l e ra t ionanden e rgy d ep end en ten e rgylo s s e sdu r ingp ropaga t ion :2 .6 . 12 2 .3 . Co sm i ca c c e l e r a to r s Supe rnova me chan i sm s S ev e r a lg a l a c t i cob j e c tc l a s s e s wh i cha r esu sp e c t edtob es i t e s o fco sm i cr ay sa c c e l e r a t i ona r ed e s c end an t so fas t a rexp lod inginasup e rnov a .A f t e ra s t a rh a sd ep l e t edi t sfu s i onfu e lr e sou r c e s ,i tc anno tk e epupth ep r e s su r eag a in s tth e g r av i t a t ion a lf o r c e sini t sinn e rp a r t( co r e )anda sar e su l ti t sou t e rp a r t sco l l ap s e s[8 ] . D ep end in gonth em a s so fth es t a r( 8M ) ,th eg r av i t a t ion a lfo r c e sinth eco r eo fth e s t a rc anb e c om es t r on gen ou ghf o rth ee l e c t ron so fth ea tom stoov e r com eth ee l e c t ron d eg en e r a cyp r e s su r e . Th eya r eth enpu sh edinth enu c l eu sandc r e a t e ,w i thth ep ro ton sin ang e[42 ] . Th en eu t ron s th enu c l eu s ,n eu t r on sandn eu t r in o sw i then e rg i e sinth eMeV r fo rman eu t r ons t a r . Th i sn eu t r ons t a ri ssod en s eth a tadd i t ion a lf e rm ion sw ou ldh av e toov e r com eth en eu t r ond e g en e r a cyp r e s su r e .I fth es t a ri sm a s s iv eenough ,ab l a ckho l e w i l lb ec r e a t ed .O th e rw i s e ,th eou t e rp a r t so fth es t a rwh i cha r ef a l l inginw a rd s ,boun c e o fth en eu t r ons t a randp r op a g a t eaw ayf romi tandfo rmasup e rnov ar emn an t . Th er emn an tp a r t s ’k in e t i cen e r gyo fabou t 1051e rg si ssm a l lcomp a r edtoth een 53e e rgyth a ti sc a r r i edaw aybyM eV n eu t r ino s( abou t10 rg s )[27 ] .F o rab l a ckho l eto em e rg eth em a s so fth ep r o g en i t o rs t a rh a stob el a rg e rth an∼25M [42 ] .S in c eth e co r eo fth es t a rc o l l ap s ede i th e rt oan eu t rons t a ro rtoab l a ckho l e ,th i sp ro c e s si sc a l l ed aco r eco l l ap s esup e rn ov a e .In1 9 8 7 ,n eu t r ino sf romasup e rnov ainth eL a rg eM ag e l l an i c 5 e r ed e t e c t ed[ 4 3 ] . Upt ot od ayth e s en eu t r ino sa r eth eon lyn eu t r ino sth a tw e r e C loud w a s so c i a t edw i thasp e c ifi cs ou r c eou t s id eou rso l a rsy s t em . A l sol igh t e rs t a r s ’l i f ec anend w i thasup e rnov aexp lo s ion .I fas t a ri s ,a tth eend o fh i sl i f e cy c l e ,t ool i gh tt oov e r c om eth ee l e c t rond eg en e r a cyp r e s su r e ,awh i t edw a r fw i l l b efo rm ed .Inasy s t emw i th m o r eth anon es t a rth i swh i t edw a r fth enc ana c c r e t em a s s f roman e a rbycomp an i on . Th ea c c r e t ed m a s sin c r e a s e sth ep r e s su r ein s id eth e wh i t e dw a r fandr e i gn i t e sth efu s i ono fr em a in ingc a rbon[44 ] . Th i sin c r e a s e sth et emp e r a tu r e in s id eth ewh i t edw a r fands t a r t sadd i t ion a lfu s ionp ro c e s s e s . Th er e l e a s eden e rgyinth e s e r e ign i t edfu s i onp r o c e s s e si sl a r g eenoughtoov e r com eth eg r av i t a t ion a lb ind ingen e rgy 5 1 4 o fth es t a r( 0 ✳ 5×1 0 e rg s)andt oa c c e l e r a t em a s se j e c t auptoabou t1×10 km s−1, 5 1 wh i chco r r e spond st oabou t1×1 0 e rg s[44 ] . Sup e rnov a eo fth i styp e( a l s okn owna s Typ eI a )a r ethough ttoem i tv e rys im i l a r lum ino s i typ r ofi l e s . Th i sc anb eu s edtoc a l cu l a t eth ed i s t an c eo fth esup e rnov aby comp a r in gth elum in o s i tyob s e rv edonE a r thtoth eem i t t edlum ino s i ty[45 ] . Supe rnovaremnan t s(SNR ) A f t e rasup e rnov aexp lo s ionth ee j e c t ai s mov ingr ad i a l ly aw ayf romi ta th i ghv e l o c i t i e s .I tp r op a g a t e sth roughth ev i c in i tya roundth eexp lod ed s t a r , wh i chc on t a in sin t e r s t e l l a rm a t t e r( ISM )andc ancon t a in mo l e cu l a rc loud s . Th i s sy s t emn owc anfu lfi lth er equ i r em en t sfo rsho cka c c e l e r a t iona sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .3 .1 . 5 1 In t r igu in g ly ,th ek in e t i cen e r gyr e l e a s edinasup e rnov a( 1×10 e rg s)c anp rov id eenough 5 An ea rbysa t e l l i t ega laxyo fou rownga laxy . 13 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e en e rgyfo rc o sm i cr ay supt oth e"kn e e"i f3%to30%o fth er e l e a s eden e rgya r eu s edto a c c e l e r a t ec o sm i cr ay s[ 4 6 ] . Pu l sa r W ind Nebu lae(PWN ) Wh enasup e rnov aexp lo s ionr e su l t sinth ec r e a t iono f an eu t rons t a r ,m o s to fth ean gu l a r mom en tumo fth ep rog en i to rs t a rr em a in sw i thth e n eu t rons t a r . Du et oi t s mu chsm a l l e rs i z e(10kmto15km[47 ]r ad iu scomp a r edto 5km[ 7×10 4 8 ]o fou rsuna sanex amp l e . )i ts t a r t storo t a t ev e ryf a s t .I fapu l s edr ad io em i s s ionf r omth i sn eu t r ons t a ri sd e t e c t edi ti sc a l l eda"pu l s a r" . A tth es am et im e , 12G)c r e a t es t rongpo t en t i a ld iff e r en c e sinth e l a rg ero t a t in gm a gn e t i cfi e ld s(upt o1×10 e l e c t r i cfi e ldb e tw e enth epo l eandth eequ a to ro fth en eu t rons t a r . Th i se l e c t r i cfi e ldi s sos t rongth a ti ts t r ip saw aye l e c t r on sandion s[49 ]f romth esu r f a c eo fth en eu t rons t a r . Ch a rg ed p a r t i c l e sth a ta r es t r ipp ed aw ay fi l lth ev i c in i ty a roundth e pu l s a r and a r ec a l l edth epu l s a rw ind[ 5 0 ] . Th eyem i tsyn ch ro t ronr ad i a t ioninth er ad ioandX r ay b and wh enth eya r ed efl e c t edbyth em agn e t i cfi e ldo fth epu l s a r[47 ] . Th ein t e r e s e t ed r e ad e rc anfindadd i t i on a lin f o rm a t ioninth e s er ev i ew s[51–53 ]andad e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion o fth em a gn e t i cfi e ld sandth econv e r s ionf rome l e c t ro -m agn e t i cin tok in e t i cen e rgyin [54 ] . Du et oth e i rs t r on gm a gn e t i cfi e ld s PWNa r ec and id a t e sfo rp a r t i c l ea c c e l e r a t ion th rough m a gn e t i cr e c onn e c t i on . B ina rysy s tem/ M i c roqua sa r Ab in a rysy s t emth a tcon s i s t so facomp a c tob j e c t( l ik ea n eu t rons t a ro rab l a ckh o l e )andac omp an ions t a ro rano th e rcomp a c tob j e c tc ana c c e l e r a t e p a r t i c l e st oh i ghen e r g i e s . Th ec omp a c tob j e c tc ana c c r e t em a s sf romth ecomp an ion s t a r .I ti sb e l i ev edth a ti tc onv e r t sp a r t so fth een e rgyg a in edbyth i sa c c r e t ionin toth e a c c e l e r a t i ono fp a r t i c l e sinj e t sa longi t sro t a t ion a lax e s[55 ]o rth roughin t e r a c t ion so f w ind s[56 ] . The Ga la c t i c Cen t re Th ec en t r eo fth i sg a l axy ho s t sasup e r -m a s s iv eb l a ck ho l e , S ag i t t a r iu sA * . Th i sb l a ckh o l ei sp ropo s eda ssou r c eo fth eg a l a c t i cco sm i cr ay sin [57 ] .T od ay ,th eob s e rv edlum in o s i tyi stoosm a l ltob eac and id a t efo rsuffi c i en tp a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i on .H ow ev e r ,l a r g es t ru c tu r e s ,so c a l l edbubb l e s ,ob s e rv edabov eandb e lowth e g a l a c t i cc en t r e[ 5 8 ]a r eanind i c a t i onfo ra mo r ea c t iv eph a s eo fth eb l a ckho l einth ep a s t . Th eb l a ckh o l ec ou ldh av ea c c e l e r a t edp a r t i c l e sinj e t sbyu s ingen e rgyr e l e a s edby m a s s a c c r e t iononi t . Th es i z eand po s i t i ono fth e bubb l e sc an b eu s edtoe s t im a t eth et im ew indowo f th i sh igha c t iv i ty ph a s eo fth eb l a ck ho l e . Th i sy i e ld sana c t iv i ty ph a s eo fabou t 7y 7y 1×10 r swh i chs t a r t edabou t2 ✳ 4×10 r sago . Th i si ss im i l a rtoth eav e r ag ee s c ap e t im eo fac o sm i cr ayf r omou tg a l axy ,1 ✳ 5×107y r s[59 ] . A spo in t edou tin[60 ] ,th e av e r a g ee s c ap et im ec ana l s ob el a r g e rbyf a c to rtw otofou ri fd iff e r en ta s sump t ion sabou t th eco sm i cr ayp r op a g a t i ona r em ad e . 14 2 .4 . Ob s e rv edg amm asou r c e s S im i l a rt osh o ck a c c e l e r a t i on asp e c t r a lind ex o ftw oa tth esou r c ei sp r ed i c t ed . H en c e ,aph a s eo fh i gha c t iv i tyinth eph a s eo fS ag i t t a r iu s A*i son epo s s ib l eo r ig ino f g a l a c t i cco sm i cr ay s . 2 .3 .3 . Ex t ra -ga lac t icsou rcecand ida te sfo rco sm icra y s A c t ivega la c t i cnu c le i A c t iv eg a l a c t i cnu c l e i(AGN s )a r einn e rp a r t so fg a l ax i e sw i tha v e ryh ighlum in o s i ty[ 6 1 ] .I ti sa s sum edth a tth e i rem i s s ioni sfu e l l edbyth ea c c r e t ion o fm a s sonasup e rm a s s iv eb l a ckh o l e . AGN sa r ep r im ec and id a t e sfo rth ea c c e l e r a t ion o f UHEc o sm i cr ay sa sc ana l s ob es e eninF ig .2 .2 . Du eto m a s sa c c r e t edbyth eb l a ck ho l eana c c r e t i ond i ski sf o rm ed .S om e t im e son ea l soob s e rv e stw oh igh lyr e l a t iv i s t i cj e t s o r thogon a lt oth ed i sk .S om em od e l sexp e c tth eUHEco sm i cr ay stob ea c c e l e r a t edinth e j e t s[3 ] .D ep end in gonth ev i ew in gang l eanAGNi sid en t ifi edind iff e r en tsou r c ec l a s s e s . Anex amp l ea r e AGN sw i thon eo fth e i rj e t spo in t ingd i r e c t lytou s , wh i cha r ec a l l ed b l a z a r s . Gammara ybu r s t s G amm ar aybu r s t s(GRB s )a r esho r t( s e cond so rl e s s )bu r s t so f 4 0k eVt o1×10 keV[62 ] .Inth i ssho r tp e r iodth e i rlum ino s i tyi s pho ton sp e ak in ga t1 comp a r ab l et oth een t i r eun iv e r s ein t eg r a t edov e ra l lw av e l eng th s . GRB sa r eu su a l ly s ep a r a t edintw oc l a s s e sb a s edonth ed i s t r ibu t iono f GRBdu r a t ion s . Sho r t GRB sp e ak a t a du r a t i on o f abou t0 ✳ 3s wh i l elong GRB sp e ak a t abou t 30s . GRB sw i thadu r a t i onsm a l l e rth an2sa r ec l a s s ifi eda ssho r tGRB s ,o th e rw i s e ,th ey a r ec l a s s ifi eda sl on g GRB s . Th e mo s tcommonin t e rp r e t a t iono fth i sf e a tu r ea r etw o d iff e r en ts ou r c ec l a s s e s . Th ec o l l ap s eo fm a s s iv es t a r s( m a s s>✶✺ M )h a sb e enid en t ifi ed a sth ep r o g en i t o rf o rs om eo fth el ong GRB s .L ik ew i s e ,fo rsho r t GRB sth em e rg ingo f tw ocomp a c tob j e c t sinab in a rysy s t emh a sb e end i s cu s s ed[63 ] . How ev e r ,th e r ea r es t i l l m anyop enqu e s t i on s wh eni tc om e stoth ep rog en i to r so f GRB s . Th eob s e rv a t iono f VHEg amm ar ay sf r omth e s eob j e c t sm igh tb eanind i c a to rfo rh ad ron i cp ro c e s s e s . Thu s , GRB sa r eapo s s ib l es i t eo fc o sm i cr aya c c e l e r a t ion . 2 .4 . Ob se rvedgammasou rce s A sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 3VHEg amm ar ay sc anb ep rodu c edbyth ein t e r a c t iono fco sm i c r ay sw i thamb i en tm a t t e ro rph o t onfi e ld s . Un l ik eth ech a rg edco sm i cr ay sth en eu t r a l g amm ar ay sa r en o td efl e c t ed .H en c e ,th eob s e rv a t iono fVHEg amm ar ayem i s s ionf rom ana s t rophy s i c a lob j e c to rr e g i onc anb es e ena sanind i c a to rth a ti ti sa l soas i t eo fco sm i c r aya c c e l e r a t i on .H ow ev e r ,aVHEg amm ar ayc ana l sob ep rodu c edbyl ep ton i cp ro c e s s e s ( a l sod i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 3 ) .Inth ef o l low ingbo thob s e rv a t ion so fVHEg amm ar ay s f romth eg a l a c t i candex t r a -g a l a c t i co r ig ina r ed i s cu s s ed . 15 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e Ga la c t i cVHEgammara y s B o thHESS[64 ]andth eF e rm i -LATs a t e l l i t eh av esu rv ey ed 6a th eg a l a c t i cp l an e ndf oundnum e rou sg a l a c t i csou r c e s( s e eF ig . 2 .5 ) . D ep end ing onth e i rpo s i t i ononth esky ,m anyo fth e s ea l soh av eb e enob s e rv edby MAG ICand VER ITAS . Th ed iffu s eem i s s i onf r omth eg a l a c t i cp l an ei sa l so m e a su r edby FERM I [66 ]and HESS[ 6 7 ] . Wh i l es om esou r c e ss e emtop rodu c eth eob s e rv edg amm ar ay s l ep ton i c a l ly ,f o ro th e r sth e r ei sev id en c eo fh ad ron i cp rodu c t ion .F o rsup e rnov ar emn an t s , F igu re2 .5 :R e su l t sf r omth eg a l a c t i cp l an es c anw i thHESSandth eF e rm i -LATs a t e l i t e . T ak enf r om[ 6 8 ] . on epo s s ib l eexp l an a t i oni sac o r r e l a t ionb e tw e enth eag eo fth er emn an tandth ed en s i ty in wh i chin t e r a c t i on st ak ep l a c e[ 6 9 ] .I ti sb e l i ev edth a tl ep ton i cp rodu c t iono fg amm a r ay so c cu r sinlowd en s i tyenv i r onm en t sandh ad ron i cp rodu c t ioninenv i ronm en t sw i tha h igh e rd en s i ty . In m anyc a s e s asou r c ei sn o t on ly ob s e rv edinGeV and TeV g amm ar ay s , bu t a l soinr ad i oand X r ayb and s . Th eem i s s ioninth e s eb and si sg en e r a l lyin t e rp r e t eda s i s s ion syn ch ro t r onr ad i a t i ono fe l e c t r on s . Thu s ,a mod e ld e s c r ib ingth eGeV andTeVem bye l e c t ron sl o s in gth e i ren e r gyv i ainv e r s e comp tons c a t t e r ingo rB r em s s t r ah lungh a s tob econ s i s t en tw i thth er ad i oand X r ayob s e rv a t ion s[70 ] .InF ig .2 .6th esup e rnov a r emn an tW 5 1Ci su s eda sanex amp l efo rth ed iff e r en t i a t ionb e tw e en mod e l s . Wh i l eth e ob s e rv edG eV andTeVem i s s i onfi t sbo thh ad ron i c(mod e la )andl ep ton i c(mod e lb+c ) mod e l sw e l l ,th ep r ed i c t edr ad i oem i s s ionfo rth el ep ton i c mod e l si sind i s ag r e em en tw i th th ed a t a . Th eg amm ar ayem i s s i oni sth e r e fo r el ik e lyh ad ron i cino r ig in . F o rsom esup e rn ov ar emn an t sth eenv i ronm en t a lcond i t ion sandob s e rv edsp e c t r a s t rong lysu g g e s tah ad r on i co r ig ino fth eob s e rv edGeV andTeVg amm ar ay s( ex amp l e s : 6 Th i sha sa l sob edon eby M ILAGRO , ma in lyinth eno r th e rnsky[65 ] . 16 2 .4 . Ob s e rv edg amm asou r c e s F igu re2 .6 : Sp e c t r a len e r gyd i s t r ibu t ionfo r W51C .M e a su r edd a t a( r ad ioonth el e f t , VHEg amm ar ay sonth er igh t )andth r e ed iff e r en t mod e l sa r eshown .F igu r e a )sh ow sa m od e lw i thadom in an th ad ron i cp rodu c t iono fVHEg amm ar ay s andF i gu r eb )andc )showmod e l sth a tp r ed i c tl ep ton i cp ro c e s s e stodom in a t e th ep r odu c t i ono fVHEg amm ar ay s .T ak enf rom[70 ] IC443and W 4 4[ 4 6 ] ) . Th ec r abn ebu l a ,apu l s a rw indn ebu l aa s so c i a t edw i thth eob s e rv a t iono fasup e rn ov ain1 0 5 4 ,onth eo th e rh and ,i sw e l lknownfo rb e ingav e ryb r igh tsou r c e inth eskyf o rbo thr ad i oand X r ay sa sw e l la sg amm ar ay suptoaf ewTeV[71 ] . Du e toi t sb r i gh tn e s sinth e s eb and sth esp e c t r a len e rgyd i s t r ibu t ion(SED )i sw e l lm e a su r ed andc anb ev e ryw e l lfi t t edw i thapu r el ep ton i cs c en a r io[72–74 ]a sc anb es e eninF ig .2 .7 . F o r mo s to fth es ou r c e sth eSED sa r e no ta sw e l lm e a su r eda sinth ep r ev iou sex amp l e s .I fanob s e rv a t i oninanen e rgyr ang ei sm i s s ingth i sc anb ebo thdu etol a cko f exp e r im en t a ls en s i t iv i tyo rl a cko fem i s s ion . Add i t ion a l ly ,th ea rgum en t su s edinf av ou r andag a in s tth eh ad r on i c / l ep t on i cc a s ea r eno ta lw ay sab so lu t e . Agoodex amp l ei sth e sup e rnov ar emn an tRXJ 1 7 1 3 . 7 3 9 46 . Th eem i s s ioninth eGeV r ang eshow sav e ryh a rd ✳ ✺[ 7 5 ] . Th i sandth el a cko fX r ayl in eem i s s ionexp e c t ed sp e c t r a lind exo fabou tγ= ✶ o fh igh e rp r o t onnumb e rd en s i t i e sinh ad ron i cp rodu c t ion[76 ]w e r elongthough ttob e a rgum en t sf o ral ep t on i cp r odu c t i ono fth eob s e rv edg amm ar ay s[76 ,77 ] . Wh i l es imp l eh ad r on i cm od e l ss e emtob ed i s f av ou r ed[78 ] ,i ti spo s s ib l etoexp l a in th eob s e rv edG eV andTeVem i s s i onbyh ad ron i cin t e r a c t ion sw i thanadd i t ion a lr emn an t sh e l lup s t r e am[ 7 8 ]o rw i thac lumpy m ed iuml ik ead en s e mo l e cu l a rc loud[79 ,80 ] . Th eob s e rv a t i ono rn on ob s e rv a t i ono fn eu t r ino scou ldh e lptoe i th e rsuppo r th ad ron i c s c en a r io so rl im i tth e i rc on t r ibu t i ontoth eob s e rv edg amm ar ay s . Th e HESSt e l e s c op e sa l s od e t e c t ed TeV g amm a r ay sf romth eG a l a c t i cC en t r e[81 ] . 17 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e Ene rgy[eV ] -9 10 -7 10 -8 10 -7 -5 -3 -1 10 10 10 10 3 5 C rabNebu la 9 13 11 15 SYNC SSC BREMS IC -CMB IC -F IR IC -N IR /OPT -9 -1 -2 νFν ( ν)[e rgs cm ] 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -10 10 -11 10 -12 10 -13 10 10-14 -15 10 -16 10 6 8 10 16 18 20 26 28 30 10 10 10 1012 1014 10 10 10 1022 1024 10 10 10 F requency[Hz ] F igu re2 .7 : Sp e c t r a len e r gyd i s t r ibu t ionfo rth ec r abn ebu l a .D a t apo in t sandp r ed i c t ed em i s s i onf r omv a r i ou sl ep ton i cp rodu c t ion m e ch an i sm s .T ak enf rom[74 ] . Ini t sm o l e cu l a rc l oudh i gh en e r g e t i ce l e c t ron sw i l lsuff e rl a rg er ad i a t iv elo s s e s . Th i s d i s f av ou r sal ep t on i co r i g inb e c au s ei ti sch a l l eng ingtoexp l a inth el a rg eem i s s ionr eg ion w i thal ep t on i cm od e la si ti sl a r g e rth anth e i rexp e c t edr ang e . Th eg amm a r ayem i s s ion inth i sr e g i oni sa l s oa m a gn i tud el a rg e rth anexp e c t a t ion sf romth ein t e r a c t ion so f th e" ‘ s e a ’o fc o sm i cr ay s "[ 8 1 ]th a tfi l l sth eg a l axy . Th i sind i c a t e sin t r in s i cco sm i c r ay a c c e l e r a t i oninth eG a l a c t i cC en t r eandsuppo r t sth eth eo ryo fah igha c t iv i typh a s eo f S ag i t t a r iu sA *inth ep a s t . Ex t ra -ga la c t i c VHE gammara y s VHEg amm ar ay sh av ea l so b e en d e t e c t edf rom amm ar ay sf rom AGN sc anb es e ena san ex t r a -g a l a c t i cob j e c t s . Ob s e rv a t i ono fTeVg 1 7 ind i c a to rf o rth e i rab i l i tyt oa c c e l e r a t ech a rg edion suptoen e rg i e sabov e1×10 eV[82 ] –i fth eya r eo fh ad r on i co r i g in .H ow ev e r ,a sshownex amp l a ryfo rsom eb l a z a r sin[82 ] , th e i r VHEg amm ar ayem i s s i onc ana l sob eexp l a in edbybo thh ad ron i candl ep ton i c p ro c e s s e s( s e eF i g .2 . 8 ) . B l a z a r sc anv a ryinth e i rem i s s i ond ep end en to ft im e ,s e eF ig .2 .8and[83 ] .3C279 ,th e ex emp l a ryb l a z a rsh ownabov e ,w a sinab r igh ts t a t eov e raf ewhou r sob s e rv edbyth e F e rm is a t e l l i t ein D e c emb e r2 0 1 3 .Inth i ss t a t eth ed e t e c t edflux w a sabou tt ent im e s h igh e rfluxth anini t sg r ounds t a t e . Th i sem i s s ionc anb eexp l a in edbyem i s s iono fp ro ton syn ch ro t r onr ad i a t i ono rbyapu r el ep ton i cs c en a r io[83 ] . A s m en t i on ed b e f o r e , ph o t on sc anin t e r a c tw i tho th e r pho ton sandc r e a t ee l e c t ron po s i t ronp a i r s . PeV ph o t on sc anin t e r a c tw i thth epho ton so fth eco sm i cm i c row a c e b a ckg round . Du et oth eabund an c eo fth i sb a ckg roundl igh tth e i rm e anf r e ep a thi sa s 18 2 .5 .P ro sp e c t so fn eu t r inoa s t ronomyandi t simp a c t 3C 2 7 9 3C279 1 4 1 4 10 1 3 10 1 0 1 3 νFν[ J yH z ] νFν[ J yH z ] 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 10 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 10 1 0 1 0 1 0 12 10 14 10 16 10 18 20 10 10 ν[H z ] 22 10 2 4 10 2 6 10 10 1 0 10 1 2 10 1 4 10 1 6 10 1 8 2 0 10 10 ν[Hz ] 2 2 10 2 4 10 2 6 10 F igu re 2 .8 :L e f t : M od e lw i thh ad ron i cem i s s ion(do t -do t -d a sh ed )andv a r iou sl ep ton i c em i s s i on s( o th e rn on so l idl in e s ) .R igh t :L ep ton i c mod e lw i thv a r iou sl ep t on i cem i s s i on s .Inbo thfigu r e sth edo t t edcu rv er ep r e s en t sth esyn ch ro t ron em i s s i onf r ome l e c t r on s .R edpo in t sco r r e spondtod a t at ak enin toa c coun t f o rth efi t . Th eo th e rd a t apo in t sshowth ev a r i ab i l i tyo fth eb l a z a ra td iff e r en tpo in t sint im e .T ak enf rom[82 ] −2M sm a l la s1×1 0 p c7[ 8 4 ] . A t TeV en e r g i e sth e VHE g amm ar ay s do no tin t e r a c t w i thth e CMB pho ton s , bu tw i thth ein f r a r edex t r a g a l a c t i cb a ckg roundl igh t(EBL )[85 ] . Th eyh av ea m e anf r e e p a tho f1 00 Mp ct o1 00 0 Mp c( s e eF ig .2 .9 ) .H en c e ,th e i rob s e rv edsp e c t rumn e ed stob e co r r e c t edf o rth i sa t t enu a t i on . Th i sr equ i r e sbo thknow l edg eo fth eEBLandth esou r c e sp e c t rum .N eu t r in o sc ana g a inh e lptod i s t ingu i shh ad ron i candl ep ton i cs c en a r io sandin th ec a s eo fah ad r on i cs c en a r i ot od e t e rm in ewh e th e rach ang einth eob s e rv edsp e c t rum i sdu etoach an g einth ein i t i a lsp e c t rumo rab so rp t ion . Add i t ion a l ly ,inth ePeVr eg im e th eyop enth ew ind owt oaun iv e r s e( a lmo s t )op aqu efo rg amm ar ay s . 2 .5 .P ro spec t so fneu t r inoa s t ronomyandi t simpac t N eu t r ino sa r ean un amb i gu ou st r a c eo fh ad ron i cp ro c e s s e sinasou r c e . Thu s ,th e d e t e c t iono fa s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r in o si sas t rongind i c a to rth a ta tl e a s tp a r to fth ed e t e c t ed g amm ar ayfluxi so fh ad r on i co r i g in . On eadv an t ag eo fn eu t r ino scomp a r edtog amm a r ay si sth e i rl im i t a t i ont ow e akin t e r a c t ion s( andg r av i t a t ion a lfo r c e s )wh i l eg amm ar ay s c ana l sound e r g oe l e c t r o -m a gn e t i cin t e r a c t ion s . H en c e , VHEg amm ar ay sc anin t e r a c t w i thpho t on sinth ep r odu c t i ons i t e[86 ]o rth eex t r a -g a l a c t i cb a ckg roundl igh t[85 ]on th e i rw ayt oE a r th . Th e r e f o r e ,i ti sno texp e c t edtod e t e c tth e s eg amm ar ay sf romsou r c e s 7 Abou tth ed i s tan c eo fEa r thtoth ega la c t i cc en t e ro f8 ✳ 4±0 ✳ 6kp c[15 ] .3C279th eexamp la to ryb la za r ✳ 5 o fF ig .2 .8ha sad i s tan c ef romEa r tho fabou t1 ✳ 8+0 p c −0✳ 3M 19 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e 4 10 1T eV 1P eV 1E eV 3 10 2 λ[Mp c ] 10 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 10 10 1 2 10 1 4 1 6 1 0 1 0 E n e rgy[ eV ] 1 8 10 2 0 1 0 F igu re2 .9 : Th em e anf r e ep a thf o r VHEg amm ar ay s .In t e r a c t ion w i th CMBpho ton s a r er ep r e s en t edbyth eso l idl in e . Th ed a sh edl in e sco r r e spondtoin t e r a c t ion s w i thd iff e r en tm od e l so fth eEBL .T ak enf r om[84 ] th a ta r ef a raw ayo rp r odu c edinapho ton -d en s eenv i ronm en t . Abou tfiv ep e r c en to fth e en e rgyo fac o sm i cr ayin t e r a c t in gi sonav e r ag et r an s f e r r edtoas ing l en eu t r ino[87 ,88 ] . 15✳ 5eVi Th e r e fo r e ,i fac o sm i cr ayb e l owth e"kn e e"a t1×10 n t e r a c t s ,n eu t r ino suptoa anb eex c ep t ed . f ew100TeVc I c eCub e ,an eu t r in od e t e c t o rth a tw i l lb ed i s cu s s edin d e t a i linch ap t e r3 ,h a sd e t e c t edad iffu s ea s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux[89–91 ]a tn eu t r inoen e rg i e sabov e25TeV[92 ] . I tw a spo in t edou tin[ 8 6 ]th a tth i sfluxa l r e adypu t scon s t r a in sonth ep rodu c t ions i t e s fo rth ed iffu s eem i s s i ono fg amm ar ay sandn eu t r ino s .I fth eob s e rv edd iffu s eem i s s iono f a s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in o so r i g in a t edf romppin t e r a c t ion sth eexp e c t edg amm a r ayfluxin an g ew ou ldb e mu chh i gh e rth anob s e rv ed ,a sshowninF ig .2 .10 . th eGeV r Th es am ea r gum en ti ss om ewh a tw e ak e rfo r pγ in t e r a c t ion s[86 ] . F o rth i ss c en a r io i ti sa rgu edth a tas ou r c eth a tp r odu c e sn eu t r ino seffi c i en t lyr equ i r e st a rg e tpho tonfi e ld s o fsu chin t en s i tyth a tth es ou r c ew ou ldb e com eop aqu efo rg amm ar ay sinth e1GeV to100GeVdu et oγγin t e r a c t i on s . Thu s ,a s sum ingco r r e l a t ionb e tw e eng amm ar ay sa t th e s een e r g i e sandth ea s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r ino sob s e rv edbyI c eCub em igh tno tb ef ru i t fu l . Th eycon c lud eth a tth e s ea r gum en t sdono tho ldfo rob s e rv a t ion so f TeVg amm a r ay s– m ak ingth emap r im em e s s en g e rt ou s ecomb in ed w i thn eu t r inoob s e rv a t ion s .H ow ev e r , inbo thc a s e s( ppandpγ)a s sump t ion sabou tth en eu t r inosp e c t rumb e low10TeVa r e m ad e . Inth i sen e r gyr an g eth esh ap eo fth ea s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inosp e c t rumi ss t i l l unknown . 20 2 .5 .P ro sp e c t so fn eu t r inoa s t ronomyandi t simp a c t -5 E 2 -2 -1 -1 [GeVcm s s r] 10 10-6 F e rm i pp() pp() m in ima lp () m in ima lp () I c eCub e -7 10 10-8 -9 10 10-10 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 E[GeV ] F igu re2 .10 : Th em e a su r edd iffu s eg amm aandn eu t r inoem i s s ionbyF e rm iandI c eCub e . A l s osh owna r eg en e r i c mod e l sfo rppandpγp rodu c t iono fth eg amm ar ay s andn eu t r in o s ,a s sum ingth a tth eya r ep rodu c edinth es am es i t e s .T ak en f r om[ 8 6 ] 2 .5 .1 . Expec tedneu t r ino sf romthega laxy F o ra l lsou r c ec l a s s e sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .3 .2mod e l sc anb efound[55 ,93–96 ]p r ed i c t inga con t r ibu t i ono fn eu t r in o s .Inth ec on t ex to fth i sth e s i sth e s esou r c e sa r epo in t l ik esou r c e s– sou r c e sw i thasp a t i a lex t en s i onb e l owth eangu l a rr e so lu t iono fth eexp e r im en t .In m any c a s e sth e s em od e l sa r ee i th e rc on s t r a in edbyth eob s e rv edg amm ar aysp e c t rumo fth e 8 sou r c eo rbyth em e a su r edfluxo rupp e rl im i t sf rombo thth eI c eCub eandth eANTARES co l l abo r a t i on s .A sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .2 . 1andshowninF ig .2 .1co sm i cr ay sa tl e a s tup 15✳ 5eVa toth e"kn e e "a t1×1 0 r ethough ttob eo fg a l a c t i co r ig in .N eu t r ino sp rodu c ed inan1PeVppin t e r a c t i onh av eanav e r ag een e rgyb e low100TeV,s e eF ig .2 .11 . Conne c t inggammara y sandneu t r ino s I fth eh ad ron i cp r odu c t ion( pp)o fth eob s e rv ed g amm ar ayfluxi sb e l i ev edin ,th eco r r e spond ingexp e c t edn eu t r inofluxonE a r thc anb e c a l cu l a t ed[ 9 7 ]u s in gth ep a r am e t r i z a t iono fppin t e r a c t ion sd e s c r ib edin[88 ] . On eob t a in s : ❞Nγ/ν Eγ/ν ≈kγ/ν ❞Eγ/ν 1TeV −Γγ/ν ❡①♣ − Eγ/ν γ/ν (2 .8 ) Inth i sm od e lth esp e c t r ao fg amm ar ay sandn eu t r ino sh av eth es am esp e c t r a lind ex Γ. Th en eu t r in ofluxp a r am e t e rkν i sr e l a t edtoth eg amm ar ayfluxp a r am e t e rkγ: kν ≈( ✵ ✳✼ ✶−✵ ✳ ✶ ✻ α) kγ,w i thαa sth eco sm i cr aysp e c t r a lind exandΓ ≈α−✵ ✳ ✶ .I fa γ/ν 8 An eu t r inod e t e c to rd i s cu s s edins e c t ion3 .2 .1 . 21 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e F igu re2 .11 : SEDo fs e c ond a ryp a r t i c l e sp rodu c edbyappin t e r a c t iono fa1PeVp ro ton ( ✶) andth ed e c ayo fth er e su l t ing m e son s .νµ co r r e spond stoth econ t r ibu t ion o f mu onn eu t r in o sp rodu c edbyth ein i t i a ld e c ayo fch a rg edp ion s . Th e sp e c t rumf o re l e c t r onn eu t r ino si sno tshown ,bu ti sv e rys im i l a rtoth e e l e c t r onsp e c t rumd ep i c t ed .T ak enf rom[88 ] . cu toffc anb efi t t edt oth eg amm ar aysp e c t rum ,i ti sp a r am e t r i z edbyth e❡①♣ − Eγ/ν γ/ν t e rmand ν ≈ ✵ ✳ ✺ ✾ γ. Inth ec a s eo fnopub l i sh edcu toffapu r epow e rlowi sfi t t ed (γ/ν =∞) .F o rfiv eo fth es ou r c e sd i s cu s s edin[97 ]acu toffi sp rov id edw i th γ b e tw e en 0 ✳ 21TeVand4 ✳ 2 4TeV. Inth i s m od e ls om ea s sump t i on sh av eto b e m ad econ c e rn ingth esou r c e andi t s env i ronm en t . Ex amp l e sa r eth eex c lu s iv ep rodu c t ion o fg amm ar ay sv i ah ad ron i c p rodu c t ion(wh i ch m i gh tn o tb et ru efo rm anyo fth ed i s cu s s edsou r c e s )o rth a tbo th p ion sand mu on sd on o tl o s es i gn ifi c an tp a r t so fth e i ren e rgyb e fo r eth e i rd e c ayc r e a t e s n eu t r ino s . Th ep r ed i c t edn eu t r in ofluxfo rtw os t rongg a l a c t i cg amm ar aysou r c e sSNR RXJ1713 . 7 3 9 4 6and PWN V e l a Xi sshownin F ig .2 .12 . How ev e r ,ev en w i thth e s e op t im i s t i ca s sump t i on sth enumb e ro fexp e c t edn eu t r ino sp rodu c edbyth e s ep ro c e s s e si s sm a l lcomp a r edt oth eb a ck g r oundo fn eu t r ino sp rodu c edinin t e r a c t ion so fco sm i cr ay s 9 w i thou ra tm o sph e r e. Ga la c t i cp lane Th eg a l a c t i cp l an eh a sb e enob s e rv eding amm ar ay sw i then e rg i e sup toaf ewTeV[ 6 7 ,9 8 ] .A tl e a s tap a r to fth i sob s e rv edfluxi sthough ttob eo fh ad ron i c o r ig in[66 ] ,c om in gf r omin t e r a c t i on so fco sm i cr ay sw i thin t e r s t e l l a rm a t t e r .Inth i sc a s e 9 Examp l e : Ahypo th e t i ca l KM3N eTd e t e c to rw ou ldexp e c tto m ea su r eabou t11s igna ln eu t r ino sand41 ba ckg roundn eu t r ino sabov e1TeVfo rth eSNRRXJ1713 .7 -3946ov e rafiv ey ea rp e r iodo fda tatak ing . 22 RXJ1713 .7 -3946 H .E .S .S .da ta f i t ted γspe c t rum ca l cu la tedν spe c t rum meana tm .νspe c t rum -10 10 10-11 10-12 10-1 Ve laX H .E .S .S .da ta f i t ted γspec t rum ca lcu la tedν spec t rum meana tm .νspec t rum -10 10 10-11 10-12 -13 10 -1 -2 E2×f lux(TeVs cm ) -1 -2 E2×f lux(TeVs cm ) 2 .5 .P ro sp e c t so fn eu t r inoa s t ronomyandi t simp a c t 1 10 102 E(TeV ) -13 10 10-1 1 10 102 E(TeV ) F igu re 2 .12 :M e a su r edandfi t t edg amm ar aysp e c t rumandp r ed i c t edn eu t r inosp e c t rum f o rag iv ens ou r c e . Th el e f tp lo tshow sth i sfo rth eSNRRXJ1713 .7 -3946and th er i gh tp l o tf o rth ePWNV e l aX .Add i t ion a l ly ,th ep r ed i c t eda tmo sph e r i c n eu t r in ofluxf o rad e t e c to rinth eM ed i t e r r an e ans e ai sshown .T ak enf rom [ 9 7 ] . no ton lyg amm ar ay sf r omth ed e c ayo fπ✵ a r eexp e c t ed ,bu ta l son eu t r ino sf romth e d e c ayo fch a r g edp i on s . Wh i l es om eau tho r sc l a imth a tth enumb e ro fexp e c t edn eu t r ino ev en t si sbo thsm a l landth e i ren e r g i e sr a th e rlow(90 %o fth ein t eg r a lfluxf romn eu t r ino s w i thEν < 1 0TeV)[ 9 8 ] ,o th e r sc l a imth a td iffu s eem i s s ionf romth eg a l axycou ld m ak eup b e tw e en1 0%t o4 0%o fth ea s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r inofluxd e t e c t edbyI c eCub e[99 ] . Un iden t ifiedgammara ysou r ce s I th a sb e end i s cu s s edin[94 ]th a tsou r c e sob s e rv ed amm ar ay sm igh tb eo ldg a l a c t i chyp e rnov a e . Hyp e rnov a ea r ev e ryb r igh t , on lyinTeVg "hyp e r en e r g e t i c "sup e rn ov a e[ 1 0 0 ] . Th e s esou r c e sc anp rodu c eVHEg amm ar ay sand ,i f on ea s sum e sh ad r on i cp r o c e s s e s ,a l s on eu t r ino s . Wh i l eth eycou ldp rodu c en eu t r ino sw i th en e rg i e supt oabou ton ePeVth eexp e c t ednumb e ro fev en t sw ou ldb esm a l l . Da rk ma t te r B o thf r om m e a su r em en to fth eco sm i cm i c r ow av eb a ckg roundandth ero t a t ioncu rv e so fg a l ax i e sth e r ei sev id en c efo rth eex i s t en c eo fanadd i t ion a lm a s scompon en t inou run iv e r s e[ 1 0 1 ]–d a rk m a t t e r .U su a l ly ,i ti sthough ttoin t e r a c ton lyv i ath ew e ak fo r c eandg r av i ty .I t si l lu s iv ech a r a c t e rm ak e si td iffi cu l ttob ed e t e c t ed . Tw opo s s ib i l i t i e s tod e t e c ti ta r eth ed e c ayo fsu chad a rk m a t t e rp a r t i c l ein s id ead e t e c to ro rth ed e t e c t ion o fp a r t i c l e sp r odu c ed wh entw od a rk m a t t e rp a r t i c l e sann ih i l a t e .Insom e mod e l sbo th g amm ar ay sandn eu t r in o sf r omann ih i l a t iono fd a rk m a t t e rinth eg a l axy ,inp a r t i cu l a r th eG a l a c t i cC en t e r ,a r ep r ed i c t ed[ 102 ] . 2 .5 .2 . Expec tedneu t r ino sf romex t ra -ga lac t icsou rcecand ida te s L ik eth eg a l a c t i cs ou r c ec and id a t e sabov eex t r a -g a l a c t i csou r c e sa r ea s sum edtob epo in t l ik einth es c op eo fth i sth e s i s . 23 2 . Th eh i ghen e r gyun iv e r s e GRB s Th eI c eCub en eu t r in ot e l e s cop ew a sa l r e adyab l etopu ts t rongl im i t s( abou ton e o rd e ro fm a gn i tud eb e l owth ed e t e c t edn eu t r inoflux )onth en eu t r inofluxf rom GRB s [103 ] ,ex c lud in gal a r g ec on t r ibu t i ontoth eov e r a l la s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux[90 ] . AGN s F o rAGN sth ev i c in i tyo fth eb l a ckho l e[104 ]andth ej e tc anb ep rodu c t ions i t e s o fa s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r in o s[ 1 0 5 ,1 0 6 ] .A c c e l e r a t edp ro ton scou ldin t e r a c tw i th m a t t e rin th eho s tg a l axyandp r odu c en eu t r ino s[106 ] .R e c en tI c eCub er e su l t s[107 ,108 ]r e s t r i c t th econ t r ibu t i ono fAGN sw i thj e t spo in t ingtoE a r th( so c a l l edb l a z a r s )toth em e a su r ed 10 [ a s t rophy s i c a lfluxt ob eabou t2 0%o rl e s s 108 ] . S ta rbu r s tga lax ie s Sup e rn ov ar emn an t sa r ep r im ec and id a t e sfo rco sm i cr aya c c e l e r a t ion s i t e sw i th inou rg a l axy .S om eg a l ax i e s , mo r elum inou sth anou r s ,h av er eg ion sw i than in c r e a s edr a t eo fs t a rf o rm a t i onandthu s ,anin c r e a s edr a t eo fsup e rnov a s . Th eob s e rv a t ion o fsyn ch r o t r onem i s s i onbyG eV e l e c t ron si sanind i c a to rfo rs t rong( ∼✶✵✵t im e ss t rong e r th aninou rg a l axy )m a gn e t i cfi e ld s . Du etoth el a rg em agn e t i cfi e ld sandth ed en s e env i ronm en tn eu t r in o sbyppin t e r a c t ion sa r eexp e c t ed[87 ,109 ,110 ] .S in c eth eco sm i c r ay sa r ea c c e l e r a t edinth er emn an tsho ck s ,co sm i cr ayen e r g i e sa r eno texp e c t edtob e mu chh igh e rth aninou rg a l axy . Th e r e fo r e ,i ts e em sun l ik e lyth a tth eya r eth esou r c e s o f UHEc o sm i cr ay s . Th eexp e c t edn eu t r inoen e rg i e sgouptoabou t100TeV–i fon e do e sno ta s sum em o r eex t r em es c en a r io ssu cha sg a l axy m e rg e r s ,sup e rm a s s iv eb l a ckho l e a c t iv i t i e so rhyp e rn ov a e[ 1 1 0 ] . Co smogen i cneu t r ino s Sh o r t lya f t e rth ed i s cov e ryo fth eCo sm i cM i c row av eB a ckg round i sen[111 ] (CMB ) ,in t e r a c t i on so fCMBph o t on sw i thUHECR sw e r ep r ed i c t edbo thbyGre andZat sep inandKuzm in [ 1 1 2 ] . Th i sl a t e rc a l l edGZK eff e c tcou ldp rodu c en eu t r ino sa t 16eVa 21eV 0 nd1 0 . How ev e r ,th e r ea r eexp e r im en t a landth eo r e t i c a l en e rg i e sb e tw e en1 un c e r t a in t i e sonth em ax imumen e rgyandcompo s i t iono fsu ch UHECR sandev enin op t im i s t i cs c en a r i o sth eexp e c t ednumb e ro fev en t si sv e rysm a l lfo rn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s l ik eI c eCub e : Abou t1 . 3ev en t sf o rapu r ep ro tonsp e c t rumand >0 .1ev en t sfo rapu r e i ronsp e c t ruminon ey e a ro fd a t af o rE eV [113 ] . ν >1P 10 F o rasamp l eo f862F e rm i -LATob s e rv edb la za r s . 24 3 . Thep r inc ip leo fh igh -ene rgyneu t r ino de tec t ionandneu t r inote le scope s Mo s texp e r im en t ss e a r ch in gf o rh i gh en e rg e t i c(Eν >10G eV)n eu t r ino sh av edon eth i sby look ingf o rth el i gh tp a t t e rn sp r odu c edbys e cond a ryp a r t i c l e sth a ta r ec r e a t edinn eu t r ino in t e r a c t ion sw i thnu c l e iin s id eo rinth ev i c in i tyo fth ed e t e c to r . Th i sch ap t e rd i s cu s s e s fi r s tth ein t e r a c t i on so fn eu t r in o sand m a t t e r ,s e condth ep rodu c t iono fl igh tbys e cond a ry p a r t i c l e so fth en eu t r in oandth i rdth ep r op ag a t iono fth el igh tinat r an sp a r en tm ed ium . Th enth ed e t e c t o r sa r ed i s cu s s ed . 3 .1 . Phy s ic so fneu t r inode tec t ion 3 .1 .1 . Theneu t r inoa sane lemen ta rypa r t ic le N eu t r ino sa r ech a r g e l e s sl ep t on s . Du etoth i sf a c tth eyc anon lyexp e r i en c eth ew e ak fo r c e ( andg r av i t a t i on ) . Th e r ea r etw opo s s ib l ek ind so fin t e r a c t ion sb e tw e enn eu t r ino sand nu c l eon s . Th eyc anex ch an g eaW ± ( ch a rg ed cu r r en t )o rex ch ang eaZ✵(n eu t r a l cu r r en t ) [114 ] . F o rn eu t r in o sw i then e r g i e sl a rg e rth an15GeVd e epin e l a s t i cs c a t t e r ing(D IS ) i sth edom in an tp r o c e s s[ 1 1 4 ] . D ISi sth ein t e r a c t iono fth en eu t r ino w i thaqu a rk inth enu c l e on . An eu t r a l cu r r en tp ro c e s sg iv e san eu t r inointh efin a ls t a t e wh i l ea ch a rg ed cu r r en tp r o c e s s( sh owninF ig .3 .1 )g iv e sach a rg edl ep ton . F igu re3 .1 :F eynm and i a g r amf o rach a rg ed cu r r en tD ISp ro c e s s .T ak enf rom[114 ] 25 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s A tlow e r en e r g i e s th ec r o s s s e c t i on sfo r an t i -n eu t r ino sa r e sm a l l e r th an tho s eo f n eu t r ino s . Th i sd iff e r en c ea lm o s tv an i sh e sfo rv e ryh ighen e r g i e s( abou tth es am ea tEν > 1PeV( s e eF i g .3 . 2 ) ) .A th i ghen e r g i e sE a r thb e com e sop aqu efo rn eu t r ino s[115 ,116 ] . F igu re3 .2 :C r o s s s e c t i on sf o rch a r g ed cu r r en t(CC )andn eu t r a l cu r r en t(NC )in t e r a c t i on so fn eu t r in o sw i thani so s c a l a rt a rg e t .T ak enf rom[116 ] . N eu t r ino sh av eafl av o randa m a s se ig en s t a t e . Afl av o re ig en s t a t edo e sno th av ea co r r e spond in gm a s se i g en s t a t e , bu ti sa m ix tu r eo fa l lm a s se ig en s t a t e s . N eu t r ino s o s c i l l a t eb e tw e enth e i rfl av o rs t a t e sdu etoth e i rnon z e ro m a s s . Th e s eo s c i l l a t ion so c cu r b e tw e ena l lth r e efl av o rs t a t e s .H ow ev e r ,inagoodapp rox im a t ionth ep rob ab i l i tyfo rth i s c anb eexp r e s s eda satw ofl av o ro s c i l l a t ionandi sp ropo r t ion a lto[87 ] : ✷ Pνα→ νβ ∼ ✐♥ δm✷ i jL ✹ E ✳ (3 .1 ) H e r eαandβa r etw ofl av o re i g en s t a t e sandδmiji sth ed iff e r en c eo fth esqu a r ed m a s s e s , Li sth ed i s t an c ef o r wh i chth eo s c i l l a t ionp r ob ab i l i tyi sc a l cu l a t edandEth een e rgyo f th en eu t r in o . Ev eni fth en eu t r in oen e r gyc an b ed e t e rm in ed w i th good p r e c i s ion ,th ed i s t an c e b e tw e enth epo in to fn eu t r in oem i s s ioninana s t rophy s i c a lsou r c eandd e t e c t ion w i l l b eimpo s s ib l et ob ed e t e rm in ed . Th eu su a la s t rophy s i c a lsou r c ei so fsu chl a rg es i z e ✷ comp a r edt oth eo s c i l l a t i onl en g thth a t ✐♥ t e rminequ a t ion3 .1av e r ag e sto✶ en c e , ✷. H ad i r e c tc a l cu l a t i ono f wh i chn eu t r ino m ix ingi sexp e c t edon E a r th ,d ep end ingonth e in i t i a ln eu t r in ofl av o rc ompo s i t i ona tth esou r c eandth em ix tu r eandth ed eg r e eto wh i chth em a s sandfl av o re i g en s t a t e sa r em ix edbu tind ep end en tf romEandL,i spo s s ib l e . A sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 3n eu t r ino sa r eexp e c t edf romth ed e c ay so fp ion sand muon s . W i th ou tanyo th e ra s sump t ion sth i sg iv e sar a t ioo f( νe =✶:νµ =✷:ντ =✵) a tth esou r c e .A tE a r thth er a t i ob e com e s( ✶: ✶: ✶ )a f t e ra c coun t ingfo rm ix ing[117 ] . 26 3 .1 . Phy s i c so fn eu t r inod e t e c t ion Mo s t mod e l sp r ed i c tth ep r odu c t i ono f ντ a tth esou r c eto b ev e rysm a l lo rev en n eg l e c ti t . Du et oth em ix in gh ow ev e r ,acon t r ibu t iono fντ a tE a r thi sexp e c t edfo ra l l mod e l sd i s cu s s edh e r e . I fth e mu on sp r odu c edinth ep i on d e c aylo s es ign ifi c an ten e rgyin m agn e t i cfi e ld s a tth esou r c e(d amp ed mu on s )th eνµ andνe p rodu c edinth e i rd e c aya r eo flow e ren e rgy . Thu s ,th er a t i of o r HEn eu t r in o sb e com e s(✵:✶:✵ )a tth esou r c e . Ano th e rpo s s ib l e s c en a r ioa r es ou r c e s wh e r eth ed om in an tp r o c e s so fn eu t r inop rodu c t ioni sth ed e c ayo f n eu t ron s–l e ad in gt oa(✶: ✵: ✵ )r a t io .T ab l e3 .1show sth er e l a t ionb e tw e enth en eu t r ino fluxa tth es ou r c eandth eE a r th . T ab le3 .1 . : In i t i a lc ompo s i t i ono f(νe :νµ :ντ )andcompo s i t iona f t e rm ix ing .V a lu e s t ak enf r om[ 1 1 7 ] In i t i a l A f t e rm ix ing n o rm a lp i ond e c ay 1 :2 :0 1 :1 :1 0 :1 :0 4 :7 :7 d amp ed mu on s n eu t r ond e c ay 1 :0 :0 5 :2 :2 D ep end in gonth een e r gyandth en e c e s s a ryenv i ronm en t a lcond i t ion s(d en s i ty ,m agn e t i c fi e ld s )som es ou r c ec l a s s e sc anb ef av ou r edo rex c lud edfo rc e r t a infl av o rcompo s i t ion s [118 ] . 3 .1 .2 . TheCe renkoveffec t I fap a r t i c l em ov e sth r ou gha m ed ium w i thav e lo c i tyvh igh e rth anth esp e edo fl igh t inth i sm ed iumi tb e g in st oem i tpho ton s[119 ] . Th i seff e c ti sn am eda f t e ri t sd i s cov e r e r Pa vel Cherenkov. Th esp e edo fl igh tinth em ed iumi sd efin edbyth esp e edo fl igh t inv a cuumcov e rth er e f r a c t iv eind exn. Th e s epho ton sa r eem i t t edinasp e c ifi cang l e , c s ( θ)=vn . Th enumb e randw av e l eng tho fth eem i t t ed th esoc a l l edC e r enk ovan g l eco pho ton sa r ed ep end en tonth ech a r g eo fth ep a r t i c l e .A son ec ans e ein3 .2th enumb e ro f λ pho ton si sd ep end en tondE=hdν=h cd [ 1 2 0 ] : λ✷ d✷Nγ α z✷ ✶ = ✶− ✷ ✷ dxdE h βn c (3 .2 ) Thu s ,pho t on sw i thsm a l l e rw av e l eng th sa r ep rodu c edinh igh e rnumb e r sth anpho ton s 1 . 3 3 )andi c e(n=1 .31 )th ep rop e r t i e sa r er a th e rs im i l a r . w i thl a rg e ron e s .F o rw a t e r(n= Rough ly2 0 0em i t t edph o t on sp e r cminth er ang eo fth ev i s ib l el igh t( λ= 400nmto 700nm )a r eexp e c t ed . Th een e r gylo s sdu etoth eC e r enk oveff e c ti ssm a l lcomp a r edto th eov e r a l len e r gyl o s so fth ech a r g edp a r t i c l e[120 ] . Th er e f r a c t iv eind exi sno tcon s t an t , bu tch ang e sf o rl i gh tw i thd iff e r en tw av e l eng th .F o rX r ay sth er e f r a c t iv eind exapp ro a ch e s on e[121 ]andn oC e r enk ovl i gh ti sem i t t ed . 27 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s 3 .1 .3 . Ene rgylo s se so fcha rgedpa r t ic le s Th een e rgyl o s s e so fr e l a t iv i s t i cch a rg edp a r t i c l e sh e av i e rth anth ee l e c t ronin m a t t e rc an b es ep a r a t edin t otw op a r t s[ 1 2 2 ] . Onth eon eh and ,th ech a rg edp a r t i c l elo s e sen e rgyby ion i z a t iono fth et a r g e tm a t e r i a l . Onth eo th e rh and ,i tlo s e sen e rgyov e rth eso c a l l ed r ad i a t iv ep r o c e s s e sB r em s s t r ah lun g ,p a i rp rodu c t ion ,andpho to -nu c l e a rin t e r a c t ion s .F o r muon s ,wh i cha r eo fp a r t i cu l a rin t e r e s tinth es cop eo fth i sth e s i s ,th eav e r ag een e rgylo s s fo rEµ >1G eV c anb ep a r am e t r i z eda sfo l low s : − dE =a( E)+b( E) E✱ dx (3 .3 ) wh e r eth ep a r am e t e ra( E)r ep r e s en t sth eion i z a t ionp a r tandb( E)th er ad i a t iv eon e . Th e " c r i t i c a len e r gy "i sd efin eda sth een e rgyfo r wh i chth econ t r ibu t iono fbo thp a r t sto th eto t a len e r gyl o s si sequ a l( abou t1TeVfo r muon sin w a t e r ) .A th igh e ren e rg i e sth e r ad i a t iv el o s s e sd om in a t eth et o t a len e rgylo s s ,s e eF ig .3 .3 . Th i sh a sal a rg einflu en c eon th e" topo l o gy "o rp r ofi l eo fth eov e r a l len e rgylo s s e sa longap a r t i c l et r a ck . Wh i l elo s s e s o fion i z a t i ona r er a th e rc on s t an t ,th ep a r t i c l ec anloo s eal a rg ep a r to fi t sen e rgyina s ing l er ad i a t iv ein t e r a c t i on . Th e r e f o r e ,th er ad i a t iv elo s s e sp e run i td i s t an c ea r eo fa mo r e s to ch a s t i cn a tu r e . 103 102 -3 2 -1 Loss (10 GeV cmg ) 104 c 10 1 a b -1 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 E (GeV) F igu re3 .3 : En e r gyl o s so f mu on sinw a t e rd ep end ingonth e muon s mom en tum .T ak en f r om[ 1 2 3 ] . 3 .1 .4 .S igna tu re s D ep end in gonth etyp eo fin t e r a c t i onandn eu t r inod iff e r en tl igh tp a t t e rn so fC e r enk ov l igh ta r ep r odu c edf r omth een e r gylo s s e so fs e cond a ryp a r t i c l e sd i s cu s s edinth etw o s e c t ion sabov e . In anyin t e r a c t i on h ad r on i cp a r t i c l e sa r ep rodu c ed wh i chin t e r a c tf a s t ag a in w i th 28 3 .1 . Phy s i c so fn eu t r inod e t e c t ion nu c l eon sandc a s c ad ed ownt ol ow e ren e rg i e s[124 ] . Su chac a s c ad eex t end sfo raf ew m e t e r sa t1 00TeVn eu t r in oen e r gyandabou t200 ma t10EeV[125 ] .A slonga ss e cond a ry ch a rg edp a r t i c l e sinth e s ein t e r a c t i on sa r ef a s tenough ,th eyem i tC e r enk ovl igh t .S im i l a r toth ea i rsh ow e r sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .2 .1ane l e c to -m agn e t i ccompon en ti sp rodu c ed a sw e l l ,in c r e a s in gth el i gh ty i e ld[124 ] . S c a t t e r ing o f pho ton sl e ad sto an a lmo s t i so t rop i cl i gh td i s t r ibu t i ona f t e r2 5 minth ei c eo fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r[125 ] . H en c e , fo rl a rg e rd i s t an c e sf r omth ein t e r a c t ionv e r t exth eem i s s ionapp e a r sa lmo s tsph e r i c .A n eu t r a l cu r r en tc a s c ad ei sd ep i c t edinF ig .3 .4 A . In a n eu t r a l cu r r en tin t e r a c t i onth en eu t r ino c an c a r ry al a rg ep a r to fi t s en e rgy aw ay . Wh i l einch a r g ed cu r r en tin t e r a c t ion sth em ed i ano fth esumo fth een e rg i e so fth e p rodu c edl ep t onandth eh ad r on i cc a s c ad ea tth ein t e r a c t ionv e r t exi sl a rg e rth an90%o f th en eu t r in oen e r gy ,f o rn eu t r a l cu r r en tin t e r a c t ion si t sabou t30%[126 ] . e F igu re3 .4 :S ch em a t i cr ep r e s en t a t iono fth efou rn eu t r inoin t e r a c t ions ign a tu r e so fn eu t r in o sd e t e c t ab l ew i thanI c eCub e l ik ed e t e c to r . F o r ch a rg ed cu r r en tin t e r a c t i on so fe l e c t ron - and t au -n eu t r ino s th ep rodu c ed p a t t e rn so fph o t on sa r ev e rys im i l a rt oth ec a s eo fn eu t r a lin t e r a c t ion s . How ev e r ,inc a s eo f th ee l e c t r onth e r ei sanadd i t i on a le l e c t rom agn e t i cc a s c ad e( s e eF ig .3 .4B ) .Inc a s eo fth e t au -n eu t r in oth ep a t t e rnd ep end sonth een e rgyo fth en eu t r ino .F o rsubPeVen e rg i e s 1.I th et aud e c ay sf a s t fa mu oni sp rodu c edinth i sd e c ay ,th ep a t t e rn w i l llooks im i l a rto th a to fth ein t e r a c t i ono fth e mu onn eu t r inod i s cu s s edb e low .Inth eo th e rc a s e sth eadd i t ion a lh ad r on i cande l e c t r om a gn e t i cc a s c ad eo fp a r t i c l e sju s tadd s mo r eC e r enk ovpho ton s . A tv e ry h i gh en e r g i e s th ep r odu c ed t au c an t r av e lfo rd i s t an c e s th a ta r e ou t s id e 1 cτ= 8 70 3µm mτ = 17 76G eV[15 ] .H en c e ,atau w i then e rgy[ 1TeV, 1 0TeV,1 00TeV,1PeV,1 0TeV] 5m ,05m ,5m ,5 0m ,5 00 m] . Th i sca l cu la t ionigno r e sth einflu en c eo fen e rgy cant rav e li s(abou t )[ 00 lo s s e s . 29 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s th er ang eo fth ee l e c t r om a gn e t i co rh ad ron i cc a s c ad e . Th i sw ou ldl e adtoaso c a l l ed "doub l eb an g "ev en t( s e e[ 1 2 7 ]andF ig .3 .4 C )w i thtw ob r igh tc a s c ad e l ik es ign a tu r e s conn e c t edbyat r a ck . Inc a s eo f a mu on n eu t r in oin t e r a c t ing w i th a nu c l eon ov e r ach a rg ed cu r r en tin t e r a c t iona mu oni sp r odu c eda ss e cond a ryp a r t i c l e .U su a l ly ,al a rg ep a r to fth en eu t r ino en e rgyi st r an s f e r r edt oth i s mu on . Th e s eh igh en e rg e t i c muon sc ant r av e lfo rs ev e r a l k i lom e t r e sth r ou gha m ed iuml ik ei c eo rw a t e rb e fo r eth eylo s eth e i ren e rgya sd e s c r ib ed ins e c t ion3 . 1 . 3 . A l on gth i st r a ckth eyem i tC e r enk ov pho ton s . Add i t ion a l ly ,th ey c anin t e r a c tw i thth em a t t e ra l on gth i st r a ckandlo s een e rgyth roughp ro c e s s e sl ik e p a i r -bu i ld in go ri on i z a t i on[ 1 2 8 ] . A longth et r a cko fth e mu ons e c ond a ry p a r t i c l e sa r ec r e a t edinth e s ep ro c e s s e s . I t i s knownf r oms imu l a t i on s[ 1 2 9 ]th a t mo s to fth es e cond a ry p a r t i c l e st r av e linth e d i r e c t iono fth e mu on .H en c e ,a l s oth em a jo r i tyo fth e i rC e r enk ovl igh ti sem i t t edinth e s am eang l ea sf o rth ein i t i a l mu ont r a ck ,in c r e a s ingth eov e r a l ll igh ty i e ld .Som eo fth e s e p ro c e s s e sc anl e adt oth em om en tumt r an s f e ro fal a rg ep a r to fth e muon s mom en tumto th enu c l e oni ti sin t e r a c t in gw i thonas to ch a s t i cb a s i s . A tth e s epo s i t ion sc a s c ad el ik e p a t t e rn sem e r g e( s e eF i g .3 . 4D ) .Th i sl e ad stoat r a ck l ik es ign a tu r ew i thh ighs to ch a s t i c lo s s e sa lon gi t[ 1 3 0 ] . In g en e r a l ,th el on gt r a ck l ik es i gn a tu r e sc r e a t edinch a rg ed cu r r en t muon -n eu t r ino in t e r a c t ion sc an b eu s edt or e c on s t ru c tth ed i r e c t iono fth ein t e r a c t ion b e t t e rth an th esph e r i cs i gn a tu r e so fn eu t r a l cu r r en tin t e r a c t ion so rch a rg ed cu r r en tin t e r a c t ion so f e l e c t ron -andt au -n eu t r in o s . Anex c ep t ioni sth ec a s eo ft au -n eu t r ino sp rodu c ingat au/ muonw i thal on gt r a ck l ik es i gn a tu r e . Add i t ion a l ly , mu on s w i th TeV en e rg i e sc an t r av e ls ev e r a lk i lom e t e r sb e fo r e th ey d e c ay( s e eF i g .3 . 5 ) . Th i sh a stw ocon s equ en c e s : Muon sp rodu c edinth ea tmo sph e r e ( s e es e c t i on2 . 2 . 1 )c anp en e t r a t eth eE a r ths ev e r a lk i lom e t r e sd e epand muon sp rodu c ed inn eu t r in och a r g ed cu r r en tin t e r a c t ion sc anp rop ag a t eth r ougha m ed iumandr e a chth e d e t e c to rf r omth eou t s id e ,in c r e a s in gth enumb e ro fs ign a tu r e so fth i styp einth ed e t e c to r v o lum ecomp a r edt osph e r i cin t e r a c t ion s . Bo thth el a rg e rnumb e ro ft r a ck l ik es ign a tu r e s andth e i rsup e r i o ran gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t ion m ak e sth emth ep r e f e r r edcho i c eins e a r ch e sfo r po in t l ik es ou r c e s . Wh i l eth en eu t r in od i r e c t i onc ann o tb er e con s t ru c t eda sw e l lf romth esph e r i cem i s s ion ( typ e s AandBinF i g .3 . 4 ) ,th een e rgyr e con s t ru c t ioni se a s i e rs in c eth een t i r een e rgy d epo s i t edinth ein i t i a ln eu t r in oin t e r a c t ionandth es e cond a ryp ro c e s s e si sin s id eo rin th ev i c in i tyo fth ed e t e c t o r .F o rth elongt r a ck l ik es ign a tu r e sth i si sno tth ec a s e .Inth i s c a s e ,th ed epo s i t eden e r gyinth ed e t e c to ri sno tequ iv a l en ttoth eto t a len e rgyd epo s i t ed 30 3 .2 .N eu t r inot e l e s cop ep ro j e c t s range(wa te r )[km ] 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 3 .5 log ( Eµ / GeV ) 1 0 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 F igu re3 .5 :R an g eo f mu on sinw a t e r ,d ep end en tonen e rgy .V a lu e st ak enf rom[122 ] . m ak ingane s t im a t eonth ein i t i a ln eu t r inoen e rgy mo r ech a l l eng ing . Ad i s cu s s iononhow tor e con s t ru c tbo then e r gyandd i r e c t iono fa muont r a ckc anb efoundins e c t ion5 .2 . 3 .1 .5 .P ropaga t iono fpho ton s A ss e eninth es e c t i onabov e ,th en eu t r inop rop e r t i e ssu cha sen e rgyandd i r e c t ionc an b ee s t im a t edon lyi fon ei sab l et od e t e c tenougho fth epho ton sth a ta r ep rodu c ed . Th e numb e ro fexp e c t ed VHEn eu t r in o si ssm a l l . Thu s ,l a rg ed e t e c to rv o lum e sa r er equ i r ed . Bo thfin an c i a l lyandt e chn i c a l ly ,th enumb e ro fd e t e c t ionun i t son ec and ep loyinth i s l a rg ev o lum ei sr e s t r i c t ed . Th e r e f o r e ,pho ton sh av etop rop ag a t efo rs ev e r a lt en so fm e t e r s inth ecu r r en td e t e c t o rg en e r a t i on ,i fth eya r ef a raw ayf romad e t e c t ion modu l e .F o rsu ch longd i s t an c e sbo ths c a t t e r in gandab so rp t iona r eimpo r t an tp rop e r t i e so fanypo t en t i a l d e t e c to rm a t e r i a l . V o lum e -w i s e M t on so rev en G t on so f m a t e r i a la r er equ i r ed . Th i sl im i t sd e t e c to r d e s ign stor e g i on so fth eE a r thw e r esu chqu an t i t i e so fapo t en t i a lm a t e r i a la r ea l r e adyin p l a c e . Bo thth en e ed eds i z eandth en e c e s s a ryop t i c a lp rop e r t i e sm ak ew a t e ro ri c es t rong cho i c e sa sd e t e c t o rm a t e r i a l . Add i t ion a lr equ i r em en t sa r epow e r supp ly ,d a t at r an s f e r , andenou ghd ep tht or edu c eth eb a ckg roundo f muon sp rodu c edinth ea tmo sph e r ewh i ch c anc r e a t es i gn a tu r e ss im i l a rt oth o s eo f muonn eu t r ino sa ta mu chh igh e rr a t e . Th e comb in a t i ono fa l lth e s er equ i r em en t sl e ad stotw ok ind so fenv i ronm en t sfo rpo t en t i a l exp e r im en t a ls i t e s :D e ep w a t e rl ik eth es e a(no ttoof a raw ayf romth esho r e )o rd e ep l ak e s( l ik el ak eB a ik a l )andth eg l a c i e r so fG r e en l andandth eAn t a r c t i ccon t in en t[131 ] . 3 .2 . Neu t r inote le scopep ro jec t s A l lt e l e s c op e sd i s cu s s ed h e r eop e r a t ev i ath ed e t e c t iono fC e r enk ovl igh tv i a pho to mu l t ip l i e rtub e s(PMT )th a ta r ep a r to fop t i c a l modu l e s(OM s ) . Th e s e OM sa r e conn e c t edv i ac ab l e sf o rfix a t i on ,d a t at r an s f e randpow e rsupp ly . Aun i to fth e s ec ab l e s and OM si sc a l l edas t r in g . Inth efo l low ing ,af ew m i l e s ton eexp e r im en t slook ingfo r a s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in o sa r ed i s cu s s ed . 31 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s A l l exp e r im en t sh av et o ov e r c om e th eb a ckg round o fa tmo sph e r i cn eu t r ino s and muon sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 1t od e t e c ta s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s . Add i t ion a l ly ,th e r ea r e o th e rp ro c e s s e sl ik eb i o lum in e s c en c e(no tini c e )a sw e l la sr ad io a c t iv ed e c ayinth e OM s andth e i rv i c in i tyth a tc ana l s op r odu c el igh tandh ind e rd e t e c to rop e r a t ion sa s"no i s e" . Inth ec a s eo f ANTARES ,ad e t e c t o rd i s cu s s edinth es e c t ionb e low ,th eadd i t ion a ll igh t em i t t edbyb i o lo g i c a llum in e s c en c ec anin c r e a s eth eamoun to fd a t at ak enbyaf a c to r o ft eninph a s e so fh i ghb i o l o g i c a la c t iv i tyandu l t im a t iv e lyl e ad stoph a s e sw i thlow e r s en s i t iv i tyt oa s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s[132 ] . F o ra mo r ecomp r eh en s iv eov e rv i ewth e h i s to r i c a lr ev i ewbySp ier ing[ 1 3 3 ]i sr e comm end ed . 3 .2 .1 . DUMAND , ANTARESand KM3NeT W i thbo thl a r g ed ep thandv o lum e ,th eo c e an sa r easom ewh a tn a tu r a lcho i c efo rn eu t r ino t e l e s cop e s .F i r s tp l ann edw a sth e DUMANDd e t e c to rn e a rH aw a i i[134 ] .D e s ign edtob e 3 akm -v o lum ed e t e c t o rs ev e r a lth ou s and m e t e rb e lowth esu r f a c eth ep ro j e c truninbo th t e chn i c a landfin an c i a lp r ob l em sand w a sab andon edin1995–a f t e rth efi r s td ep loy ed s t r ingc e a s edt ow o rksh o r t lya f t e rd ep loym en t . Exp e r im en t sinth e M ed i t e r r an e ans e aw e r e mo r esu c c e s s fu l . S t a r t ing w i thth ed e p loym en tin2 0 0 1n e a rth esh o r eo fT ou lon ,F r an c e , ANTARESi scomp l e t eds in c e2008 [132 ] . Ag r oupo fth r e e OM si sin s t a l l edonaop t i c a l modu l ef r am e(OMF ) .Th ed i s t an c e a longas t r in gb e tw e entw oOMF si sabou t14 ✳ 5m( s e eF ig .3 .6 ) . ANTARESi sfo rm edby eth eo c e an ’ sfloo r( 2475m 13s t r ing s .E l ev eno fth emh av e2 4OMF s ,s t a r t ing100mabov b e lows e al ev e l ) . On eh a son ly2 0 OMF sandadd i t ion a ls en so r sfo ra cou s t i cn eu t r ino d e t e c t ion . Th el a s ts t r in gi su s edf o rth em e a su r ingo fenv i ronm en tv a r i ab l e s . Du etos e acu r r en t sth e po s i t i ono fth e OMF si s no t fix ed . How ev e r ,th e po s i t ion i s mon i t o r ed by an a c ou s t i cs en so rsy s t emcon t inuou s ly . Wh i l e m e a su r em en t so f a tmo sph e r i c mu on sandn eu t r in o sa r epo s s ib l e ,th esm a l ls i z eo fth ed e t e c to r( abou t 3)s 0 ✳ 01km ev e r e lyl im i t sth epo t en t i a lto m e a su r eana s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux[135 ] . D e comm i s s i on in go fth ed e t e c t o ri sp l ann edin2016 . ANTARES w i l lb ef o l l ow edupbyth e KM3N eTd e t e c to r[136 ,137 ] .I tw i l lcon s i s t ou to fs ev e r a lbu i ld in gb lo ck s . Th ebu i ld ingb lo ck sa r eop t im i z edfo rd iff e r en ts c i en c e go a l s . On eb l o cki sp l ann edf o rlowen e rgy m e a su r em en t s(GeV)o fp a r t i c l ephy s i c s p rop e r t i e so fth en eu t r in o(ORCA ) .I tw i l lb ebu i l tinv i c in i tyo fth eANTARESd e t e c to r . Ano th e rbu i ld in gb l o cki sp l ann edn e a rth esho r eo fS i c i ly . Th i son ei sop t im i z edfo r th ed e t e c t i ono fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r ino s(ARCA ) . Con s t ru c t iono fbo ths i t e sh a sb egun . D ep end in gonfund in gupt os ixbu i ld ingb lo ck sa r eenv i s ion ed . 32 3 .2 .N eu t r inot e l e s cop ep ro j e c t s F igu re3 .6 :L ay ou to fth eANTARESd e t e c to r .T ak enf rom[132 ] . 3 .2 .2 . Ba ika lexpe r imen t , NT200and GVD Th ed e t e c t i ono fn eu t r in o sin w a t e ri sno tl im i t edtoth eo c e an s . How ev e r ,th er equ i r e m en t sl im i t th epo s s ib l es i t e sinl ak e s . Sof a r ,on lyinl ak eB a ik a lan eu t r inot e l e s cop e h a sb e ensu c c e s s fu l lyop e r a t ed .In1981 ,fi r s texp e r im en t ss t a r t edinsh a l loww a t e r[138 ] . Th eyw e r ef o l l ow edbyth ec on s t ru c t iono fth eNT200d e t e c to r .D ep loy eda tth ebo t tom o fth el ak einap a r tw i thd ep th so fabou t1370m ,192op t i c a l modu l e sa r ea t t a ch edto e igh ts t r in g s . Th ed i s t an c eb e tw e enth e s es t r ing si s21 ✳ 5mandth eh e igh to fth es t r ing 3 –a 72m . Thu s ,th ein s t rum en t edv o lum ei sabou t0 ✳ 0001km bou taf a c to r100sm a l l e r th anth eANTARESd e t e c t o r . Th ed ep l oym en to f a mu chl a r g e rd e t e c to r , th eB a ik a l G ig a ton V o lum e D e t e c to r (GVD )h a sb e gun . GVDi sp l ann edtoh av e216s t r ing s ,e a chs t r ingho ld ing48OM s . Th e comp l e t edd e t e c t o rw ou ldth enh av eanin s t rum en t edv o lum eo fabou t1 ✳ 4km3 [139 ] . 3 .2 .3 . AMANDA Th el a s tenv i r onm en tf o rn eu t r in ot e l e s cop e sd i s cu s s edh e r ei sth eAn t a r c t i ci c e .D ep loy m en to fth e An t a r c t i c Mu onand N eu t r ino D e t e c to rA r r ay(AMANDA )s t a r t edinth e 1990 s .F i r s tAMANDAAw a sd ep l oy ed ,con s i s t ingo ffou rs t r ing se a chc a r ry ing20 OM s . Th e OM sw e r ed ep l oy edind ep th sb e tw e en800mand1000m . How ev e r ,a i rbubb l e sl ed tol a rg es c a t t e r in go fph o t on sinth ei c ea tth e s ed ep th sand m ad ear e con s t ru c t iono f muont r a ck sin f e a s ib l e . Thu s ,th en ex tt ens t r in g s , AMANDA B ,w e r ed ep loy edin d ep th sb e tw e en 1545m 33 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s and1978m . D ep l oym en tend ed w i thth eadd i t ion a le igh ts t r ing so f AMANDAI I po s i t ion eda r ound AMANDA B . Th r e eo fth e s es t r ing sh ad OM sd ep loy eda sd e epa s 2350m . Th e r ebyi c ep r op e r t i e sa tth e s ed ep th scou ldb einv e s t ig a t ed–afo r e sh adowo f th ea l r e adyp l ann edI c eCub ed e t e c to r . AMANDA w a ssu c c e s s fu linshow ingth a tth e d e t e c t iono fn eu t r in o sini c ei spo s s ib l e . How ev e r ,s im i l a rto ANTARES ,i t ss i z e( abou t 3 0 ✳ 02km)l im i t edi tt oth ed e t e c t i ono fa tmo sph e r i cn eu t r ino s[140 ,141 ] . 3 .3 . TheIceCube Neu t r ino Ob se rva to ry A f t e rth esu c c e s s fu lop e r a t i ono fth ep r ed e c e s so rAMANDA ,p l an sfo ra mu chl a rg e rd e t e c to rw e r em ad e .F in i sh in gth ed ep l oym en to fop t i c a l modu l e sin2010th eI c eCub ed e t e c to r i snow ad ay sth el a r g e s td e t e c t o ro fth i styp einth ew o r ld . Th ed e t e c to ri sequ ipp edw i th 2 ]anda m a inbo a rdfo rd a t a 5400 modu l e s .E a ch m odu l ec on s i s t so fa25cmPMT [142 a cqu i s i t ion . Th em e a su r edan a l o gu es ign a lbyth ePMTi sd ig i t a l i z edb e fo r ei ti ss en tto th esu r f a c e . Th em odu l ea sawh o l ei sc a l l ed DOM(D ig i t a l Op t i c a l Modu l e )andw i l lb e d i s cu s s eda f t e rand e s c r ip t i ono fth ed e t e c to rl ay ou t . 3 .3 .1 . Dep lo ymen tandla you to ftheIceCubede tec to r Th eDOM sa r efix edt oa2 5 0 0 ml on gc ab l e ,th es t r ing . Th es t r ingp rov id e spow e r supp ly andcommun i c a t i onf o rth ea t t a ch ed DOM s .E a chs t r ingho ld s60 DOM s[143 ] . Mo s to f th es t r ing s( 7 8 )a r eo r i en t edinat r i agon a lg r idw i th125msp a c ingandth e60DOM sa r e d ep loy edind ep th sb e tw e en1 45 0mand2450m( s e eF ig .3 .7 ) . Inth ec en t e ro fI c eCub ee i gh ts t r ing sa r ed ep loy ed mo r ed en s e ly(b e tw e en40m and70map a r t ) .Inc on t r a s tt oth eo th e rs t r ing sth e i r DOM sa r eequ ipp ed w i thPMT s w i thah igh e rqu an tumeffi c i en cy . Add i t ion a l ly ,th e s e DOM sa r eno td ep loy edb e tw e en 1450mand2 45 0m . T eno fth e DOM sa r ed ep loy edb e tw e en1760mand1850m ;th e o th e rfi f tya r ed ep l oy ed b e tw e en2100mand2450md e epinth ei c e . Th i sp a r to f th ed e t e c t o ri sop t im i z edf o ral ow e rth r e sho lden e rgy( abou t10G eVin s t e ado fabou t 100GeV)andi sc a l l edD e epC o r e . Th eI c eCub eN eu t r ino Ob s e rv a to ryi scomp l e t edbya su r f a c ea r r ayc a l l edI c eT op .I tc on s i s t so f81s t a t ion sinat r i angu l a rg r idw i thth es am e 125msp a c in ga sI c eCub e . E a chs t a t ioni sm ad eo ftw ot ank sw i thc l e a ri c einth em . Ev e ryt ankh o s t stw oDOM s . Th ea r r ayc and e t e c tth eshow e r so fco sm i cr ay s . 3 .3 .2 . The D ig i ta l Op t ica l Modu le- DOM Th eenv i r onm en tin wh i chth e DOM sa r ed ep loy ed d i c t a t e ss ev e r a lo fth e DOM s p rop e r t i e s .I tsh ou ldn o tr equ i r e mo r eth anfiv e W a t t so fe l e c t r i c a len e r gydu etoh igh fu e lco s t sa tth eS ou thP o l e . Add i t ion a l ly ,i th a stob ebu i l trobu s tenoughtow i th s t and th ep r e s su r eandt emp e r a tu r ec ond i t ion sp r e s en td e epinth ei c e .F o rp r a c t i c a lr e a son s 2 Hamama t suR7081 -02 34 3 .3 . Th eI c eCub eN eu t r ino Ob s e rv a to ry F igu re3 .7 : Th eI c eCub eN eu t r in o ob s e rv a to ry , con s i s t ing o fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r , th elow en e r gyex t en s ion D e epCo r eandth ea i rshow e rd e t e c to rI c eT op , i sd ep l oy edath eg e og r aph i cSou th P o l e . A l soshowni sth ep r ed e c e s so r AMANDA .T ak enf r om[144 ] . th e DOMh a st ow o rka tr oomt emp e r a tu r e( 20◦C)du r ingt e s t inga sw e l la sa t−55◦C wh eni ti st r an spo r t edt oandd ep l oy eda tth eSou thP o l e[143 ] .T om in im i z eth ed a rk no i s ebyn a tu r a lr ad i o a c t iv i tyth em a t e r i a l(m a in lyth eg l a s ssph e r e )th e DOMi sm ad e o fh adtob ech o s ena c c o rd in g ly . Ano th e rimpo r t an tp rop e r tyi sth er e l i ab i l i ty .S in c e th ei c er e f r e e z e sa f t e rd ep l oym en t ,th e DOM sc anno tb ephy s i c a l lya c c e s s eda f t e rw a rd s . Th e r e fo r e ,ev e ryDOMw i thaf a t a lh a rdw a r eo rso f tw a r ee r ro rr em a in slo s t . Th e s er equ i r em en t sa r e m e t byth echo s en d e s ign . T or e s i s tth eh igh p r e s su r ein th ed e epi c eth e DOM sh ou s in gi sm ad eou to ftw og l a s sh a l f sph e r e sw i thath i ckn e s so f 13mmandad i am e t e ro f3 5✳ 6cm . Th ePMT ,po in t ingdownw a rd s ,andth em a inbo a rd a r efix edinth esph e r e ,s e eF i g .3 . 8 .T oimp rov eth eop t i c a lcoup l ingb e tw e enPMTand sph e r easp e c i a ls i l i c on e -b a s edg e li su s ed . L igh tem i t t eda ta po s i t i on h i gh e rth anth e DOM h a sto b es c a t t e r ed b e fo r ed e t e c t ion .I faph o t onr e a ch e sth e DOM ,i tc anb ed e t e c t edbyth ePMTa sch a rg e . Th e ch a rg eov e rt im e ,m e a su r edbyth ePMT ,i sth end ig i t i z ed . Th e r ea r etw ow ay sas ign a l 35 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s c anb ed i g i t i z ed[ 1 4 5 ,1 4 6 ] . F igu re3 .8 :S ch em a t i cd r aw in go fth eD ig i t a l Op t i c a l Modu l e .T ak enf rom[142 ] . On ei sd i g i t i z a t i on by af a s t An a logu eto D ig i t a l Conv e r t e r( fADC ) . Th i sfADC s amp l e sth es i gn a lt ak enbyth ePMTw i thar a t eo f40 M eg as amp l e sp e rs e cond(MSPS ) . I fth efADCg e t st r i g g e r ed ,2 5 6s amp l e sa r er e co rd ed ,cov e r ingat im ein t e rv a lo f6 ✳ 4µs . F o ra h i gh e rt im e r e s o lu t i on tw o An a log T r an s i en t W av e fo rm D ig i t i z e r (ATWD s ) a r eu s ed . Th eys amp l eth e PMTs ign a lw i th300 MSPSandc anr e co rd128s amp l e s , cov e r ingat im ein t e rv a lo fabou t4 00n s . Th r e eATWDch ann e l sa r eop e r a t edinp a r a l l e l w i thd iff e r en tamp l ifi e rg a in s ,t oimp rov eth edyn am i cr ang eth a tc anb er e co rd ed. Th e s e condATWDc and i g i t i z e ,i fth efi r s ton ei sind e adt im e . Th ed e t e c t o rw a sp l ann ed a s sum ing a DOMsu rv iv a lr a t eo f 90 p e r c en ta f t e r 15 y e a r s . Upt od a t eth enumb e ro fl o s t DOM si sabou t120( abou ttw op e r c en t )–e l ev en y e a r sa f t e rth ed ep l oym en to fth efi r s ts t r inganda lmo s ts ixy e a r sa f t e rth ed ep loym en t o fth el a s t . 3 .3 .3 .I cep rope r t ie sa ttheSou thpo le Th ei c eb e tw e en1 45 0mand2 45 0mi sv e ryc l e a rl e ad ingtoaneff e c t iv eab so rp t ionl eng th l a rg e rth an7 0mandaneff e c t iv es c a t t e r ingl eng thl a rg e rth an20min mo s tp a r t so fth e d e t e c to r( s e e[ 1 4 7 ,1 4 8 ] )andF i g .3 . 9 ) . How ev e r ,th ei c e -p rop e r t i e sa r eno thomog en eou s . Inth ep a s tth e r ew e r es ev e r a lp e r i od so fh ighcon c en t r a t iono fdu s tp a r t i c l e sinth eE a r th ’ s a tmo sph e r e .N ow ad ay sth i sc anb eob s e rv eda s"du s tl ay e r s"inth ei c e .Inth e s el ay e r s 36 3 .3 . Th eI c eCub eN eu t r ino Ob s e rv a to ry 1 0 1 4 0 . 0 5 0 . 0 3 2 0 2 5 3 3 0 . 0 2 5 0 0 . 0 1 1 0 0 7 0 1400 1600 -1 7 AHA 1800 2000 2200 2400 0 . 0 5 0 . 0 3 SP ICE M IE 2 0 2 5 AHA λa( 4 0 0nm )[ m] 0 . 1 5 SP ICE M IE λe( 4 0 0nm )[ m] 0 . 2 abso rp t iona (400nm )[ m ] -1 e f f .sca t te r ingbe(400nm )[ m ] th es c a t t e r in gandab so rp t ionl en g tha r e mu chsm a l l e rdu etoth eun c l e ani c e( s e eth e r ang eb e tw e en1 80 0mand2 00 0minF ig .3 .9 ) . Th e r e fo r e ,l e s sl igh ti sd e t e c t edf rom in t e r a c t ion so f mu on s /n eu t r in o sinth i sr eg ion . 3 3 0 . 0 2 5 0 0 . 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 5 0 . 0 0 5 2 0 0 2 5 0 7 0 1400 dep th[ m] 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 dep th[ m] F igu re 3 .9 :Eff e c t iv es c a t t e r in gc o effi c i en t ( l e f t )andab so rp t ion( r igh t ) ,d ep end en ton d ep th ,f o rtw om od e l sd e s c r ib ingth eop t i c a lp rop e r t i e so fth ei c einI c eCub e . T ak enf r om[ 1 4 8 ] . 3 .3 .4 . Da taacqu i s i t iona ttheSou thPo le E a ch DOMi sc onn e c t edt oth etw o DOM sb e lowandabov ei t .I fon e DOMd e t e c t s ch a rg eov e rath r e sh o ldo f0 . 2 5Ph o to e l e c t ron s(PE )w i thad i s c r im in a to rt r igg e r ,i tw i l l s t a r td a t as amp l in gw i thth efADCandon eo fth e ATWD s .I tw i l la l soch e cki fi t s n e ighbou r s( th etw oDOM sabov eandb e lowh im )r eg i s t e r edch a rg eabov eth i sth r e sho ld inat im ew ind owo f1µsa sw e l l .I fth i si st ru e ,th e s er e adou t sw i l lb eth en m a rk eda s " lo c a l co in c id en t "o rLC . B e tw e enth r e e ande i gh t DOM s mu s th av e ob s e rv ed LCr e adou t sw i th in 5µs fo r anev en tt ob et r i g g e r ed .I fth et r i g g e rcond i t ioni sfu lfi l l edth er e adou t sf romth een t i r e d e t e c to rw i l lb er e c o rd ed ,wh i chd efin e sanev en t .R e adou t sth a tfu lfi lth eLCcond i t ion a r es to r edc omp l e t e ly(bo th ATWDandfADCd a t a ) . F o ra l lo th e rr e adou t son lyth e th r e eh igh e s ts amp l e so fth efi r s t1 6fADCs amp l e sa r ek ep t . Th ed a t ao fth er e ad ou ti sth ens en ttoaf a c i l i tya tth esu r f a c e . Th eto t a lt r igg e r r a t ei sabou t2 ✳ 5kH z[ 1 4 9 ] . Th i sr a t ec anv a ryby∼±✶✵✪du etoy e a r lya tmo sph e r i c v a r i a t ion s[ 1 5 0 ] . Th ein t e rp r e t a t i ono fr aw ATWDandfADCi sch a l l eng ingfo r mo s t u s edr e con s t ru c t i ona lg o r i thm s . H en c e ,fo rt r igg e r edev en t sth i sin fo rm a t ioni su s ed tod e conv o lv esp e c ifi cs in g l e PEsh ap e s[151 ] . A f t e rw a rd sth eev en t sa r er e con s t ru c t ed w i thr e l a t iv e lys imp l e ,bu tf a s ta l go r i thm sapp l i edonth i sex t r a c t edt im eandch a rg e in fo rm a t i on(pu l s e s )anda f t e rw a rd sp r e s e l e c t ed(fi l t e r ed ) . Th efi l t e r edev en t sa r es en t v i as a t e l l i t ef o rfu r th e rp r o c e s s in gw i th mo r et im econ sum ingr e con s t ru c t ion s . 37 3 . Th ep r in c ip l eo fh i gh en e r gyn eu t r inod e t e c t ionandn eu t r inot e l e s cop e s 3 .4 . De tec to rs imu la t ionandbackg rounde s t ima t ionu sedfo r th i sana ly s i s S imu l a t ed n eu t r in o sa r er equ i r edtoe s t im a t eth equ a l i tyo fth eu s edr e con s t ru c t ion m e thod s ,t od e s i gnth eev en ts e l e c t i onandtoc a l cu l a t es en s i t iv i t i e sandupp e rl im i t s . Th e b a ckg roundo fa tm o sph e r i cev en t si se s t im a t edu s ingd a t a . Th i sh a sth eadv an t ag eth a t sy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e s( f o rex amp l eth eno rm a l i z a t iono fth ea tmo sph e r i c muonfluxin I c eCub e )d on o th av et ob et ak enin toa c coun tfo rth eb a ckg rounde s t im a t ion . Th ea imo f th i san a ly s i si st om e a su r eem i s s i onf rompo in t l ik esou r c e s ,no tad iffu s eem i s s ion .S in c e i ti sno texp e c t edt oc lu s t e rinsp a c e ,ap r e c i s ee s t im a t iono fth ea tmo sph e r i cb a ckg round i sno tn e c e s s a ry. Th einflu en c eo fsy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e sonth es ign a ls imu l a t ioni s d i s cu s s edins e c t i on6 . 3 . How ev e r ,t ov e r i fyth ev a r i ab l e su s edinth eev en ts e l e c t ions imu l a t ed a i rshow e r s a r eu s edf o rc omp a r i s on .Inth i san a ly s i ss ev e r a ls imu l a t iond a t as e t sa r eu s ed . Wh i l e som eo fth e r ep a r am e t e r sd iff e r ,f o rex amp l eth etyp eo fp a r t i c l es imu l a t ed(n eu t r ino s/ muon s )o rth eg en e r a t eden e r gysp e c t rum ,th eov e r a l ls imu l a t ionch a inr em a in sth es am e . F i r s t ,e i th e rs imu l a t ed mu on so rn eu t r ino sa r e" c r e a t ed" u s ing a g en e r a to r . F o r n eu t r ino sag en e r a t o rb a s edonth eso f tw a r ep a ck ag ed i s cu s s edin[ 152 ]i su s ed . Th e p rob ab i l i tyo fan eu t r in ot oin t e r a c tinth es imu l a t edv o lum ei sv e rysm a l l . T oav o id s imu l a t in gm anyev en t sth a tl e av enot r a c einth ed e t e c to rth eg en e r a to rfo r c e sth e n eu t r inot oin t e r a c tin s id eth ed e t e c to ro rinth ev i c in i tyo fi t .A tmo sph e r i c muon sa r e t ak enf romth ea i rsh ow e rs imu l a t i onso f tw a r eCORS IKA[153 ] . Inas e conds t ep ,th ep r op a g a t i ono fth e muon sc r e a t edine i th e ro fth eg en e r a to r s 3 een e rgylo s s e sin s id eand i ss imu l a t edu s in gth es o f tw a r ed e s c r ib edin[128 ,154 ] . Th inth ev i c in i tyo fth ed e t e c t o ra r eth enu s edtoe s t im a t eth el igh ty i e ldo fanev en t . U s ingp a r am e t r i z a t i on so fth enumb e ro fexp e c t edpho ton sf romanen e rgyd epo s i t ion th e s epho t on sa r eth enp r op a g a t ed . Th i sp rop ag a t iond ep end sonbo ths c a t t e r ingand ab so rp t ionl en g tho fth ei c e . F o rth es imu l a t ion su s edinIC86 Ith eSp i c eM IE mod e l f rom[14 8 ]i su s ed . F o rIC 8 6 I I+animp r ov edv e r s iono fth i s mod e l wh i chin c lud e s 4[ th eob s e rv edan i s o t r opy 1 5 5 ]o fth ei c e wh e r eI c eCub es i t si su s ed . F o r mo s ts imu l a t iond a t as e t sa l lph o t on sw e r ep r op ag a t edu s ingth ep rop ag a t ioncod ed e s c r ib edin[156 ] . InIC86 Is i gn a ls imu l a t i on w i th h ighs t a t i s t i c sfo rn eu t r inoev en t sabov e1PeV i s u s ed . Th ep r op a g a t i ono fa l ls in g l epho ton si scompu t a t ion a lv e ryexp en s iv e . H en c e , p a r am e t r i z edl ook -upt ab l e s[ 1 5 7 ]a r eu s edh e r eth a ta r ef a s t e r ,bu tl e s sp r e c i s e . 3 [128 ]i su s edfo rs imu la t iono fth efi r s ty ea ro fth i sana ly s i sand[154 ]fo rth efo l low ingy ea r stw otofou r . Th e ma ind iff e r en c ei sth ep rog ramm inglanguag eo fth ep ropaga t ion . 4 Ana z imu thd ep end en c eo fth el igh ty i e ld . 38 3 . 4 .D e t e c t o rs imu l a t ionandb a ckg rounde s t im a t ionu s edfo rth i san a ly s i s Th er e spon s eo fth e OM st oa r r iv ingpho ton sandno i s ei ss imu l a t edn ex tandina l a s ts t epth es am et r i g g e r sth a ta r eapp l i edond a t aa r ea l soapp l i edonth es imu l a t ion . 39 4 . ST eVE–asea rchfo rpo in t l ik eT eV neu t r inosou rce sinthesou the rnsky Th i sch ap t e rs t a r t sw i thad e s c r ip t i ono fth eob s e rv ed VHEg amm ar aysou r c e s .A sw i l l b eshownins e c t i on4 . 1 ,th em a j o r i tyo fg a l a c t i cVHEg amm asou r c e sh a sb e end i s cov e r ed inth esou th e rnsky . Th eimp l i c a t i on so fth i sfo rI c eCub ew i l lb ed i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 .2 . Th es e a r chs t r a t e gyd e s c r ib edinth i sth e s i s ,as e a r chfo rn eu t r inoem i s s ionf rompo in t l ik e sou r c e sw i thS t a r t in gTeVEv en t s(ST eVE) ,i sp r e s en t edins e c t ion4 .3andanov e rv i ew o fp r ev iou ss e a r ch e sf o rpo in t l ik es ou r c e sinth esou th e rnskyi sg iv enins e c t ion4 .4 . 4 .1 . Gammara ysou rce sinthesou the rnsky Abou tfi f ty p e r c en to fkn own T eVsou r c e s ,l i s t edinth eT eVC a t1 [26 ]c a t a logu ea r e foundinth esou th e rnsky .F r om9 0sou r c e sth a ta r elo c a t edinth eg a l axy ,57a r einth e 2 sou th e rnsky. Th i sin c lud e sth ec en t e ro fou rg a l axyandth etw oex amp l e s RXJ1713 and V e l aXd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 5 . 1 .A sd emon s t r a t edinF ig .4 .1th eob s e rv edob j e c t s a r eno tequ a l lyd i s t r ibu t edov e rth esky . Wh i l eth e HESSco l lobo r a t ionsu rv ey ed ◦ ex t ra -ga lac t ic+75 un iden t i f ied ga lac t ic +45◦ +15◦ 24h 0h −15◦ −45◦ −75◦ F igu re4 .1 : Skym apo fs ou r c e sin T eVC a t . Th eg a l a c t i cp l an ei sind i c a t edbyth eso l id b l a ckb and . mo s to fth eg a l a c t i cp l an e[ 6 4 ] VER ITASand MAG ICd idno t . Thu s ,th eyh ad mo r e ob s e rv a t iont im eav a i l ab l ef o ro th e rsou r c e s . Th i si sr ep r e s en t edbyth ef a c tth a t mo r e ex t r a -g a l a c t i cs ou r c e sh av eb e enf oundinth eno r th e rnskysof a r , wh i l eani so t r op i c d i s t r ibu t i ono fth e s es ou r c e sw ou ldb eexp e c t ed . Th es e condimpo r t an tf e a tu r ei sth e 1 h t tp :// t ev ca t .u ch i cago . edu/ Th enumb e r squo t edh e r ea r eba s edonth es ta tu so fth eT eVCa tin Augu s t2015 . 2 41 4 .ST eVE–as e a r chf o rpo in t l ik eT eVn eu t r inosou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky Numbe ro fob jec ts 25 ga lac t iccen te r 20 HESS MAG IC 15 VER ITAS M ILAGRO ex t ra -ga lac t ic un iden t i f ied ga lac t ic ga lac t icp lane skycove rage 10 5 0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 s in (δ ) 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re4 .2 :D e c l in a t i ono fsou r c e sinT eVC a tandg amm ar ayt e l e s cop e s . l a rg enumb e ro fob j e c t sd e t e c t eda r ound−60 ° ,s e eF ig .4 .2 . Al ik e lyexp l an a t ioni sth ein c r e a s edcov e r a g eo fth eg a l a c t i cp l an eina tth a td e c l in a t ion( equ a to r i a lcoo rd in a t e s ) . Mo s t o fth eun id en t ifi edob j e c t sa r ev e ryc lo s etoth eg a l a c t i cp l an e ;sugg e s t ingag a l a c t i co r ig in . Th eabund an c eo fg a l a c t i c TeV g amm ar ayem i t t e r sandth ef a c tth a tth eyc an b e s e ena sanind i c a t o rf o rTeVn eu t r inoem i s s ioninth ec a s eo fanh ad ron i co r ig in( s e e s e c t ion2 . 5 )a r es t r on ga r gum en t stofo cu sas e a r chfo rth esou r c e so fth ea s t rophy s i c a l n eu t r inofluxonth es ou th e rnsky . 4 .2 . Cha l lenge sfo rIceCube Muon sc ann o tc r o s sE a r th . Thu s ,a muont r a ckth a tgo e supth roughth ed e t e c to r ,a s i fi tw ou ldc om ef r omth en o r th e rnsky , mu s tcom ef roman eu t r inoin t e r a c t ion . M o s t o fth e s en eu t r in o sa r ep r odu c edinin t e r a c t ion so fco sm i cr ay sin E a r th ’ sa tmo sph e r e , a sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 2 . 1 . Inth esou th e rnskyI c eCub eloo s e sth eE a r tha sa sh i e ldag a in s ta tm o sph e r i c mu on s .H e r e ,th em a inb a ckg roundfo rs e a r ch e so fa s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in o si sn o ta tm o sph e r i cn eu t r ino s ,a sinth eno r th e rnsky ,bu ta tmo sph e r i cmuon s . ✻t im e s mo r eabund an tth ana tmo sph e r i cn eu t r i Th e s e mu on sa r eabou taf a c t o ✶✵ no s( s e eF i g .4 . 3 ) ,bu tth ea tm o sph e r i c muon sh av eav e rys t e epsp e c t rum . Th i sandth e f a c tth a top aqu en e s so fE a r thf o rh i ghen e rgyn eu t r ino sdo e sno tp l ayaro l einth esou th e rn 3 skys e a r ch e sf o rn eu t r in o sw i then e r g i e so fPeVo rh igh e rw i thth rough -go ing muont r a ck s l e ad stoc omp a r ab l es en s i t iv i tyw i ths e a r ch e sinth eno r th e rnskyinth i sen e rgyr ang e[158 ] . F o rn eu t r in o en e r g i e sb e l ow 1 00TeV how ev e r , th e s es e a r ch e sa r e abou t af a c to r 1000 w o r s eth aninth en o r th e rnsky[159 ] . Du etoth ef a c tth a tm anyo fth eg a l a c t i c sou r c e sinth es ou th e rnskya r eexp e c t edtoh av ee i th e racu toffinen e rgysom ewh e r e 3 At ra ck l ik es igna tu r etha ten t e r sandl eav e sth ed e t e c to rv o lum e . 42 4 .3 .S t r a t egyo fth i sw o rk b e low Eν = 1 00TeV o ras t e epsp e c t rum[97 ]anI c eCub es e a r ch w i thth rough -go ing muont r a ck si sn o tv e ryp r om i s in gf o rth e s esou r c e s . 9 a tm .neu t r inos a tm . muons #Even ts/yea r 10 8 10 7 10 6 10 5 10 No r the rnsky Sou the rnsky 4 10 3 10 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 cos (zen i th ) 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re4 .3 : Numb e ro fa tm o sph e r i c muon sandn eu t r ino sexp e c t edinon ey e a ro fl iv e t im eo fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r . Th enumb e r sa r et ak enf rom Mon t eC a r lo s imu l a t i on . 4 .3 .S t ra tegyo fth i s wo rk 4 .3 .1 .S ta r t ingt rack s I fon eo rm o r e mu on s ,p r odu c edinaco sm i cr aya i rshow e r ,a r eo fsuffi c i en ten e rgyto p rodu c eah i tp a t t e rnth a tapp e a r stoen t e randl e av eth ed e t e c to rv o lum e ,th i sw i l lb e c a l l edath r ou gh g o in gev en t .S im i l a r muon sc r e a t edinin t e r a c t iono fn eu t r ino sou t s id e th ed e t e c t o rv o lum ec anp r odu c esu chah i tp a t t e rn .A sar e su l tfo ras ing l e muont r a ckin th i sc a s ei tw i l ln o tb epo s s ib l et os aywh e th e ri to r ig in sf romaco sm i cr ayo ran eu t r ino in t e r a c t ion4. A tmo sph e r i c mu on sc an on ly b ep rodu c edinth ea tmo sph e r e and h av eto en t e r th ed e t e c t o rv o lum e . Th en eu t r in oonth econ t r a ryh a snot r a ck l ik es ign a tu r e ,thu s ,a t r a ckth a ts t a r t sw i th inth ed e t e c t o rv o lum e–as ta r t ingt rack–c anb eob s e rv ed .I fth e s cop ei ss e tt oon lyth e s eev en t swh e r eth en eu t r inoin t e r a c t sw i th inth ed e t e c to rv o lum e , id e a l ly ,anun amb i gu ou ss i gn a tu r efo ran eu t r inoin t e r a c t ionw i l lb ea th and . Th i s un iqu es i gn a tu r ec om e sw i th a d r awb a ck . Th rough -go ingt r a ck sc an b ed e - 4 G iv entha tth ein i t ia ln eu t r inoin t e ra c t ioni ssuffi c i en t lyfa raw ayf romth ed e t e c to rv o lum e . 43 4 .ST eVE–as e a r chf o rpo in t l ik eT eVn eu t r inosou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky t e c t edev eni fth ein i t i a lin t e r a c t i oni ss ev e r a lk i lom e t e r saw ay ,d ep end ingonth een e rgy andthu s ,r an g eo fth e mu on .F o rs t a r t ingt r a ck sth i si sno tlong e rt ru e . Th i sd e c r e a s e s th ev o lum eth a ti sav a i l ab l ef o rth en eu t r inoan a ly s i s . 4 .3 .2 .A tmo sphe r icse l fve to On eadv an t a g eo fs t a r t in gt r a ck si sth epo t en t i a lsupp r e s s iono fa tmo sph e r i cn eu t r ino s . Th i sh a sb e end i s cu s s edind e t a i lin[160 ,161 ]andi ssumm a r i z edh e r e . Th eh i tp a t t e rn s inth ed e t e c t o rf o rn eu t r in o sf r omth eno r th e rnskya r eth es am efo ra s t rophy s i c a land a tmo sph e r i cn eu t r in o s . As ep a r a t i oni son lypo s s ib l eonas t a t i s t i c a lb a s i sdu etoth e d iff e r en texp e c t eden e r gysp e c t r a( andpo s i t ion ,inth ec a s eo fsou r c es e a r ch e s ) . Inth es ou th e rnsky h ow ev e r ,a l s ot r a ck sp rodu c ed byth e muon sf romth eco sm i c r ayshow e rth a tp r odu c edth en eu t r inoa r eexp e c t edtob ev i s ib l e . Th e s e muon sw ou ld ov e r l ayw i thth es t a r t in gt r a cko fth ea tmo sph e r i cn eu t r inoandi tw ou ldb ee a sytor e j e c t th ecomb in edt r a cka sth r ou gh g o ing . Th e r e fo r e ,ap e r f e c tr e j e c t iono fth rough -go ing t r a ck sw ou ldp r ov id eas amp l eo fpu r ea s t rophy s i c a lev en t s .A sc anb es e eninF ig .4 .4 , th eeffi c i en cyo fsu chav e t oi sbo thd ep end en tonen e rgyandz en i thang l eo fth eev en t . Th e mo r eh o r i z on t a lanev en ti s ,th el e s seffi c i en tb e com e sth ev e to .L ik ew i s e ,ah igh e r en e rg e t i ca tm o sph e r i cn eu t r in oh a sal a rg e rp rob ab i l i tytob ea c comp an i edbya mo r e en e rg e t i c mu on . Th i s mu onh a sah igh e rch an c etobo thr e a chth ed e t e c to randtob e en e rg e t i cen ou ght om ak eav e t opo s s ib l e . 4 .3 .3 . Sea rch ingfo rT eVeu t r ino sf rompo in t l ik esou rce s Inth esou th e rnskyth eb a ck g r oundbya tmo sph e r i c muon sex c e ed sth es e condl a rg e s t ✻ b a ckg roundo fa tm o sph e r i cn eu t r in o sbyrough lyaf a c to r✶✵ ( s e eF ig .4 .3 ) . Th e s e muon s e rg i e s wh e r eg a l a c t i cn eu t r ino sa r e a r es t i l labund an tinl a r g enumb e ra tth eTeVen exp e c t ed . Thu s ,as ep a r a t i onb a s edonth een e rgya lon edo e sno ts e emtob ep rom i s ing . Ina lmo s ta l ls e a r ch e sf o rpo in t l ik esou r c e sinth esou th e rnskyw i thI c eCub eth em a jo r i ty o fev en t sa r ea tm o sph e r i c mu on s–s e efo rex amp l e[149 ] . Th ech a l l eng ei stosupp r e s sth e numb e ro f mu on sen ou ghf o rac lu s t e r ingo fn eu t r inoev en t sf romapo in t l ik esou r c eto b es t a t i s t i c a l lys i gn ifi c an t ,bu ti ti sno tr equ i r edtoob t a inas amp l eo fpu r ea s t rophy s i c a l n eu t r ino sindu c eds t a r t in g mu ont r a ck sa tth e s een e rg i e sinas e a r chfo rpo in t l ik esou r c e s . S t a r t ing t r a ck sa r ea p r om i s in g ev en ttopo logy h e r e . Th e r e fo r e , th i s an a ly s i sfo cu s s e sonth e i rs e l e c t i ont om ak eu s edo fbo thth e i rgoodangu l a rr e so lu t ionandpo s s s ib l e supp r e s s i ono fa tm o sph e r i cb a ck g r ound . 44 2cm −2s −1s −1] E3Φν [G eV r 10−2 2cm −2s −1s −1] E3Φν [G eV r 10−1 2cm −2s −1s −1] E3Φν [G eV r 4 .4 .P r ev iou sm e a su r em en t s 10−2 T o ta lflux eV 1T eV 0 1 T eV 100 T 10−3 A f t e rv e to Conv en t iona l νµ 10−4 −1. 0 10−3 10−4 −0. 5 0. 5 1. 0 0. 5 1. 0 0. 5 1. 0 eV 1T eV 10 T eV 100 T Conv en t iona l νe 10−5 −1. 0 −0. 5 10−3 0. 0 co sθ 0. 0 co sθ 100 T eV 10 T eV 10−4 eV 1T P romp tνµ andνe 10−5 −1. 0 −0. 5 0. 0 co sθ F igu re4 .4 :A tm o sph e r i cn eu t r in of o rth r e er e f e r en c een e rg i e s ,d ep end ingond e c l in a t ion . S o l idl in e ssh owth eto t a lflux . D a sh edl in e sshowth ep a r to ffluxf rom n eu t r in o sw i th ou tamuonp rodu c edinth es am ea i rshow e rr e a ch ingI c eCub e . T op : Mu onn eu t r in o sf romp ionandk aond e c ay s . M id :E l e c t ronn eu t r ino s f r omp i onandk a ond e c ay s . Bo t tom : Muonande l e c t ronn eu t r ino sp rodu c ed in"p r omp t "d e c ay s .T ak enf rom[161 ] . 4 .4 .P rev iou s mea su remen t s ST eVEi sn o tth efi r s ts e a r chf o rpo in t l ik esou r c e so fn eu t r inoem i s s ioninth esou th e rn sky . Inth ef o l l ow in gs e c t i onbo thr e su l t sf romth e ANTARESd e t e c to randp r ev iou s s e a r ch e sw i thth eI c eCub ed e t e c t o ra r ed i s cu s s ed . 4 .4 .1 . ANTARESre su l t s A sd e s c r ib edins e c t i on3 . 2 ,th eANTARESt e l e s cop eop e r a t e sinth eM ed i t e r r an e ans e a . Th e r e fo r e ,i tc anu s eth eE a r tha sash i e ldag a in s ta tmo sph e r i c muon sf romth esou th e rn sky . Th e ANTARESc o l l abo r a t i onc ang iv eth e mo s tcomp e t i t iv el im i t sonth en eu t r ino amm ar ay sinth esou th e rnsky ,i f fluxf rom m anya s t r ophy s i c a lob j e c t sob s e rv edinTeVg th econn e c t i onb e tw e eng amm ar ay sandn eu t r ino sa sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .5 .1i sa s sum ed 45 4 .ST eVE–as e a r chf o rpo in t l ik eT eVn eu t r inosou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky [159 ,162 ] . Ev eni fanE−✷n eu t r in osp e c t rumw i thou tacu toffinen e r gyi sth ehypo th e s i s th er e su l t sr em a inc omp a r ab l et oth o s eo fI c eCub e . Th eab i l i tytocomp e t ew i thad e t e c to r a100t im e sl a r g e rimp r e s s iv e lysh ow sth epow e ro fth eE a r tha sa muonsh i e ld( s e eF ig . 4 .5 ) . 4 .4 .2 .I ceCubesea rche sw i thth rough -go ingeven t s 90CL -2 -1 E2φν [GeVcm s] Inth esou th e rnskyI c eCub eh a ss e a r ch edfo rpo in t l ik esou r c e sw i thth rough -go ingt r a ck s [149 ] . Th enumb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t si sr edu c edtoabou t70 ,000ev en t s( a lmo s ten −✷ t i r e ly mu on s )p e ry e a r ,bys e l e c t ingev en t sw i thal a rg ech a rg e . F o ranunb rok enE sp e c t rumth er e su l to fth i ss e a r chi scomp a r ab l ew i thth e ANTARESs e a r ch m en t ion ed abov e .H ow ev e r ,i fa m o r er e a l i s t i cs c en a r ioo facu toffinen e rgya ta100TeVi sa s sum ed , th eI c eCub ean a ly s i sw i l ll o s em o r eth anaf a c to r100in m agn i tud eins en s i t iv i ty , wh i l e ANTARESw i l ll o s eaf a c t o ro fabou ttw o .G iv enth eob s e rv edsp e c t r a len e rgyd i s t r ibu t ion o fth eob s e rv edTeVg amm as ou r c e sth i si sno tv e ryp rom i s ingfo rth eI c eCub ean a ly s i s ( s e eF ig .4 . 5 ) . 10-6 ANTARESsens i t iv i ty(1338days ) ANTARES(1338days ) ANTARESfu l l -skyl im i t-1°bands(1338days ) ANTARES Eν <100T eVsens i t iv i ty IceCube3yea rs IceCube3yea rssens i t iv i ty IceCube3yea rsE <100T eVsens i t iv i ty ν 10-7 10-8 10-9 -1 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 s in ( δ) F igu re4 .5 :S en s i t iv i tyf o rpo in t l ik esou r c e sind ep end en c eo fd e c l in a t ionfo rANTARES andth eI c eCub es e a r chu s ingth rough -go ingev en t s .T ak enf rom[159 ] 46 4 .4 .P r ev iou sm e a su r em en t s 4 .4 .3 .I ceCubesea rche sw i ths ta r t ingeven t s H igh -ene rgys ta r t ingeven t s(HESE ) Mo t iv a t edbybo thth ep rom i s ingsupp r e s s iono f a tmo sph e r i cb a ck g r oundandth el a cko fev id en c einth es e a r chfo ra s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s w i thth rou gh g o in gt r a ck sanan a ly s i sw a sd e s ign edtosp e c ifi c a l lys e l e c tev en t sw i tha s t a r t ingh i t -p a t t e rn . Th eI c eCub e Co l l abo r a t ionu s eds t a r t ingh i t -p a t t e rn sb e fo r e ,bu t th e s es e a r ch e sw e r ef o cu s edonth ec a s c ad e l ik ech ann e l[163 ]o rth ed e t e c t iono fn eu t r ino o s c i l l a t ion sa tth el ow e r en e r gyth r e sho ldo fth eD e epCo r ep a r to fth ed e t e c to r[164 ] . Thu s ,an ews e l e c t i on h adt ob ed e s ign edto a l so a l lowfo rh igh en e rgy(Eν > 30TeV)s t a r t in gev en t s ,bo tht r a ck l ik eandc a s c ad e l ik e . Abo thv e rys imp l eandeffi c i en t w aytosupp r e s sa tm o sph e r i cb a ck g roundi sacu tonth ech a rg ed e t e c t edbyth e DOM s . Inth i san a ly s i se a chev en tw a sr equ i r edtod epo s i ten e rgyequ iv a l en tto6000PEo r mo r e w i th inth ed e t e c t o r . T os e l e c ton lys t a r t ing ev en t si ti sr equ i r edth a tw i th inth et im e o fth ed e t e c t i ono fth efi r s t2 50PEl e s sth an3PEa r ed e t e c t edin s id eth ev e tor eg ion . Th ev e tor e g i oni sc ompo s edbyth eou t e rl ay e ro fs t r ing sandth eh igh e s tfiv e DOM son e a chI c eCub e(n o tD e epC o r e )s t r in ga sw e l la sth elow e s tDOMone a chs t r ing ,s e eF ig4 .6 . F igu re 4 .6 :V e t o r e g i on ,t ak enf r om[89 ] . Th ed a rkg r eys t r ing sw e r eadd edinth es e cond y e a ru s edinth i san a ly s i s . Th eycomp l e t edth eI c eCub ed e t e c to rw i th86 s t r in g s . Th eg r eysh ad edr eg ionshow sth ev e tor eg ionu s edfo rth ecomp l e t ed I c eCub ed e t e c t o r . Th eb lu edo t sind i c a t eth el ay e ro fc ro s ss e c t ioncho s enin th er i gh tp l o t . Th i s an a ly s i sw a sfi r s tp e r f o rm ed ontw oy e a r so fI c eCub ed a t a . On ey e a rw i th th ea lmo s tc omp l e t edd e t e c t o randth efi r s ty e a ro fth ecomp l e t edI c eCub ed e t e c to r 47 4 .ST eVE–as e a r chf o rpo in t l ik eT eVn eu t r inosou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky +✺ ✳✻ ( add i t ion a ls ev ens t r in g s ) .S imu l a t i on sshowth a ton eexp e c t s✶✵ ✳✻ a ckg roundev en t s −✸ ✳✻b f roma tm o sph e r i c mu on sandn eu t r ino sinth e s etw oy e a r s . 28ev en t sw e r ed e t e c t ed .I f th een e rgyandz en i thd i s t r ibu t i ono fth e s eev en t si scon s id e r edth i samoun t stoanex c e s s o f4 .8σov e rth eb a ck g r ound on lyhypo th e s i s[89 ] . Th i sr e su l tw a ss t r eng th en edbyth e add i t iono fm o r ey e a r so fI c eCub ed a t a[90 ] . Th es amp l e con s i s t s m a in ly o fc a s c ad e l ik e ev en t s(21 ou to f 28 ) . Th e s e ev en t s h av ear a th e rpoo ran gu l a rr e s o lu t i on( e s t im a t edb e tw e en∼6 °to∼50° ) . Thu s ,ev eni fa po in t l ik esou r c eh adb e end e t e c t ed ,wh i chw a sno tth ec a s e ,anid en t ifi c a t ionw ou ldh av e b e env e rych a l l en g in gdu et oth el a rg eun c e r t a in tycon c e rn ingi t spo s i t ion . Med ium -ene rgys ta r t ingeven t s(MESE ) Mo t iv a t edbyth esu c c e s sandth el im i t so f HESEas e a r chf o rs t a r t in gt r a ck l ik eev en t sw a sd e s ign edtoimp rov eth es en s i t iv i tyfo r i san a ly s i sa l low sfo r po in t l ik es ou r c e sinth es ou th e rnskya ten e rg i e sEν <1PeV. Th al a rg e rc on t am in a t i ono fa tm o sph e r i cb a ckg roundbylow e r ingth ech a rg eth r e sho ldo f th eev en ts e l e c t i ont o1 50 0PE . Thu s , MESEfo cu s e son m ed ium en e rgys t a r t ingev en t s (MESE ) . Ad e t a i l edd e s c r ip t i ono fth ean a ly s i sc anb efoundin[165 ] . Add i t ion a lcu t s s e l e c ton lyt r a ck l ik eh i tp a t t e rn s . Th e s ecu t sex c lud e77%o fa l lc a s c ad e l ik eev en t swh i l e i thanop en ingang l eb e tw e enr e con s t ru c t ionand Mon t e 95%o fa l lch a r g ed cu r r en tνµ w C a r lot ru th(Ψ)o fl e s sth anfiv ed eg r e ea r ek ep t .A sal a s ts t ep ,atw o -d im en s ion a lcu t onr e con s t ru c t eden e r gyandd i s t an c eo fth er e con s t ru c t eds t a r t ingv e r t extoth ed e t e c to r bound a r i e si sapp l i ed . Th i ss e a r chy i e ld s5 4 9ev en t sw i thth r e ey e a r so fI c eCub ed a t a( IC79andtw oy e a r so f IC86 ) . Th ean a ly s i sm a in lyimp r ov e sth es en s i t iv i tyfo rs c en a r io sw i thacu toffen e rgy .F o r anE−✷pow e r l aww i thanen e r gycu toffa t1PeVth es en s i t iv i tyo fth ecomb in edth rough go ingands t a r t in gt r a cks e l e c t i onimp rov e sbyaf a c to r∼✷−✸andfo ranen e rgycu toffa t 100TeVbyaf a c t o r∼✺−✷ ✵c omp a r edtoth eth rough -go ingan a ly s i s .InF ig .4 .7th es en s i t iv i t i e so fth i sc omb in eds e l e c t i ona r eshownandcomp a r edtoth er e su l t sf romANTARES . Wh i l eth er equ i r em en t onth ed epo s i t edch a rg ei sv e ryeffi c i en tinsupp r e s s inga t mo sph e r i cb a ck g r ound s ,i ta l s or edu c e sth eeffi c i en cyfo ra s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino sw i th en e rg i e sEν <10 0TeV. Low -ene rgys ta r t ingeven t s(LESE ) Th esho r t com ingo fth eth r e eI c eCub ean a ly s e s p r e s en t edabov ei sth e i rl a ckins en s i t iv i tyfo rpo in t l ik eTeVn eu t r inoem i s s ion- wh i ch i sp r ed i c t edinh ad r on i cm od e l so fg a l a c t i cTeVg amm asou r c e s ,a sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion 2 .5 . Th eev en ts e l e c t i ono fLESEi sb a s edonav e tocond i t ions im i l a rtoth eHESE/MESE cond i t iond i s cu s s edabov e . Th em a ind iff e r en c ei sth el a cko fach a rg eth r e sho ld- m ak ing th i ss e l e c t iona l s ov i ab l ef o rev en t so flow e ren e rgyd epo s i t ingl e s sen e rgyinth ed e t e c to r v o lum e[1 6 6 ,1 6 7 ] . ST eVEu s e sth i sin i t i a ls e l e c t iond ev e lop edfo rLESE , wh i ch w i l lb e 48 4 .4 .P r ev iou sm e a su r em en t s F igu re4 .7 :S en s i t iv i tyf o rpo in t l ik esou r c e sind ep end en c eo fd e c l in a t ionfo rANTARES andth eI c eCub es e a r chu s ingth rough -go ingev en t sincomb in a t ion w i th MESEev en t s .T ak enf r om[165 ] exp l a in edin m o r ed e t a i lins e c t i on5 .3 .1 .U s ingadd i t ion a ls e l e c t ionl ev e l stosupp r e s sth e b a ckg roundfu r th e rth eLESEan a ly s i si sop t im i z edtob es en s i t iv eb e lowaf ewTeV. 49 5 . Even tse lec t ionandrecon s t ruc t ion 5 .1 . Mo t iva t ion I tw a sp r e s en t edins e c t i on4 . 3th a ts e l e c t ings t a r t ing muont r a ck si sap rom i s ings e l e c t ion tolookfo rg a l a c t i cn eu t r in opo in ts ou r c e sinth esou th e rnsky . Th i sch ap t e rd i s cu s s e show tog e ttoad a t as e tsu i t ab l ef o rapo in tsou r c ean a ly s i s .F i r s t ,th em e thod stor e con s t ru c t ev en ttopo l o gy ,en e r gyandd i r e c t i ona r ed e s c r ib ed .S e cond ,th eind iv idu a ls e l e c t ions t ep s a r ep r e s en t ed . Th eob j e c t iv ei st oob t a inas amp l eo fw e l lr e con s t ru c t eds ign a lev en t swh i l e supp r e s s in gb a ck g r oundev en t s . Th el a s tp a r to fth i sch ap t e rfo cu s s e sonth ep rop e r t i e so f th eev en ts e l e c t i onu s edinth epo in tsou r c ean a ly s i s .ST eVEu s e sfou ry e a r so fd a t at ak en byth ecomp l e t edI c eCub ed e t e c t o r . On eo fth een e rgye s t im a to r su s edv a r i e sb e tw e enth e fi r s ty e a r(M ay2 0 1 1- M ay2 0 1 2 )andth efo l low ing(M ay2012- M ay2015 ) . Th i sl e ad sto tw oev en ts e l e c t i on s .D a t at ak eninth efi r s ty e a rw i l lb ec a l l edIC86 Iandth eadd i t ion a l y e a r sIC8 6 I I+ .I fn o texp l i c i t ly m en t ion ed ,th ep rov id edd e s c r ip t ion sapp lytoa l ld a t a . 5 .2 . Even trecon s t ruc t ionandva r iab le s 5 .2 .1 . Wh ichp rope r t ie so faneven tneedtoberecon s t ruc ted? Th e ST eVE an a ly s i sin t r odu c edinth ep r ev iou sch ap t e rr equ i r e se s t im a to r so fth e en e rgy ,d i r e c t i onandt opo l o gyo fth eev en t .T opo logyh e r ei su s eda sasumm a ryo ft r a ck p rop e r t i e s . Th ef o cu so fth i san a ly s i si s ,a sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 .3 ,ons t a r t ingTeV muont r a ck s( s e eF i g .5 . 1a ) . Th el o c a t iono fth ein i t i a lin t e r a c t ionc anb er e con s t ru c t ed b a s edonth eh i tp a t t e rn w i thth em e thod sd e s c r ib edins e c t ion5 .2 .3ands e c t ion5 .2 .5 . Th ed i s t an c eb e tw e enth eed g e so fth ed e t e c to rv o lum eandth er e con s t ru c t edin i t i a l in t e r a c t ionpo in t( l en g thtos ta r t ,l igh tr edl in einF ig .5 .1 )i sexp e c t edtob epo s i t iv e i fth ev e r t exi sin s id eth ed e t e c t o rv o lum eandn eg a t iv ei fi ti sou t s id e . ATeVmuon p rodu c edbyan eu t r in oin t e r a c t i onin s id eth ed e t e c to rv o lum ei sexp e c t edtol e av eth e d e t e c to rv o lum e(l en g thtol e a v e ,b lu el in einF ig .5 .1 ) . Th een e r gy d epo s i t ed a l on gth et r a ckc an a l so b eu s edtoch a r a c t e r i z e as t a r t ing ev en t . Th een e r gysp e c t rumo fbo tha tmo sph e r i c muon sandn eu t r ino si ss t e ep( s e e s e c t ion2 . 2 . 1 ) . Thu s ,anev en tw i thh igh e ren e r gyi s mo r el ik e lytob eo fa s t rophy s i c a l o r ig in . Th eh ad r on i cc a s c ad eo fth ein i t i a ln eu t r inoin t e r a c t ioni sa l soexp e c t edtob e b r igh t .U s in gs imu l a t edn eu t r in oin t e r a c t ion sand muonp rop ag a t ionshow sth a tinabou t 80 %o fa l lch a r g edcu r r en t mu onn eu t r inoin t e r a c t ion sth ein i t i a lc a s c ad ei sth e mo s t i sch ang e stoa lmo s t90 % . en e rg e t i con e( s e eF i g .5 . 2 ) .A tl ow e ren e rg i e s ,b e low10TeV,th 51 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on F igu re5 .1 :T opo l o gyo fev en t sinI c eCub e .a ) :S t a r t ing muont r a ckb ) : Th rough -go ing mu ont r a ckc ) :L owen e rgy muonbund l e . Showna r eth equ a s i con t inuou s ands t o ch a s t i cen e r gylo s s e sandth r e et r a ckl eng thv a r i ab l e s . Muon sp r odu c edin an a i r sh ow e ro f t en a r r iv ein a g roup , a muon bund l e[21 ] . Th e s ebund l e sh av ea m o r eequ a l lyd i s t r ibu t edl igh ty i e ld . Th eya r eonav e r ag eo flow e r en e rgyandal a r g e rp a r to fth e i ren e rgyi sem i t t edcon t inuou s ly( s e es e c t ion3 .1 .3and F ig .5 . 1c ) . I fana tm o sph e r i cbund l ec on s i s t so ff ew ,o ron lyon e , muonth a tc a r r i e s mo s to fth e bund l e ’ sen e r gy ,th een e r gyl o s s e so fth i s muon w i l lb ev e rys im i l a rtoth en eu t r ino indu c edt r a ck( s e eF i g .5 . 1b ) .I fbych an c eth i sev en tl a ck sal a rg es to ch a s t i cen e rgy lo s sinth ev e t or e g i ono fth ed e t e c to r ,i tw i l lb ev e rych a l l eng ingtos ep a r a t ei tf roma " s t a r t ing"n eu t r in oev en t . Muon sf rom bund l e sp r odu c edinth ea tmo sph e r ec an h av eenoughen e rgyto p en e t r a t eth ei c eanden t e rth ein s t rum en t edv o lum eo fI c eCub e . Som eo fth e s e muon sth en d e c ayin s id eth ed e t e c t o r . ATeVmuonp rodu c edbyan eu t r inoin t e r a c t ionin s id eth e d e t e c to rv o lum e ,h ow ev e r ,l e av e sth ed e t e c to rv o lum e( s e eF ig .3 .5 ) . Thu s ,ah i tp a t t e rn wh i chs top sin s id eth ed e t e c t o r ,s e eF ig .5 .1c ,i sanind i c a to rfo rana tmo sph e r i c muon (bund l e ) . 5 .2 .2 . Angu la rrecon s t ruc t ion Th i ss e c t i onabou tan gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t ioni sinl a rg ep a r t sasumm a ryo fth ep ap e r d e s c r ib ingth er e c on s t ru c t i on m e thod su s edfo rth e AMANDA d e t e c to r[168 ] . Wh e r e u s ed ,add i t ion a lr e f e r en c e sa r eg iv en . Th ed i r e c t i on o f a mu oni sr e c on s t ru c t ed w i th th eh e lp o fl ik e l ihood r e con s t ru c - 52 ra t ioo f we igh tedsamp le (cumu la t ive ) 5 .2 . Ev en tr e con s t ru c t ionandv a r i ab l e s 1 .0 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 100 GeV <E <1TeV 1TeV <E <10TeV 10TeV <E <100TeV 100TeV <E <1PeV 0 .2 0 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 (E s ta r t-E max t ra ck )/E s ta r t 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re5 .2 :D iff e r en c eb e tw e enth ein i t i a len e rgylo s sa tth epo in to fn eu t r inoin t e r a c t ion andth em o s ten e r g e t i cen e rgylo s sa longth e muont r a ck ,no rm a l i z ed w i th th een e r gyo fth ein i t i a len e rgylo s s .S imu l a t edev en t sin wh i chth ein i t i a l en e r gyl o s si sm o r een e rg e t i cth ananys ing l een e rgylo s sa longth emuont r a ck g iv eav a lu el a r g e rth anz e r o . Th ecumu l a t iv ed i s t r ibu t ioninfou rd iff e r en t en e r gyb and si ssh own ,ind i c a t edbyth ed iff e r en tco lo r s . Th ed a sh edl in eo f e a chc o l o rind i c a t e sth er a t ioo fev en t sinth i sb andw i thanen e rgylo s sl a rg e r th anth el o s sa tth ein i t i a lin t e r a c t ionpo in to fth en eu t r ino . Th eev en t sin e a chen e r gyb anda r ew e igh t edtofo l lowanE−✷ sp e c t rum . t ion s . Th e s er e c on s t ru c t i on sr equ i r eafi r s tgu e s se s t im a to rtoav o idl and inginlo c a l . Th efi r s tgu e s si sp rov id ed m in im ao fth en e g a t iv el o gl ik e l ih ood(LLH )fun c t ionlog (L) byana lg o r i thmth a tm in im i z e sth ed i s t an c einsp a c eandt im eb e tw e enahypo th e t i c a l t r a ckw i thav e r t exandv e l o c i tyv e c to randth epo s i t ion sandt im eo fth eop t i c a l modu l e s ob s e rv ingch a r g e . Th ean gu l a rr e s o lu t iono fth efi r s tgu e s se s t im a to rc anb eimp rov edby abou t60✪ byr e j e c t in gd e t e c t edch a rg eth a ti sun l ik e lytob einc au s a lconn e c t ionto th et r a ck[ 1 6 9 ] . Th i simp r ov edv e r s i ono fth ean a ly t i c a lr e con s t ru c t ioni su s edfo rIC86 I I+ . Inan ex ts t epth ee s t im a t edt r a ckin fo rm a t ionc an b eu s eda sas e edfo rth e LLH t r a ckr e c on s t ru c t i on . Th eop t i c a l modu l e sth a td e t e c t edch a rg ec anb es e ena sind ep en anb ed efin edby mu l t ip ly ing d en tm e a su r em en t so fth et r a ckhypo th e s i s . Al ik e l ihoodLc th ep rob ab i l i tyd en s i tyfun c t i on sp(PDF s )fo re a chind iv idu a lm e a su r em en txi: L( x| Θ)= p( xi| Θ) ✳ (5 .1 ) i H e r e ,xi sth ev e c t o ro fa l lm e a su r em en t sandΘcon t a in sth ef r e ep a r am e t e r so fth et r a ck hypo th e s i s ,th ev e r t expo s i t i on(x✱ y✱ z )andth ed i r e c t iono fth et r a ck( z en i th : θand a z imu th :Ψ) . Th ePDFu s e sa mu ont r a ck w i thou ts to ch a s t i clo s s e sa shypo th e s i s . Th e imp a c to fth e s el o s s e s ,PMTr e spon s eands c a t t e r ingonth ea r r iv a lt im ed i s t r ibu t iona r e v i su a l i z edinF i g .5 . 3 . On lyth et im ein fo rm a t iono fth ech a rg ea s so c i a t edw i thth efi r s t pho tonth a th i tth e OMi sc on s id e r ed .I fon lyth ein fo rm a t ionfo ras ing l epho tonh i ti s 53 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on j i t t e r j i t t e r +no i s e σ t h i g h l ow 0 j i t t e r t r e s +show e r s 0 j i t t e r t r e s +s c a t t e r ing c l o s et r a c k f a rt r a c k 0 t r e s 0 t r e s F igu re5 .3 :D i s t r ibu t i ono fd e t e c t i ona r r iv a lt im e sinanOMf romC e r enk ovl igh tem i t t ed bya mu on .T opl e f t :A r r iv a lt im et ak ingin toa c coun tth ePMTj i t t e r .T op r i gh t : W i thadd edr andomno i s e . Bo t toml e f t : Eff e c to fcon s id e r ingl igh t y i e ldbys t o ch a s t i cen e rgylo s s e sa longth emuont r a ck . Bo t tomr igh t :Imp a c t o fs c a t t e r in gonth ea r r iv a lt im ed i s t r ibu t ionfo ran e a randaf a rt r a ck .T ak en f r om[ 1 6 8 ] u s ed ,th i sPDF w i l lb ec a l l edaS ing l ePho to e l e c t ronPDF ,sho r tSPE1. Th i sapp ro a ch igno r e sav a i l ab l ein f o rm a t i onf r oml a t e rh i t sinan OM . How ev e r ,i tp rov id e saf a s tand goodr e con s t ru c t i onth a tc anb eu s edtos e ed mo r esoph i s t i c a t edt r a ckhypo th e s e s .I tc an b eimp rov edbyc on s id e r in gth ein f o rm a t ionth a tN h i t ( s )fo l low edinth eL ik e l ihoodfo r th efi r s th i t . Th i si st ak enin t oa c c oun tbyth e Mu l t ip l ePho to e l e c t ronPDF , MPEinsho r t . T oa c coun tf o rr and om h i t s(n o i s e )d e t e c t edinop t i c a l modu l e sasm a l l no i s et e rm i sadd edt oth el ik e l ih ood . Th ei c ep rop e r t i e s ,d i s cu s s edins e c t ion3 .3 .3 ,h av etob et ak en in toa c coun ta sw e l l . Tw oapp r o a ch e sc anb eu s edfo rth i s .I fcompu t a t ion a lsp e edi s r equ i r edanan a ly t i c a ld e s c r ip t iono fth eexp e c t edl igh ty i e ldw i l lb eu s ed[170 ] . Th i sc an b eimp rov edbys imu l a t in gth el i gh tp rop ag a t ioninth ei c eands av ingth ein fo rm a t ion ]wh i ch m ak e sth e i ru s ag ev e ry int ab l e s .H ow ev e r ,th e s et ab l e so c cupyabou t20GB[107 d em and in gint e rm so fcompu t a t i on a lr e sou r c e s . Aso lu t ionf o rth i sp r ob l emi sth efi to f po lynom i a lfun c t ion stoth ei c ep rop e r t i e s . Th efun c t i on su s eda r ed e s c r ib edin[171 ] . Mo r ed e t a i lonth efi t t ingp ro c edu r ec an b efoundin[ 1 0 7 ] . Th eu s a g eo fth i spo lynom i a lfun c t ion s ,c a l l edsp l in e s ,r edu c e sth e r equ i r ed m em o rys t o r a g et oabou t200 MB[107 ] .I th a sb e enshownin[107 ]th a tfo r th ed a t as e l e c t i on d i s cu s s edinth a tw o rkth eu s ag eo fsp l in e simp rov e sth em ed i an angu l a rr e s o lu t i onf o ra1 0TeVmu ont r a ckf romabou t1 °w i thth ean a ly t i c a ll igh ty i e ld 1 InI c eCub e" s lang"SPE f irst. 54 5 .2 . Ev en tr e con s t ru c t ionandv a r i ab l e s T ab le5 .1 . : An gu l a rr e con s t ru c t ion su s edfo rST eVE R e c on s t ru c t i on s e ed m e thod an a ly t i c a lr e c o . n on e an a ly t i c a lm in im i z a t ion SPELLHr e c o . an a ly t i c a lr e co . LLHw i thSPEPDF MPELLHr e c o . SPELLHr e co . LLHw i th MPEPDF MPELLHr e c o .( sp l in e ) MPELLHr e co . LLHw i th MPEPDF( sp l in e ) d e s c r ip t iont oabou t0 ✳ 7 °(bo tht im e sth e MPEPDFi su s ed ) . S t a r t ing w i thafi r s tgu e s sp a r t i c l et r a ckth em in im i z e rs e a r ch e sfo rth eop t im a ld i r e c t ion a lr e c on s t ru c t i on .Inth i san a ly s i sfi r s tanan a ly t i cr e con s t ru c t ioni sapp l i edand u s eda sfi r s tgu e s se s t im a t o rf o rth el ik e l ihood -b a s edr e con s t ru c t ionu s ingth ean a ly t i c a l d e s c r ip t iono fth el i gh ty i e ldandaSPE PDF .F o rth i sm e thodth er e con s t ru c t ioni s app l i edtw i c e ,w i thd iff e r en ts t a r t ingp a r am e t e r s ,tor edu c eth er i sko ff a l l inginalo c a l m in imum . Th er e su l to fth i sr e c on s t ru c t ioni sth enu s edfo ral ik e l ihood m in im i z a t ion u s ingan MPEPDFandth ean a ly t i c a ll igh ty i e ldd e s c r ip t ion . Th el a t t e rintu rni su s ed a sas e edf o ra MPEPDFu s in gsp l in e s . Th i sch a ino fr e con s t ru c t ion si ssumm a r i z edin T ab l e5 .1 . Th em ed i anan gu l a rr e so lu t i ono fth e s er e con s t ru c t ion sfo rth efin a ls e l e c t ionl ev e l( th a t a l soi su s edinth epo in t l ik es ou r c es e a r chfo rST eVEands e l e c t son lyw e l lr e con s t ru c t ed ev en t s )fo rIC 8 6 Ii ssh owninF i g .5 .4 .L a rg e rv a lu e so fth el ik e l ihood ,o requ iv a l en t 10 MPELLHreco .(sp l ine ) ana ly t ica lreco . Ψ [° ] 8 SPELLHreco .2i te ra t ions MPELLHreco . 6 4 2 0 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 l og10 (E / GeV) ν 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 F igu re5 .4 :M ed i anan gu l a re r r o r Ψfo rth ed iff e r en tr e con s t ru c t ion su s edinth i san a ly s i s . Th ed i s t r ibu t i oni ssh ownfo rth efin a ll ev e ls e l e c t ion ,s e es e c t ion5 .3 .3 . Th e b eh av i ou rb e l ow∼3TeVi sl ik e lyc au s edbyal a cko f Mon t eC a r los t a t i s t i c s du et of ewev en t sp a s s ingth eev en ts e l e c t ionandpo s s ib lyach ang einth e ev en tt opo l o gy . L)u su a l lyc o r r e spondtoac lo s e rfi ttoth et ru ed i r e c t ion . How ev e r ,th e th esm a l l e rl o g ( ab so lu t ev a lu eo fth i squ an t i tyd ep end sonth enumb e ro fd a t apo in t st ak enin toa c coun t . T ocomp a r eth efi tqu a l i tyb e tw e end iff e r en thypo th e s e sth e" r edu c ed"log a r i thmo fth e 55 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on ♦❣ L) ✶✵( l ik e l ihood ,sh o r tr log l= −❧ anb eu s ed ,w i thNd✳ th enumb e ro fd eg r e e so f o✳ f✳( Nd✳o✳f✳ c f r e edom ) ,th enumb e ro fpu l s e sm e a su r edonop t i c a l modu l e s ,r edu c edbyth enumb e ro f 2 log lc anb eu s eda sat r a ckqu a l i typ a r am e t e r. p a r am e t e r sf o rth efi t .H en c e ,r Angu la re r ro run ce r ta in t y Inas e a r chf o rpo in t l ik es ou r c e si ti sno ton lyth ed i r e c t ion a lin fo rm a t iono fanev en t th a ti simpo r t an tbu ta l s oth eun c e r t a in tyoni t .H e r e ,a m e thodi su s ed m in im i z ingth e logl ik e l ih ooda td i r e c t i on ssu r r ound ingth eb e s tfi td i r e c t ion . Ap a r abo l ai sfi t t edto th e s eLLHv a lu e s . Th ep a r am e t e r so fth i sp a r abo l ac anb eu s edtoe s t im a t eth eangu l a r un c e r t a in ty[ 1 7 2 ] . Ins ev e r a l an a ly s i s[ 1 0 7 ,1 7 3 ]i th a sb e en ob s e rv edth a tth ee s t im a to r und e r e s t i m a t e sth ed i r e c t i on a le r r o r . Th i seff e c ti sen e rgy -d ep end en t . On eexp l an a t ionfo rth i s b eh av iou ri sd i s cu s s edin[ 1 7 4 ] . I tc an b eshownth a tth es to ch a s t i cen e rgylo s s e s , wh i cha r en o tp a r to fth eL ik e l ih oodd e s c r ip t ionu s edtor e con s t ru c t muont r a ck s ,l e ad toth eund e r e s t im a t i ono fth ed i r e c t ion a le r ro r . Th i sc ana l soexp l a in whyth eeff e c t i sen e rgy -d ep end en tw i th anin c r e a s ing und e r e s t im a t ionfo rh igh e ren e rg i e s , wh e r e s to ch a s t i cen e r gyl o s s e sd om in a t eth eto t a len e rgylo s s . Bo th angu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i on and e s t im a t ion o fth e angu l a re r ro r un c e r t a in ty c an b ev e r ifi ed w i thth en on ob s e rv a t i ono fa tmo sph e r i c muon sf r omth ed i r e c t iono fth e moon[175 ] . Th em oonsh i e ld sE a r thag a in s tco sm i cr ay s .Incon s equ en c eno muon sa r e p rodu c edandth e i rab s en c ec anb efi t t ed . W i thth es i z eo fth e moonb e en w e l lknown on lyth ean gu l a rr e s o lu t i oni saf r e ep a r am e t e r . Th efi t t edangu l a re r ro ri sinag r e em en t w i thth ee r r o rob s e rv edf r omr e c on s t ru c t ed Mon t eC a r loev en t s( a f t e rco r r e c t ingf o rth e en e rgy -d ep end en tov e r e s t im a t i on ) . Anysy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in typ r e s en tinth e Mon t e C a r lo mu s th av eanimp a c to f0 ✳ 2 °o rl e s s[ 175 ] . Th e r e fo r e , Mon t eC a r loev en t sc anb e u s edtot e s tth ed i r e c t i on a le r r o re s t im a to r . 5 .2 .3 . Leng threcon s t ruc t ion Th eangu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i onandth efi r s tgu e s sen e rgye s t im a to rbo tha s sum eaninfin i t e muont r a ck .T or e c on s t ru c tth es t a r t ingv e r t exandth es topp ingv e r t exth i sa s sump t ion h a stob ech an g ed . Th ea l g o r i thmu s edh e r ei sd i s cu s s edin mo r ed e t a i lin[176 ] .Ina fi r s ts t ep ,a l lop t i c a lm odu l e sinar ad iu so f200ma roundth et r a cka r es e l e c t ed .O fth e s e modu l e s ,f o ra l lth a td e t e c t edch a r g ei ti sa s sum edth a tth epho ton sa r r iv ef romth et r a ck inth eC e r enk ovan g l ew i th ou ts c a t t e r inginth ei c e . Th ee a r l i e s tandl a t e s tpo in tonth e infin i t et r a ckf r omwh i chth e s eth e o r e t i c a lpho ton scou ldh av ea r r iv eda r eth enu s eda sfi r s t gu e s sfo rth es t a r tv e r t exandth es topv e r t ex ,a sshowninF ig .5 .5 .Inas e conds t ep ,th e op t i c a lm odu l e sup s t r e amo fth ec on esh ap edbyth efi r s top t i c a l modu l etod e t e c tch a rg e 2 I ti sno t ma th ema t i ca l ly mo t iv a t ed ,bu tav a r iab l etha tha sshowntob eco r r e la t edw i thr e con s t ru c t ion qua l i tyinp r ev iou sana ly s e s . 56 5 .2 . Ev en tr e con s t ru c t ionandv a r i ab l e s F igu re5 .5 :F i r s ts t epo fl en g thr e con s t ru c t ion ; : Th es t a r t ingands toppo in to fat r a ck a r ee s t im a t ed .T ak enf rom[176 ] th eC e r enk ovan g l eandth e mu ont r a cka sro t a t ion a lax i sa r es e l e c t ed ,s e eF ig .5 .6 . Tw o hypo th e s e sa r ec omp a r ed . Th efi r s thypo th e s i si sa muont r a ckw i thou tad e t e c t edch a rg e (no -h i t )wh i l eth es e c ondhypo th e s i si snot r a ckandnod e t e c t edch a rg e .M ax im i z ingth e r a t ioo fth en o -h i tL ik e l ih ood so fth e s ehypo th e s e sr e tu rn sanimp rov ede s t im a to rfo rth e s t a r t ingv e r t ex . Th es am ep r o c edu r er ep e a t eddown s t r e amg iv e sth es topp ingv e r t ex . F igu re5 .6 :S e c onds t epo fl en g thr e con s t ru c t ion : Tw ohypo th e s e sa r ecomp a r ed(not r a ck andn ol i gh td e t e c t edv e r su sat r a ckandnol igh td e t e c t edu s ingaL ik e l ihood r a t i ot e s t .T ak enf r om[176 ] 5 .2 .4 .F i r s tgue s sene rgyrecon s t ruc t ion Th i ss e c t i oni sasumm a ryf r omanI c eCub ep ap e r[126 ] . Th een e rgyo fanev en ti s r e con s t ru c t edbyc omp a r in gth el i gh ty i e ldo fahypo th e t i c a len e rgyd epo s i t ionEw i th th em e a su r ednumb e ro fph o t on sk,wh i cha r eexp e c t edtofo l lowaP o i s sond i s t r ibu t ion . At emp l a t e , Λ,i su s edt om od e lth ed e t e c to randi c ep rop e r t i e s . Th em e annumb e ro f exp e c t edph o t on sλ= EΛf o ranop t i c a l modu l ec anth enb ecomp a r ed w i thku s inga 57 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on LLHapp r o a ch , k ( EΛ) −EΛ ·❡ ✱ k✦ ❧♥ ( L) = k❧♥ ( EΛ)−EΛ−❧♥ ( k✦ ) ✳ L = (5 .2 ) (5 .3 ) Equ a t ion5 . 3c anb eg en e r a l i z edt oa l lowfo ranadd i t ion a lno i s et e rmρ: ❧♥ ( L)=k❧♥ ( EΛ+ρ)−( EΛ+ρ)−❧♥ ( k✦ ) ✳ (5 .4 ) A sfo rth ean gu l a rLLHr e c on s t ru c t i onth ed e t e c to ri sev a lu a t edbybu i ld ingth ep rodu c t o fa l lth es in g l e OM LLHexp r e s s ion s . M ax im i z ingth i sL ik e l ihoodandadd ingth e con t r ibu t i on sf r oma l lop t i c a lm odu l e sp rov id e sth eb e s tfi ten e rgye s t im a to r . Th e qu a l i tyo fth i se s t im a t o ri sd i r e c t lyconn e c t edtoth equ a l i tyo fΛ. Du etoth enon t r iv i a li c ep r op e r t i e s ,int e rmo fw av e l eng thd ep end ings c a t t e r ingandab so rp t ion sa s s no tf e a s ib l e . A sa w e l la sinh om o g en e i t i e s ,a p r e c i s ean a ly t i c a ld e s c r ip t iono fΛi fi r s tgu e s sapp r ox im a t i onaninfin i t e muont r a ck w i thev enem i s s iono fpho ton sa tth e C e r enk ovan g l ei sa s sum edf o rΛ. Th ei c ep rop e r t i e sa r emod e l l edbyanan a ly t i c a lfo rmu l a . Th i sr e con s t ru c t i on m e th odi su s edinIC86 I .F o rIC86 I I+animp rov edv e r s ioni s u s ed ,add in gap r ob ab i l i tyd en s i tyfun c t ionth a ti sconv o lv edonth em e anl igh ty i e ldλ, a l low ingf o rl a r g e rflu c tu a t i on s ,l ik eal a rg eB r em s s t r ah lung ’ slo s sa longth et r a ck .I ti s shownin[ 1 0 7 ]th a tth i simp r ov e sth eov e r a l len e rgye s t im a t ion . How ev e r ,th eund e r ly ing a s sump t iono fanev enem i s s i ona longaninfin i t e muont r a ckdo e sno tr ep r e s en tth e r e a l i tyo faTeVt r a cks t a r t in gin s id eth ed e t e c to rv e ryw e l l . 5 .2 .5 .T opo logyandene rgyrecon s t ruc t ion Ins e c t ion5 . 2 . 4th et emp l a t eΛ i saninfin i t e muont r a ck . Th i sc anb eimp rov edby ch ang ingth et emp l a t et oas e r i e so fc a s c ad e l ik een e rgylo s s e sa longat r a ck . Th esum o fth emi sfi t t edt om a t chth eob s e rv edpho ton s .T e chn i c a l ly ,th i si sr e a l i z edbyp l a c ing 1GeVs imu l a t edc a s c ad e sa l on gth et r a ck ,inth i san a ly s i sw i thasp a c ingo f15m . Th el igh t y i e ldo fac a s c ad es c a l e sl in e a rw i then e rgy[129 ]andth esh ap eo fth eem i s s ionr em a in s th es am e–th i sa s sump t i on sh o ld suptoPeVc a s c ad een e rg i e s[177 ] wh e r eth eL and au P om e r an chuk -M i gd a leff e c t[ 1 7 8 – 1 8 0 ]supp r e s s e sen e rgylo s s e so fs e cond a ryp a r t i c l e sin th ec a s c ad eov e rB r em s s t r ah lun gandp a i r -p rodu c t ion . Th i si sw e l labov eth eexp e c t ed en e rgylo s s e sa l on ga mu ont r a ckf r omaTeVn eu t r ino . Th el igh ty i e ldfo re a ch1GeVin e a chop t i c a lm odu l ei sth ens t o r edina m a t r ixΛ. A l ls imu l a t edc a s c ad e sEc anb es c a l ed upanddown . Th esumo fa l ll i gh tem i s s ion sh a sto m a t chth eob s e rv edl igh ty i e ldine a ch op t i c a lm odu l eN: ΛE=N✳ (5 .5 ) Equ a t ion5 . 5c an b es o lv ed w i tha non -n eg a t iv el e a s tsqu a r ea lgo r i thm . U s ingth i s m e thodc a s c ad e sc anb efi t t ed w i thz e roen e rgy ,bu tnon -phy s i c a ln eg a t iv een e rg i e sa r e 58 5 .2 . Ev en tr e con s t ru c t ionandv a r i ab l e s no ta l low ed . Th esumo fa l lth ec a l cu l a t eden e rgylo s s e sa longth et r a ckc anb eu s edto e s t im a t eth een e r gyd epo s i t edbyth et r a ck . Th elo c a t iono fth efi r s tandl a s tc a s c ad eno t fi t t edtoz e r oc anb eu s eda sane s t im a to rfo rth es t a r tands topv e r t exo fth et r a ck ,a l so p rov id ingal en g the s t im a t o r . Add i t ion a l ly ,e s t im a to r sfo rth een e rgya tth es t a r t ,th e m ax im a len e r gyl o s sa l on gth et r a ckandi t spo s i t ionc anb eu s edbyp i ck ingth ea c co rd ing c a s c ad ea l on gth et r a ck . Th ea lgo r i thmc an b eex t end edto b eu s edfo r angu l a rr e con s t ru c t ion . How ev e r , fo re a chhypo th e s i st e s t edth epo s i t ion so fth es imu l a t edc a s c ad e sa longth et r a ckv a ry andh av et ob er ep e a t ed . Th i sm ak e sth i sr e con s t ru c t ioncompu t a t ion a lexp en s iv e .In add i t ion ,anan gu l a re r r o re s t im a t o rfu r th e rin c r e a s e sth enumb e ro fi t e r a t ion sr equ i r ed . Th e r e fo r e ,i ti sn o tu s eda san gu l a rr e con s t ru c t ionfo rth i sev en ts e l e c t ion . 5 .2 .6 . Exc lud ingco inc iden teven t s Du etoth el en g tho fth et r i g g e rw ind ow( r e adou tcon t inu e sa slonga sth et r igg e rcond i t ion ) , mu l t ip l eev en tc anb er e co rd edinas ing l er e adou t . Th e s e w a sfu lfi l l edinth el a s t 5µs ev en t sa r el ab e l ed" c o in c id en t " . Th e mo s tcommonc a s ea r etw oa tmo sph e r i c muon s , bu tth es am ep r ob ab i l i tya l s oapp l i e sfo rn eu t r inoev en t s .S imu l a t ion sshowth a tabou t ev e ryt en thev en tt r i g g e r edinI c eCub ei saco in c id en tev en t . Th e s eco in c id en tev en t s c anb ep r ob l em a t i cing en e r a landfo ras e a r chu s ings t a r t ingev en t sinp a r t i cu l a r . A l l th er e con s t ru c t i on sd e s c r ib edabov eu s eon e muont r a cka shypo th e s i s .I fth e r ei s mo r e th anon et r a ck ,th i shypo th e s i sw i l lb ew rongand m ayr e su l tinb adr e con s t ru c t ion p e r fo rm an c e . Tw oa tm o sph e r i c muon sa r r iv inginth e" r igh t"o rd e rc anl e adtoa r e con s t ru c t i ona sanup g o in gt r a ck ,as ign a tu r eth a tw ou ldon lyb eexp e c t edf roma n eu t r inoindu c edt r a ck ,i fth et r a ckr e con s t ru c t ionw e r et ru e . F o rs t a r t in gev en ts e a r ch e san o th e rp rob l emc ana r i s e .I fth efi r s tev en ti slowen e rg e t i cen ou ght op a s sv e t oc ond i t ion s ,a sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 .4 .3 , ano th e r mo r e en e rg e t i c mu onc anen t e rth ed e t e c to rw i thou tb e ingv e to ed . Th i s muon ,how ev e r ,w ou ld b eo fh igh e ren e r gy-an o th e rd i s c r im in a to rv a r i ab l eu s edtosp l i ta s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s anda tmo sph e r i c mu on s . An a lgo r i thm u s in gt im e andsp a c ein fo rm a t ion o fth efi r s t pu l s ed e t e c t edinth e OM si su s edt od e t e c tc o in c id en tev en t s[181 ] .I fth ea lgo r i thmind i c a t e sco in c id en c e ,th e ev en tw i l lb ed i s c a rd ed . F o rth efin a ll ev e lev en ts e l e c t ion( s e eb e low )o fas imu l a t ion d a t a s e tbo thth er a t i oo fc o in c id en tev en t sandth ep e r fo rm an c eo fth ea lgo r i thma r e showninF i g .5 . 7 . Ap a r to fth ec o in c id en tev en t si sb ad lyr e con s t ru c t edanddo e sno t p a s sth es e l e c t i onc r i t e r i a . Ou to fth eev en t sp a s s ingabou th a l fo fth eco in c id en tev en t s a r eid en t ifi edc o r r e c t ly . Th eov e r a l l" con t am in a t ion"o fco in c id en tev en t sonfin a ll ev e lin s ign a ls imu l a t i oni s3 ✳ 5✪. 59 ra t ioo f we igh tedsamp le 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on 1 .0 rea l mu l t ip l ic i ty recons t ruc ted mu l t ip l ic i ty 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 0 1 2 3 mu l t ip l ic i ty 4 5 6 7 F igu re5 .7 : Mu l t ip l i c i ty(numb e ro fco in c id en tev en t s )f o rth efin a ll ev e ls e l e c t iono f ST eVE. 5 .3 . Even tse lec t ion Th eev en ts e l e c t i onu s edinth epo in t l ik esou r c es e a r chi sth er e su l to fs ev e r a ls t ep so f s e l e c t ion ,h e r ec a l l edl ev e l s . Th efi r s tl ev e l ,L1 ,i sth et r igg e r ingo fev en t sd e s c r ib edin s e c t ion3 . 3 . 4 . Onth ef o l l ow in gl ev e l sth enumb e ro fb a ckg roundev en t si sr edu c edand th ep a s s in gev en t sa r er e c on s t ru c t ed w i th mo r esoph i s t i c a t ed ,bu ta l so mo r eexp en s iv e a lgo r i thm scompu t a t i on a l -w i s e .A tth es am et im eth es e l e c t ioni sop t im i z edtok e eps ign a l ev en t su s in gs i gn a ls imu l a t i on s . 5 .3 .1 . Leve l2 Th ed e t e c t o rt r i g g e r sev en t sw i thar a t eo fabou t2800p e rs e cond . Th ego a lo fth e L ev e l2p r o c e s in gi st op r e s e l e c tpo t en t i a ls t a r t ing muont r a ck sou to fth i sl a rg enumb e r ( a lmo s t1 0 0b i l l i onev en t say e a r ) . Th efi r s ts e l e c t ion ,c a l l edafi l t e r ,i sapp l i eda tth e Sou th P o l ea f t e rev en t sa r et r i g g e r ed . Th i sg en e r a t e stw ol im i t a t ion s : Compu t a t ion a l pow e r(n o ta l lev en t sc anb er e c on s t ru c t ed w i thsoph i s t i c a t ed m e thod s"on th e -fly" ) andt r an sm i s s i onb andw id tht oth e No r th(no ta l lev en t sc anb es en ttoth e No r thv i a s a t e l l i t e ) .S ev e r a lfi l t e r sa r eapp l i edonth et r igg e r edd a t a .F o rth epu rpo s eo fs e l e c t ing s t a r t ingev en t sasp e c ifi cfi l t e r( "F u l l skys t a r t ing"fi l t e r/FSS )h a sb e end ev e lop edfo r anan a ly s i sop t im i z edt os e a r chf o rev en t sw i then e rg i e sb e lowaf ewTeV(LESE )[166 ] ( s e es e c t i on4 . 4 . 3 ) . Th es e l e c t i oni sop t im i z edfo rs t a r t ingt r a ck sandandc ana l sob e u s edh e r e . On ed iff e r en c et oth es e l e c t ionc r i t e r i ao fth e HESEand MESEs e a r ch e si s th el a cko fach a r g ecu tinth i sfi l t e rr end e r ingi tsu i t ab l efo rs t a r t ingev en t so fa l len e rg i e s . Th e FSS fi l t e rop e r a t e sintw os t ep s . Inth efi r s ts t ep ,th ein fo rm a t iono f pu l s e s fu lfi l l ingth e" l o c a lc o in c id en c e "c ond i t ion(LC ,s e es e c t ion3 .3 .4 )i su s ed . Th epo s i t ion o fth efi r s to fth e s epu l s e sint im ei su s edtod i s c a rdev en t sth a ta r een t e r ingth ed e t e c to r byd em and in gth a tth i spu l s ei sno td e t e c t edonth eou t e rl ay e ro fs t r ing s( s e eF ig . 5 .8 ) . Add i t i on a l ly ,n on eo fth efiv etop -mo s top t i c a l modu l e sinr egu l a r ,non D e epCo r e , s t r ing si sa l l ow edt oh av ed e t e c t edch a rg einLC . Th i sr equ i r em en tr e j e c t sdown -go ing a tmo sph e r i c mu on s ,bu tc ana l s or e j e c tup -go ingn eu t r inoev en t s . R e j e c t ingn eu t r ino 60 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion ev en t sth a tapp e a rt oc om ef r omth eno r th e rnskyi sa c c ep t ab l e ,a sth efo cu so fth i s an a ly s i sl i e sonth es ou th e rnsky-a ssu ch ,on lydown -go ingev en t sa r eo fin t e r e s t . IC86s t r ings ve to 600 400 y[m ] 200 0 200 400 600 600 400 200 0 x[m ] 200 400 600 F igu re5 .8 :V e t or e g i ono fou t e rl ay e rs t r ing sth a ti su s edinbo ths t ep so fth eFSSfi l t e r . Inth es e c onds t ep ,th el en g thr e con s t ru c t ion d e s c r ib edins e c t ion5 .2 .3i su s edto r e con s t ru c tth es t a r t in gv e r t exo fth eev en t .I fth es t a r t ingv e r t exi sr e con s t ru c t edou t s id e o fth ed e t e c t o ro rinth ev e t or e g i on ,th enth eev en tw i l lb er e j e c t ed . Abou t19 0ev en t sp e rs e c ond p a s sth es e l e c t ion d e s c r ib edsof a r . Th e s eev en t sa r e r e con s t ru c t edu s in gth eSPELLHangu l a rr e con s t ru c t ionw i thtw oi t e r a t ion sd e s c r ib edin s e c t ion5 . 2 . 2andth een e r gyr e c on s t ru c t iond e s c r ib edins e c t ion5 .2 .4 . Mo r esoph i s t i c a t ed r e con s t ru c t i on sa r en o tf e a s ib l ea tth i sl ev e ldu etoth e i rcompu t a t ion a lco s t . 5 .3 .2 . Leve l3 T ofu r th e rr edu c eth enumb e ro fb a ckg roundev en t sth een e rgyandtopo logyo fth e ev en t si su s edt od i s c r im in a t eb a ckg roundf romd a t a . A sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .2 .1th e sp e c t rumo fa tm o sph e r i c mu on si sv e rys t e ep( γ ∼✸ ✳✼ )comp a r edtoana s t rophy s i c a l s ign a l( γ∼✷ ✳ ✵ ) . Thu s ,r e j e c t in gth e s elow en e r gyev en t sp rov id e sas e l e c t ionth a tlo s e s a lmo s tnon eu t r in oev en t sw i then e rg i e sl a rg e rth an10TeVcomp a r edtoth ep r ev iou s s e l e c t ionl ev e l( s e eF i g .5 . 9 ) . Du etoth ef a c tth a tth een e r gye s t im a to rch ang ed b e tw e enIC86 I andIC86 I I+ tw od iff e r en tev en ts e l e c t i on sa r eu s ed . Bo ths e l e c t ion su s eth ee s t im a t eden e rgy ,th e m ax im a ld i s t an c eb e tw e ene a chp a i ro f OM sw i thpu l s e sth a tfu lfi lth eLCcond i t ionand th ein fo rm a t i onwh e th e rth es e c ondou t e rl ay e ro fs t r ing sw a sh i t . Add i t ion a l ly ,inIC86 I 61 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on F igu re5 .9 :Imp a c to fth eL ev e l3cu tfo rth eIC86 I I+s e l e c t ion : Comp a r eda r es imu l a t eda tm o sph e r i c mu onev en t s(g r e encu rv e s )ands imu l a t eddown -go ingand s t a r t in gn eu t r in oev en t s(b rowncu rv e s ) . Th em a jo r i tyo fb a ckg roundev en t s ( l i gh tg r e encu rv e )i sr e con s t ru c t ed w i thlowen e r g i e s . Th econ t r ibu t iono f n eu t r in oev en t sabov e10TeVi sind i c a t edbyth ed a sh edl in e s . Th es ign a l s imu l a t i oni sup s c a l edtoth er a t eo fth ea tmo sph e r i c muons imu l a t ion . th esumm edupch a r g eo fth e OM sonth es t r ing wh i chc a r r i e sth efi r s t OMr epo r t inga pu l s einLCi su s ed . Th ech a r g eandd i s t an c econd i t ion sa r eimp l em en t edtor e j e c tev en t s in wh i chth een e r gye s t im a t o ri sm i s l edbyal a rg ech a rg ed epo s i t ioninas ing l e OMv e ry n e a rtoth er e c on s t ru c t edt r a ck . Th eadd i t ion a ll ay e rtw ocond i t iona l low sfo rev en t s s t a r t ingd e ep e rin s id eth ed e t e c t o r ,thu sl e s sl ik e lytob eana tmo sph e r i c muon ,toh av ea low e rr e c on s t ru c t eden e r gy . Av i su a l i z a t iono fth e s ev a r i ab l e sandth ep a s scond i t ionc an b ef oundinF i g .5 . 1 0 .F o rIC 8 6 Ion eo fth efo l low ingtw ocond i t ion sh a stob efu l lfi l l ed F igu re5 .10 :L ev e l3v a r i ab l e s . Th eg r eyd a sh edl in e sind i c a t eth efi r s tou t e rtw ol ay e r s . fo ranev en tt op a s sth el ev e lth r e es e l e c t ion : eV ) >4and: •log (E reco /G –fi r s t OMno tinl ay e r2o r: ) >1 .5 –l o g (Q f irstLCstr ing /PE •log (E reco /G eV ) >3 . 5andLCd i s t an c e >150 mand: 62 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion –fi r s t OMno tinl ay e r2o r: –l o g ) >1 .5 ✶✵ ( Q f irstLCstr ing /PE F o rIC86 I I+th i si sch an g eddu et oth ech ang eden e rgye s t im a to randon eo fth efo l low ing th r e econd i t i on sh a st ob et ru e : •log eV ) >4 ✶✵ (E reco✶✷ /G •log eV ) >3 . 5andLCd i s t an c e >150m ✶✵ (E reco✶✷ /G •log eV ) >3andfi r s t OMno tinl ay e r2 ✶✵ (E reco✶✷ /G 5 .3 .3 . Fu r the rrecon s t ruc t ionandfina leven tse lec t ion S in c eth enumb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t sw a sd e s c r e a s edbyth eL ev e l3s e l e c t iond e s c r ib ed inth ep r ev i ou ss e c t i on ,m o r es oph i s t i c a t edr e con s t ru c t ion sc anb eu s ed . A tth i ss t ag e , th e MPEl ik e l ih oodw i thsp l in e s( sp l in eMPE ,d i s cu s s edins e c t ion5 .2 )i su s edfo rangu l a r r e con s t ru c t i on .T opo l o gyanden e r gya r er e con s t ru c t edapp ly ingth ea lgo r i thmd e s c r ib ed ins e c t ion5 . 2 . 5u s in gth er e c on s t ru c t edsp l in eMPEt r a ckhypo th e s i s . Th e s er e c on s t ru c t i on sp r ov id ev a r i ab l e sth a tfo l low d iff e r en td i s t r ibu t ion sfo rw e l l r e con s t ru c t edand b ad lyr e c on s t ru c t edev en t s ,o rfo rs ign a l l ik eand b a ckg round l ik e ev en t s . Tw en tyandn in e t e eno fth ev a r i ab l e sav a i l ab l ew e r ein c lud edinth es e l e c t iono f IC86 IandIC 8 6 I I+r e sp e c t iv e ly . Th e s ev a r i ab l e sa r ed e s c r ib edinT ab l e5 .2 . On ev a r i ab l e w a sex c lud edf r omth eIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t iondu etoun s a t i s fy ingd a t atoa tmo sph e r i c muon Mon t eC a r l os imu l a t i ona g r e em en t . Th e co r r e l a t i on c o effi c i en t sb e tw e enth ev a r i ab l e sa r eshown bo thfo rs ign a l ,s e e F ig .5 .11 ,andb a ck g r ound ,s e eF i g .5 .12 . Th es am ep lo t sfo rth eIC86 Is e l e c t ionc an b efoundinapp end ixA .Th e r ei sc o r r e l a t ion-fo rex amp l eb e tw e enen e rgyv a r i ab l e s-a s g l ed iff andth el eng thv a r i ab l e s .an g l e w e l la san t i c o r r e l a t i on sf o rex amp l eb e tw e enan d iff i sth ean g l eb e tw e enfi r s t gu e s sandfin a langu l a rr e con s t ru c t ion . Al a rg ev a lu ec an b ec au s edbysh o r tt r a ck sth a ta r epoo r lyr e con s t ru c t edbyth efi r s tgu e s se s t im a to r . A sth ev a r i ab l e su s edinth i ss e l e c t iona r e no tind ep end en to fe a cho th e r ,th eu s e o f mu l t iv a r i a t em e th od si ssu i t ab l e .F o rth i san a ly s i sBoo s t ed D e c i s ionT r e e s(BDT )a r e u s ed . Th i sm e th odh a sb e enu s edino th e rI c eCub ean a ly s e sb e f o r e[182 ] . H e r e ,th e PyBDT[ 1 8 3 ]t oo li su s ed . BDT sw e r echo s en b e c au s eo fth e i rgood"ou t o fth ebox "p e r f o rm an c eandth eg en e r a ls imp l i c i tyo fth em e thod , wh i ch m ak e sth em bo the a syt ou s eandt ound e r s t and[184 ] . Th ep r in c ip a lid e ab eh indad e c i s iont r e ei s sk e t ch edinF ig .5 . 1 3 . At r a in in gs amp l eo fs ign a landb a ckg roundev en t si sc r e a t ed . On e v a r i ab l ei sth enu s edt osp l i tth es amp l e( roo tnod einF ig .5 .13 )w i thaon e -d im en s ion a l cu t . 63 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on 1 . 0 sepa ra t ion leng th d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss 0 . 8 s ta r tene rg y sp l inend i rdom s 0 . 6 sp l ined i rt ra c kleng th sp l ineco szen i th 0 . 4 p re leng th p reene rg y 0 . 2 leng thtos ta r tcon t 0 . 0 leng thto lea ve leng th −0 . 2 h l cd i s ha l f leng th −0 . 4 ene rg yinde te c to r cogz −0 . 6 cogy cogx −0 . 8 sepa ra t ion leng th s ta r tene rg y d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss sp l inend i rdom s sp l ined i rt ra c k leng th p re leng th sp l ineco szen i th p reene rg y leng thtos ta r tcon t leng th h l cd i s ha l f leng th cogz ene rg y inde te c to r cogy cogx ang led i f f a vgdomd i s tqto tdom ang led i f f leng thto lea ve a vgdomd i s tqto tdom −1 . 0 F igu re5 .11 : BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t ion M a t r ix(S ign a lfo rth eIC86 I I+s e l e c t ion . F o r bo th b a ck g r ound ands i gn a la h i s tog r amfo rth i sv a r i ab l ei sc r e a t ed andfo r e a ch b in bound a ryth es i gn a lb a ckg rounds ep a r a t ioni sev a lu a t edto d e t e rm in eth e m ax im a ls ep a r a t i oninth i sv a r i ab l e . H e r e ,th eG in ic r i t e r ion[185 ]i su s ed wh i chi s d efin eda sg= p·( ✶−p)w i th pb e ingth es ign a lpu r i ty .S ign a lpu r i tyi sd efin eda s ws w i t h w a n dw a ss umo v e rs i g n a la n db a c k g r o u n d w e i g h t so ft h es am p l e s b ws+wb no rm edtoon e–th esumo fbo thd efin e sW. Th em ax im a ls ep a r a t iong a info rth esp l i to f g( p)− WL· g( pL)− WR· g( pR)i scho s en . th es amp l einal e f tandar i gh tsub s amp l e∆S=W· A l lev en t sa r es ep a r a t edinth ech o s env a r i ab l ea c co rd ingtoth i scu tv a lu eandtw o subs amp l e s(n od e s )a r ec r e a t ed . I ti sch e ck ed , wh e th e rth i s nod efu lfi l l sanex i t cond i t ion .Inth i sc a s eth i ss o c a l l edl e a fnod ei sc l a s s ifi eda ss ign a l -o rb a ckg round l ik e , d ep end in gonapu r i tyc r i t e r i onp. Th eex i tcond i t ion w i l lb es a t i sfi edi fth em ax im a l numb e ro fi t e r a t i ons t ep s(d ep tho fth et r e e ,h e r eth r e e )i sr e a ch ed ,i fanod eh a sl e s s th anap r ed efin ednumb e ro fev en t s(h e r e20 )o ri fi ti sapu r es ign a lo rb a ckg roundnod e . I f on lyl e a fn od e sr em a in ,e a ch o fth em w i l lb ec l a s s ifi ed e i th e ra s as ign a l -o r b a ckg round l ik en od e . Th i sd e c i s i ont r e ec anth enb eu s edtoc l a s s i fyev en t s .F o ri t s e l f 64 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion 1 . 0 sepa ra t ion leng th d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss 0 . 8 s ta r tene rg y sp l inend i rdom s 0 . 6 sp l ined i rt ra c kleng th sp l ineco szen i th 0 . 4 p re leng th p reene rg y 0 . 2 leng thtos ta r tcon t 0 . 0 leng thto lea ve leng th −0 . 2 h l cd i s ha l f leng th −0 . 4 ene rg yinde te c to r cogz −0 . 6 cogy cogx −0 . 8 sepa ra t ion leng th s ta r tene rg y d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss sp l inend i rdom s sp l ined i rt ra c k leng th p re leng th sp l ineco szen i th p reene rg y leng thtos ta r tcon t leng th h l cd i s ha l f leng th cogz ene rg y inde te c to r cogy cogx ang led i f f a vgdomd i s tqto tdom ang led i f f leng thto lea ve a vgdomd i s tqto tdom −1 . 0 F igu re5 .12 : BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t ion M a t r ix(B a ckg round )fo rth eIC86 I I+s e l e c t ion . F igu re5 .13 : Sk e t cho faBDT :A te a chnod eth es amp l ei ss ep a r a t edintw ow i thr e sp e c t t oth em ax im a ls ep a r a t iong a inT ak enf rom[184 ] . 65 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on su chad e c i s i ont r e ei sn o tav e ryeffi c i en ts e l e c t iontoo l . How ev e r ,ad ap t iv eboo s t ingc an imp rov eth ep e r f o rm an c e .Inth i sm e thod m i s s c l a s s ifi edev en t sa r eg iv enal a rg e rw e igh t andth ed e c i s i ont r e ei sbu i l ta g a in . Th i si sr ep e a t edov e randov e r( inth i san a ly s i s400 t im e s )w i thth er e su l to fa l lt r e e su l t im a t e lyb e ingcomb in edinas ing l ec l a s s ifi e r . Add i t ion a l ly ,th et r e e sc an b e "p run ed"tos imp l i fyth es e l e c t ion and av o id ov e r t r a in ing . Ov e r t r a in in gw i l lh app eni fac l a s s ifi e rp e r fo rm sw e l lonth esp e c ifi cev en t s u s edfo rt r a in in g , bu tf a i l st oc l a s s i fyco r r e c t lyo th e rd a t ab e c au s ei tu s eds t a t i s t i c a l flu c tu a t ion sinth et r a in in gs amp l efo rs ep a r a t ion . P run inge l im in a t e sl e a fnod e sth a t p rov id en oo ron lysm a l ls ep a r a t i onpow e r . Th e s el e a fnod e sa r eth end e s t roy edandth e i r p a r en tnod ei sc l a s s ifi eda ss i gn a lo rb a ckg roundl e a fnod e .H e r e ,tw op run ingop e r a t ion s a r eapp l i ed .F i r s t ,ev e ryn od eth a th a stw ol e a f sw i thth es am ec l a s s ifi c a t ioni sp run eda s i tdo e sn o tadds ep a r a t i onpow e r . Th en ,fo rev e rynod ei t ss ep a r a t iong a ini sc a l cu l a t ed . Inth es e t t in gu s edinth i san a ly s i sth enod e sw i thth e30✪ sm a l l e s tg a in sa r eth en p run ed . Th ec l a s s ifi e rr e tu rn sav a lu eb e tw e en-1to1 ,w i thl a rg e rv a lu e sb e ing mo r e s ign a l l ik e . Inth i s ev en ts e l e c t i ons i gn a l ev en t sa r et ak enf rom Mon t eC a r los imu l a t ion s ,a s d e s c r ib edins e c t i on3 . 4 .F o rb a ck g roundev en t sr e a ld a t ai su s ed . Th es ign a ls imu l a t ion i sw e igh t edt oanE−✷ sp e c t rumandno rm edtoon e ;th esumo fa l ld a t aev en t si sa l so no rm edt oon e . Wh i l eexp e r im en t a ld a t aa tth i ss e l e c t ionl ev e l mo s tl ik e lycon t a in ssom e a s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in oev en t s ,i ti sdom in a t edbya tmo sph e r i c muon s . In an an a ly s i su s in gs t a r t in gev en t so fa l lfl av o r sto m e a su r eth ed iffu s en eu t r ino flux[186 ]f r ombo tha tm o sph e r i canda s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s ,388ev en t sin641dw e r e d e t e c t ed ,w i thabou t9 0o fth emexp e c t edtob eo fa s t rophy s i c a lo r ig in . Th i sc anb e comp a r edt oabou tab i l l i onev en t sa f t e rL ev e l3cu t sinth i san a ly s i s . H en c e ,i ti sno t exp e c t edf o rth e s eev en t st oh av ea m a jo rimp a c tonanyb a ckg roundd i s t r ibu t iond r awn f romexp e r im en t a ld a t aa tth i sl ev e l . Th eu s eo fexp e r im en t a ld a t am ak e sth ean a ly s i s a l so mo r er obu s ta g a in s tth einflu en c eo funknownsy s t em a t i ceff e c t sa sth eyc anon ly aff e c ts imu l a t eds i gn a lev en t sbu td ono taff e c tth eb a ckg roundev en t s . Wh i l eth i sc r e a t e s ind ep end en c ef r omth equ a l i tyo fth ea tmo sph e r i cs imu l a t ion ,sy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e s s t i l lp l ayac ru c i a lr o l ef o rth eth ein t e rp r e t a t iono fth er e su l t s– wh i chd ep end sonth e s imu l a t edn eu t r in o s . F o rth i s an a ly s i sth ef o cu sl i e s on w e l lr e con s t ru c t ed and down -go ingt r a ck sf rom CC muon -n eu t r in oin t e r a c t i on sth a ts t a r tin s id eth ed e t e c to rbound a r i e s . H en c e ,non s t a r t ingn eu t r in oev en t so rth o s ewhoin t e r a c tov e ran eu t r a l cu r r en to ra r ea r eex c lud ed f romth et r a in in gs e l e c t i on . Add i t ion a l ly , bo th n eu t r in o sa t en e rg i e s abov e 100TeV and n eu t r ino sf rom th e No r th e rnskyc anl e adt oev en t sth a ta r ee a sytos e l e c tbyth e BDTdu etoth esm a l l 66 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion numb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t sf o rth i sen e rgyandz en i thr ang e . How ev e r ,th e s ea r e a l r e adyp a r to fo th e rd ed i c a t edI c eCub es e a r ch e sfo rpo in t l ik en eu t r inoem i s s ionanddo no tr efl e c tth eexp e c t edsp e c t rumandpo s i t ioninth eskyf romg a l a c t i cpo in t l ik esou r c e s , wh i cha r eth ef o cu so fth i sw o rk . H en c e ,s imu l a t eds i gn a l ev en t sth a ta r e up -go ing a r e ex c lud ed a s w e l la s ev en t s w i that ru en eu t r in oen e r gyl o g✶✵( Eν/GeV)> ✹ ✳✺inIC86 I .InIC86 I I+, th i scond i t ion w a ssom ewh a ts o f t en edt oex c lud en eu t r ino sw i thlog✶✵( Eν/GeV)> ✺ .A sal a s ts ign a l p r e s e l e c t i onc r i t e r i onn eu t r in o sw i then e rg i e slog✶✵( Eν/GeV)< ✸a r eex c lud edf rom t r a in ings e l e c t i ont oav o idb ad lyr e con s t ru c t edlowen e rgys ign a lev en t sinflu en c ingth e t r a in ing . Th i sp r e s e l e c t i onr e su l t sinasub s t an t i a lch ang eo fth es ign a ls amp l e ,a sc anb e s e enf o ron eo fth et r a in in gv a r i ab l e s ,th er e con s t ru c t edz en i th ,inF ig .5 .14 . da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 sp l inecoszen i th 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re5 .14 :C o s ( z en i th )v a r i ab l ebo thfo rIC86 I I+ .B e lowth ep lo t sth er a t iob e tw e en d a t aanda tm o sph e r i c muon Mon t eC a r loi sshown . Th eov e r a l lr a t iob e tw e end a t aanda tm o sph e r i c muon Mon t eC a r loi sind i c a t edbyth el igh t r edd a sh edl in e . Th ev a r i ab l e su s edf o r BDTt r a in inga r ep r e s en t edinapp end ix Bandapp end ix C anda r esumm a r i z edint ab l e5 . 2 . In2012 ,th e" l fsp e ed"v a r i ab l ew a sex c lud edf rom t r a in ingdu et ob add a t a/ MCa g r e em en t .A sc anb es e enint ab l e5 .2 ,th i sv a r i ab l eh ad th esm a l l e s ts ep a r a t i onpow e ro fth a tt r a in ing . Th eov e r a l lc l a s s ifi c a t ioni sno tn eg a t iv e ly influ en c edbyi t sex c lu s i onf o rIC 8 6 I I+ . T ab le5 .2 . :V a r i ab l e su s edin BDTt r a in ing . Th er anki sc a l cu l a t edbycoun t inghow o f t eni ti su s edinth efin a lt r e e s( a f t e rp run ing )ando rd e r ingth ev a r i ab l e s f r omo f t enu s edt or a r e lyu s ed . 67 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on V a r i ab l en am eandd e s c r ip t i on R ank R ank ( IC86 I ) ( IC86 I I+ ) sp l ine d i rt rackleng thB a s edonth et r a ckr e con s t ru c - 8 8 t ionu s in gan MPELLH w i thsp l in e sa l lh i t scomp a t ib l e int im ew i them i s s i onf r omth er e con s t ru c t edt r a cka long th eC e r enk ovan g l ew i th ou ts c a t t e r ing(d i r e c t )a r es e l e c t ed . Th em ax im a ld i s t an c ea l on gth et r a ckb e tw e enth e s epo in t s o fhypo th e t i c a lem i s s i ong iv e sth e"d i r e c tt r a ckl eng th" . ang led iffOp en in gan g l eb e tw e enfi r s tgu e s san a ly t i c a lr e - 18 con s t ru c t i onand LLHr e c on s t ru c t ionu s inga MPE LLH w i thsp l in e s . 12 ene rgyinde tec to rSumo fth er e con s t ru c t eden e rgylo s s e s 1 in s id eth ed e t e c t o rv o lum ea sg iv enbyth ea lgo r i thmins e c t ion5 .2 . 5 . 1 leng thtos ta r tcon tD i s t an c eb e tw e env e tol ay e randfi r s t 4 en e rgyl o s s . 4 sp l inend i rdom sNumb e ro f OM sw i th"d i r e c t"h i t s . 3 2 p reene rgy Sumov e rth er e c on s t ru c t eden e rgylo s s e sp r io r 10 toth em ax im a len e r gyl o s s . 5 ha l fleng th Th ed e t e c t edh i t sa r esp l i tint im einth em id - 14 d l eo fth eev en t .F o rbo thh a l f sth e" c en t e ro fg r av i ty"( cog ) , th eav e r a g epo s i t i oninx ,y , zi sc a l cu l a t ed . Th ed i s t an c eb e tw e enbo thc a l cu l a t i on sg iv e sth eh a l fl eng th . 9 cog xA v e r a g epo s i t ion(x c oo rd in a t e )ov e ra l l OM sw i th 9 d e t e c t edch a r g e . 15 cog yA v e r a g epo s i t ion(y c oo rd in a t e )ov e ra l l OM sw i th 13 d e t e c t edch a r g e . 17 cogzA v e r a g epo s i t i on( z c oo rd in a t e )ov e ra l l OM sw i th 15 d e t e c t edch a r g e . 16 h lcd i sM ax im a ld i s t an c eb e tw e entw o OM sw i thh i t sfu l fi l l ingth eLCc ond i t on ,s e ea l s oF ig .5 .10 . 7 68 5 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion sepa ra t ionleng thS im i l a rt oh a l fl eng thbu tw i thth ecog 11 d iff e r en c eb e tw e enfi r s tandl a s tqu a r t i l e .H e r e ,v a lu e sc an b epo s i t iv eandn e g a t iv e ,a l s op r ov id ings ep a r a t ionpow e r b e tw e enup g o in gandd own g o in gev en t s . 10 p releng thD i s t an c eb e tw e enfi r s tr e con s t ru c t eden e rgylo s s 6 and m ax im a len e r gyl o s s . 11 d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne s sD e s c r ib e sth eh i tp a t t e rna long 19 th et r a ck .I ty i e ld s0f o rat r a ckw i thanun i fo rmh i tp a t t e rn andv a lu e sapp r o a ch in g1 / 1f o rt r a ck sw i tha m a jo r i tyo f h i t sa tth eb e g inn in g / endo fth et r a ck . 13 s ta r tene rgyF i r s tr e c on s t ru c t eden e rgylo s s . 18 19 leng thR e c on s t ru c t edl en g tho fth eev en t .D efin edbyth e 17 d i s t an c eb e tw e enth efi r s tandl a s tr e con s t ru c t eden e rgylo s s a longth et r a ck . 12 sp l ineco szen i thC o s in eo fth er e con s t ru c t edz en i thang l e 3 u s ingan MPEsp l in eLLH . 2 l fspeedR e c on s t ru c t edv e l o c i tyo fth et r a cku s ingth efi r s t 20 gu e s san a ly t i c a lr e c on s t ru c t i onp r e s en t edins e c t ion5 .2 .2 . – leng thtoleav eD i s t an c eb e tw e enl a s tr e con s t ru c t eden e rgy 16 lo s sandp r o j e c t edex i tpo in to fth einn e rd e t e c to rv o lum e . 6 avg dom d i s tqto t domA v e r ag ed i s t an c eb e tw e enth e 7 OM sd e t e c t ingh i t sandth e OM w i thth el a rg e s td e t e c t ed ch a rg e . 14 Th er e su l to fth et r a in in gi ssh ownin F ig . 5 .15 . Th eop t im a lv a lu efo rth efin a l ev en ts e l e c t i oni sf oundbyop t im i z ingth ecu tint e rm so fs en s i t iv i ty .S en s i t iv i tyw i l lb e exp l a in edind e t a i lins e c t i on6 . 1bu tsumm a r i z edb r i efly ,i ti sa m e a su r ef o rth elow e s t po s s ib l efluxd e t e c t ab l ew i thth i san a ly s i s .A sd i s cu s s edabov eth i san a ly s i si st a rg e t eda t 0 0TeV. muonn eu t r in o sw i th Eν <1 In F ig . 5 . 1 6th es en s i t iv i tyf o rth i ss c en a r ioand d iff e r en tcu tv a lu e sfo rth e BDT a r eshown .Inadd i t i ont oth ecu tonth e BDTv a lu eev en t sind a t aands ign a l Mon t e 69 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 BdTsco re 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 F igu re5 .15 : BDTs c o r ed i s t r ibu t i onfo rIC86 I I+ . B e lowth ep lo tth er a t iob e tw e en d a t aanda tm o sph e r i c muon Mon t eC a r loi sshown . Th eov e r a l lr a t iob e tw e end a t aanda tm o sph e r i c muon Mon t eC a r loi sind i c a t edbyth el igh t r edd a sh edl in e . −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] C a r loh adt ofu lfi ls om et r a ckqu a l i typ a r am e t e r s ,b er e con s t ru c t eda sdown -go ingand h av ear e c on s t ru c t eden e r gyinth ed e t e c to rl a rg e rth an1TeV. Th i sy i e ld edaBDTcu t v a lu eo f0 . 1 5f o rIC 8 6 Iand0 . 2 8f o rIC86 I I+ . 9 10 −2 E 100TeVha rdcu to f f bd t >0 .3 bd t >0 .31 bd t >0 .32 bd t >0 .33 bd t >0 .27 bd t >0 .26 bd t >0 .25 bd t >0 .29 bd t >0 .28 10 10 1 .0 0 .8 0 .6 s in (δ ) 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 F igu re5 .16 :P e r f o rm an c eint e rm so fs en s i t iv i tyfo rd iff e r en tBDTcu tv a lu e sfo rIC86 I I+ . BDTqua l i t yche ck s Th eu s a g eo f mu l t iv a r i a t em e thod s ,l ik eth eBDTu s edh e r e ,com e s w i thth er i sko fov e r t r a in in g ,a sm en t ion edabov e .T oe s t im a t eth i sr i skth eu s eds amp l e c anb esp l i tw i thon ep a r tu s edf o rt r a in ingandth eo th e rp a r tb e ingu s eda st e s ts amp l e . A f t e rth e BDTi st r a in edbo tht e s tandt r a in ings amp l eev en t sa r ec l a s s ifi ed . Th i si s showninF i g .5 . 1 7f o rIC 8 6 I I+andinapp end ixAfo rIC86 I . 70 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion 6 10 5 Even ts 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 0 10 1 .0 da ta tes tda ta 0 .8 s igna l tes ts igna l 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 BDTsco re 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 F igu re5 .17 :C omp a r i s onb e tw e ent r a in ingandt e s ts amp l efo rs ign a landd a t afo rIC86 I I+ . Th eh i s t o g r am sfo rs ign a landt e s ts ign a la r es c a l eduptofi tth e numb e ro fev en t sind a t a . T o comp a r eth e s es amp l e sa K o l gomo rov Sm i rnov(KS )t e s t[187 ]i su s ed . F o r IC86 I I+bo thd a t a(b a ck g r ound )ands ign a lt r a in ingandt e s ts ign a la g r e er e a son ab ly w e l l(KSpdata =0 . 9 5and KSpsignal =0 .64 ) .F o rIC86 I(KSpdata =0 .69and KS . 0 5 )s i gn a lh a sapoo rp e r fo rm an c einth eKSt e s t . How ev e r ,th ed i s ag r e em en t psignal =0 o r ig in sm a in lya tl ow BDTs c o r e s wh e r eth er e l a t iv eabund an c ecomp a r edtoth eto t a l s ign a ld i s t r ibu t i oni ssm a l l( s e eF i g .A .1 ) .H en c e ,ev eni fth ec l a s s ifi e rdo e sno tp e r fo rm a sw e l lont e s ts i gn a la sont r a in in gs ign a li t ,w i l ls t i l lp rov id egoods ep a r a t ionpow e r . P rope r t ie so fthe fina leven tse le c t ion Th es e l e c t ion su s edinIC86 IandIC86 I I+ p e r fo rms im i l a rint e rm so fs en s i t iv i ty . How ev e r ,th eya l sod iff e rinanumb e ro fpo in t s l ik eth enumb e ro fev en t s ,th eeff e c t iv ea r e aandth eangu l a rr e so lu t ioninth es amp l e . Th e fin a ls amp l eo fIC 8 6 I( 3 3 7d ay sl iv e t im e )con t a in s15043ev en t s , wh e r e a sth e fo l low ingth r e ey e a r so fIC 8 6 I I+(1031d ay sl iv e t im e )y i e ld7005ev en t s .Inbo thc a s e s th ev a s tm a j o r i tyo fth e s eev en t sa r ea tmo sph e r i c muon s . Th eeff e c t iv ea r e ai scomp a r ab l e b e tw e enbo ths e l e c t i on s ,bu tth eIC 86 Iev en ts e l e c t ionp rov id e sab e t t e rm ed i anangu l a r r e so lu t ion ,s e eF i g .5 . 1 8 . Th eeff e c t iv ea r e ai sz en i th d ep end en t ,s e eF ig . 5 .19 . H en c e ,th e numb e ro fn eu t r inoev en t sexp e c t edt oin t e r a c tw i th inI c eCub ev a r i e s . Th i sd ep end en c ei ss t rong e s t a tlow e s ten e r g i e s . A ten e r g i e sabov e30TeVth eeff e c t iv ea r e ai s( a lmo s t )z en i thang l e ind ep end en t . Th eeff e c t iv ea r e ab e low30TeVi sl a rg e s tfo rth e mo s tv e r t i c a lang l e s . Apo s s ib l eexp l an a t i on w ou ldb eth a tv e r t i c a lb a ckg roundev en t sa r ee a s i e rtor e j e c t– l e ad ingt oh i gh e rBDTs c o r e sf o rs i gn a lev en t sf romth i sr eg ioninth eskyonav e r ag e . Th eeff e c t iv ea r e a sc an b eu s edtoc a l cu l a t eth e numb e ro fexp e c t edev en t sf rom bo tha tm o sph e r i canda s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s( s e eF ig . 5 . 20 ) . F o rth ea tmo sph e r i c n eu t r ino sth em od e lw i ths e l f -v e t op rob ab i l i tyd i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 .3 .2and[160 ,161 ] 71 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on 2 10 1 2 Aeff[m ] 10 0 10 1 10 2 ANTARES−4 5◦ >δ> −9 0◦ ◦ −6 0◦ IC86PS −3 0 >δ> 10 3 10 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 log Eν / GeV ) 10( 5 .0 STeVE110◦ >δ> −9 0◦ ◦ −9 0◦ STeVE120 >δ> 5 .5 6 .0 5 IC86 I IC86 I I+ Ψ [° ] 4 3 2 1 0 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 l og10 (E / GeV) ν 5 .0 5 .5 6 .0 F igu re 5 .18 :T op :Eff e c t iv ea r e af o rIC86 IandIC86 I I+comp a r edtoth eth rough -go ing mu onan a ly s e so fI c eCub e[149 ]and ANTARES[162 ] . Bo t tom : M ed i an an gu l a rr e s o lu t i onf o rIC86 IandIC86 I I+ . 2 10 1 2 Aeff[m ] 10 STeVEIC86 I 0 10 1 10 6 0◦ < θ < 9 0◦ 3 0◦ < θ < 6 0◦ 2 10 3 10 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 log Eν / GeV ) 10( 5 .0 0◦ < θ < 3 0◦ 5 .5 6 .0 F igu re 5 .19 :Eff e c t iv ea r e afo rIC86 Ifo rth r e ed iff e r en tz en i thb and s . i su s ed .F o rth ea s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r inofluxth ecomb in edb e s t -fi tf rom[92 ]i su s ed .In bo ths e l e c t i on sth enumb e ro fexp e c t edn eu t r ino si ssm a l lcomp a r edtoth enumb e ro f d a t aev en t s(wh i cha r eexp e c t edt ob e mo s t lya tmo sph e r i c muon s ) . A l sov i s ib l ei sth e s ign ifi c an tl a r g e rnumb e ro fd a t aev en t sa tlow e ren e rg i e sinIC86 I . A sd i s cu s s edins e c t i on5 . 2 . 2 ,th eangu l a re r ro re s t im a to rh a sto b eco r r e c t eds in c e i tov e r e s t im a t e sth er e s o lu t i ona th ighen e rg i e s . Th i si sa ch i ev edbyp lo t t ingth er a t io (pu l l )o fr e c on s t ru c t edd i r e c t i onov e r Mon t eC a r lot ru en eu t r inod i r e c t ionv e r su sth e 72 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion 6 10 5 10 4 IC86 I I+a tm .ν ve toed ) µ( IC86 Ia tm .ν ve toed ) µ( IC86 I I+bes tf i tas t ro IC86 I I+da ta IC86 Ibes tf i tas t ro IC86 Ida ta 10 #Even ts 3 10 2 10 1 10 0 10 1 10 2 .5 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 2 .5 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 l o g Ereco/G eV) 1 0( l o g ( Ereco/G eV ) 1 0 F igu re5 .20 : Exp e c t ednumb e ro fa tmo sph e r i canda s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino sfo rIC86 Iand IC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t i on ,d ep end en tonr e con s t ru c t eden e r gy ,fo rth efin a lev en t s e l e c t i on .A l s osh owni sth ed i s t r ibu t iono fth ed a t aev en t s . d epo s i t edt o t a lch a r g ein s id eth ed e t e c to rQtot andp a r am e t r i z ingth eov e r e s t im a t ionby ey e( s e eF i g .5 . 2 1 ) . 10 10 2 10 3 4 1 5 10 2 3 4 5 o g Q t o t/PE) l 1 0( 6 7 Pu l l 3 1 med ian 4 2 10 2 Eν (a .u . ) Pu l l 4 0 5 1 med ian co r rec t ionfunc t ion 2 10 3 3 10 2 4 10 1 0 10 2 Eν (a .u . ) 5 5 10 2 3 4 5 o g ( Q t o t /PE) l 10 6 7 F igu re 5 .21 :Tw od im en s i on a lh i s tog r amo fth ed iff e r en c eb e tw e ene s t im a t edangu l a r e r r o randt ru ee r r o rb e tw e enr e con s t ru c t ionands imu l a t edn eu t r inointh e d ep end en c eo fl o g a r i thmo fth ech a rg ed epo s i t edinth ed e t e c to r .L e f t :Pu l l un c o r r e c t edR i gh t : Pu l lco r r e c t ed . Bo thfo rIC 8 6 I andIC 8 6 I I+ acompo s i t efun c t ion o f as t e adyr a t io a a tsm a l l ch a rg e( l e s sth an1 00 0PEf o rIC 86 Iandl e s sth an100PEfo rIC86 I )andas lop e th a+b·log✶✵(Qtdot/PE)−c a i gh e rch a rg e sd e s c r ib e sth ech a rg ed ep end en tov e r e s t im a t ion w e l landi su s edt oc o r r e c tf o ri t( s e eF ig .5 .21 ) . Th ep a r am e t e rv a lu e su s edinIC86 I andIC86 I I+a r esh owninT ab l e5 . 3 . 73 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on T ab le5 .3 . :P a r am e t r i z a t i onp a r am e t e r sfo rangu l a re r ro re s t im a to rco r r e c t ion Ev en ts e l e c t ion a b c d IC 8 6 I 1 .1 1 .9 3 4 IC 8 6 I I+ 1 .1 1 .9 2 5 −3 1 0 4 −4 1 0 3 2 2 −5 1 0 IC86 I 3 4 5 og10(E eV ) l ν/G 6 −6 1 0 −1 1 0 6 −2 1 0 5 a .u .E−2 −2 1 0 5 log eV ) 1 0(E r e c o/G −1 1 0 6 a .u .E−2 log eV ) 1 0(E r e c o/G Th een e r gy o fanev en tw i l lb eu s eda sat e rminth el ik e l ihood -b a s eds e a r chfo r po in t l ik en eu t r in oem i s s i oninth ef o l low ingch ap t e r .InF ig .5 .22n eu t r inoen e r gyand r e con s t ru c t eden e r gyin s id eth ed e t e c to r(u s ingth er e con s t ru c t ionf roms e c t ion5 .2 .5 ) a r ecomp a r ed .F o rbo thy e a r sth e r ei sac l e a rco r r e l a t ionb e tw e enn eu t r inoen e rgyand r e con s t ru c t eden e r gy . Add i t ion a l ly ,th eeff e c to fth ed iff e r en t Mon t eC a r lou s edinIC86 I andIC86 I I+c anb es e en .F o rIC 86 I ,n eu t r inoev en t sa r eg en e r a t edfo l low inganE−✶ sp e c t rum ,p r ov id in gg oods t a t i s t i c sev ena tth eh igh e s ten e rg i e s .F o rIC86 I I+ad a t as e t −✷ e c t rumi su s ed . Th i sl e ad stoal a ck w i thn eu t r in oev en t sg en e r a t edt of o l lowan E sp ten e rg i e sb e low10TeVth en eu t r inoen e rgyi s o fs t a t i s t i c sa ten e r g i e sabov e1PeV. A ov e r e s t im a t edf o rasm a l lf r a c t i ono fev en t sinIC86 I I+ . Ap rob ab l eexp l an a t ioni sth e l a rg e rs t a t i s t i cf o rth eE−✷ d a t a s e ta tth e s een e rg i e sa sas im i l a reff e c tc anb es e enfo r h ighen e r gyn eu t r in o sinth eIC 8 6 I Mon t eC a r loth a ta r eund e r e s t im a t ed . −3 1 0 4 −4 1 0 3 2 2 −5 1 0 IC86 I I+ 3 4 5 og10(E eV ) l ν/G 6 −6 1 0 F igu re 5 .22 :N eu t r in oen e r gyv e r su sr e con s t ru c t eden e rgyinth ed e t e c to rfo rIC86 I( l e f t ) andIC 8 6 I I+( r i gh t )a tfin a ls e l e c t ionl ev e l . Th een e rgyd ep end en td iff e r en c eins t a t i s t i c sf o rbo ths amp l e si sv i s ib l e . 5 .3 .4 . Even t sinST eVEtha tappea rin HESE , MESEo rLESE W i thfou rs e a r ch e sd ed i c a t edt od e t e c ts t a r t ingev en t ssom eov e r l api stob eexp e c t ed . F i r s t ,th eov e r l apb e tw e enST eVEandth e HESEs amp l ei sinv e s t ig a t ed .H e r eth efou r y e a r HESEs amp l e[ 1 8 8 ] ,t ak enb e tw e en2010and2014 ,con s i s t ingo f54ev en t si su s ed . Inth ep e r i odp r i o rt oM ay2 0 1 1th eFSSw a sno timp l em en t edandth eST eVEan a ly s i s eVE s amp l e . h a snod a t a . F r omth er em a in in g45ev en t stw oa l soapp e a rinth eST Bo thev en t s(HESEev en t1 9and5 1ino rd e ro ft im e )a r ec l a s s ifi eda sshow e r l ik e . Bo th 74 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion in t e r a c tinth el ow e rp a r to fth ed e t e c to randa r etosom ed eg r e eex t end ed . Th e i rr e c on s t ru c t eden e r gyinth e HESEan a ly s i si s( 71±7 )TeV and( 66±6 )TeV. eVEr e con s t ru c t iong iv ing68TeVand Th i sc anb ec omp a r edt oth ev a lu e sf romth e ST 56TeV. Th eg ooden e r gyr e c on s t ru c t ioncon s id e r ingth ew rongt r a ckhypo th e s i sshow s th es t r en g tho fth eu s edt opo l o gyanden e rgyr e con s t ru c t ion .I tc anr e con s t ru c tth e in i t i a len e r gyl o s sw e l l-ind ep end en ti fi ti sfo l low edupbya muont r a ck .Int e rm so f eVEr e con s t ru c t ionshows t rongd ev i a t ion s r e con s t ru c t edd i r e c t i onth er e su l t so fth eST f romth eHESEr e su l t s .G iv enth ew rongev en thypo th e s i so fat r a ckin s t e ado fac a s c ad e th i si snosu rp r i s e . Th e qu e s t i on a r i s e s why n ot r a ck l ik eev en td e t e c t edin HESE b e tw e en 2011 and 2013app e a rinth eST eVE s amp l e . O fa l l45ev en t sinth e s eth r e ey e a r se l ev ena r e c l a s s ifi eda st r a ck l ik eandint o t a l22p a s sth eFSSfi l t e r . O fth e s e22ev en t sfou ra r e c l a s s ifi eda st r a ck l ik e . On eo fth e s efou rev en t si sdown -go ing . Th i si sth eon lyev en t th a tcou ldp a s sth eBDTs e l e c t i on . Anev a lu a t iono fth eBDTs co r efo rth i sev en tshow sa v a lu eo f0 . 0 8–s l i gh t lyb e l owth ech o s enop t im a lcu tv a lu eo f0 .15 .A sfo rth es ev ent r a ck s th a tdon o tp a s sth eFSSc ond i t i oni ti sin t e r e s t ingth a ts ixo fth ema r er e con s t ru c t eda s down -go in g . H en c e ,i ts e em sch a l l eng ingfo rdown -go ing HESEt r a ck stoev enp a s sth e fi r s ts e l e c t i ons t epo fth eLESEandST eVEan a ly s i s . Th e MESEev en ts amp l ec on s i s t so f546 Ev en t s . 167 Ev en t sw e r et ak enb e fo r eth e imp l em en t a t i ono fth eFSSfi l t e r .O fth er em a in ing379ev en t s85p a s sth eFSSfi l t e r .In to t a l48 MESEev en t s( 2 3inIC 8 6 Iand25inIC86 I I+ )p a s sth el ev e lth r e econd i t ion o fST eVEanda r es c o r ed w i thav a lu el a rg e rth anz e robyth eco r r e spond ing BDTfo r eVE ev en ts e l e c t ion( fou r IC86 Io rIC 8 6 I I+ . O fth e s eev en t ss ev enp a s sth efin a lST inIC86 Iand3inIC 8 6 I I+ ) . Th ed i s t r ibu t iono fth e s eev en t si sv i su a l i z edinF igu r e5 .23 . # MESEEven ts 5 IC86 Icu t(0 .15 ) IC86 I Icu t(0 .28 ) 4 MESEIC86 I MESEIC86 I I 3 2 1 0 0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 BDTsco re 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 F igu re5 .23 : BDTs c o r e so f MESEev en t sands e l e c t ioncu t sfo rfin a lev en ts e l e c t iono f IC 8 6 IandIC 8 6 I I . Th es i z eo fth eov e r l ap m i gh td iff e rins ign a ls imu l a t ion . I fi tw a scomp a r ab l eto 75 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on th eb a ckg r oundov e r l ap ,th es amp l e sw ou ldb ea lmo s td i s jo in t–in c r e a s ingth eg a ino fa jo in tan a ly s i s . A sfo rth eo th e rs t a r t in gev en ts e a r ch e sth eov e r l ap b e tw e en LESEand ST eVE i s sm a l l . 86ev en t sapp e a rinbo ths amp l e sl e ad ingtoanov e r l apo frough ly1✪.Into t a l 330ev en t so fth eLESEev en ts amp l ep a s sth eL ev e l3cond i t iono fST eVEanda r es co r ed w i thav a lu el a r g e rth anz e r obyIC 8 6 IBDT .Th eBDTs co r ed i s t r ibu t iono fth e s eev en t s i sshowninF i g .5 . 2 4 . 25 #LESEEven ts IC86 Icu t(0 .15 ) LESEIC86 I 20 15 10 5 0 0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 BDTsco re 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 F igu re5 .24 : BDTs c o r e so fLESEev en t sands e l e c t ioncu t sfo rfin a lev en ts e l e c t iono f IC 8 6 I . In g en e r a lth e s er e su l t sw e r eexp e c t ed . MESE , LESE andST eVE a r ea l l dom i n a t edbya tm o sph e r i c muon s . Du etoth e i rv a s tnumb e r( abou t100b i l l iond e t e c t ede a ch y e a r )andth ef o cu sond iff e r en ten e rgyr ang e si ts e em sr e a son ab l etoa rgu eth a tal a rg e numb e ro fth emsh owat opo l o gys im i l a rtos t a r t ingev en t s . Th es e a r ch e sth end r aw ev en t sf romth i sv a s tpoo l ,e a chh av ingad iff e r en tfo cu s . Th i sl e ad stoth esm a l lov e r l ap . F o ra l lth r e eo th e rs t a r t in gs amp l e s(HESE , MESEandLESE )add i t ion a lev en t sa r ec lo s e toth eop t im a lBDTs c o r ecu ts e l e c t edinST eVE.Th i sc anb es e ena sc ro s s -v a l id a t iono f th efou rs amp l e su s edt oid en t i fyev en t sw i thas t a r t ing l ik etopo logy . 5 .3 .5 . Da taqua l i t y Th eI c eCub ed e t e c t o rc anb eop e r a t edind iff e r en t mod e so fd a t at ak ing . Th e mo s tt r iv i a l mod ei soff . Th i sc anh app eninc a s eo fm a in t en an c etoso lv et e chn i c a lp rob l em s . Th e d e t e c to rc anb ec a l ib r a t edu s in gem i s s iono fLED sonth e OM s . Du etoth i sadd i t ion a l l igh tsou r c eth e s ep e r i od so fd a t at ak inga r eno tu s ed . D a t at ak enov e rs ev e r a lhou r s ( typ i c a le i gh th ou r s )i sc omb in edinarun . Som e t im e sp a r t so fth ed e t e c to rs topd a t a t ak ingdu et oh a rdw a r ep r ob l em s . Wh i l eth e s ep rob l em sp e r s i s t ,th ed e t e c to ri sop e r a t ed ex c lud ingth en on -w o rk in gop t i c a l modu l e sandd a t ai ss av edinn ewrun s . Th e s ec a s e sa r epo t en t i a l lyh a rm fu lfo rth ean a ly s i sp r e s en t edh e r es in c ei td ep end sonth e ou t e rl ay e ro fth ed e t e c t o rb e in gc ap ab l etod e t e c tt r a ck sen t e r ingth ed e t e c to rv o lum e . 76 5 .3 . Ev en ts e l e c t ion On es imp l eex amp l e : Th ed e t e c t o ri ssp l i tinh a l f . On eh a l fi sop e r a t ion a l wh i l eth eo th e r on ei soff . F o rth efi l t e randth er e con s t ru c t ionev en t sa r r iv ingf romth eoffd i r e c t ion app e a rtos t a r tin s id eth ev o lum e ,s e eF ig5 .25 . F igu re5 .25 : Imp a c to fa p a r t i a ld e t e c to rconfigu r a t ion .I fp a r t so fth ed e t e c to ra r e d i s ab l ed( g r ey OM s ) ,i tc anb ev e rych a l l eng ingtod i s t ingu i sha tmo sph e r i c mu on sf r oms t a r t in gt r a ck s . T o av o idsu ch as c en a r i o andth eco r r e spond ingin c r e a s ein b a ckg roundev en t s ,a l l run sth a ta r et ak endu r in gp e r i od sinwh i ch50o r mo r eop t i c a l modu l e sinth ev e tor eg ion a r ed e a c t iv a t eda r eex c lud ed .A ssh owninF ig .5 .26th i scu te l im in a t e sth ev a s tm a jo r i ty o frun sw i thana typ i c a lr a t ev a r i a t ion . Th er em a in ing modu l a t ioni sdu etoth eannu a l a tmo sph e r i cch an g e sl e ad in gt oav a r i a t ioninth eov e r a l l muonflux . 42 OM sinth ev e t or e g i on a r e ou to fs e rv i c ep e rm an en t ly . Wh i l ep a r t i a ld e t e c to r op e r a t ionsh ou ldon lyin c r e a s eth e numb e ro fd e t e c t edev en t sf roma b ro adr eg ionin mo s to fth ec a s e s ,as c en a r i oc anb econ s t ru c t edin wh i chon lyaf ew OM sonon ev e to l ay e rs t r in ga r ed e a c t iv a t ed . Mu on scou ldth ena r r iv ep r im a r i lyf romth i sd i r e c t ion .I fa rundu r in gsu chap a r t i a ld e t e c t o rop e r a t ionl a s t sfo rs ev e r a lhou r s ,th ero t a t iono fth e E a r thshou ldsm e a rou tth i seff e c t . How ev e r ,fo rv e rysho r tp e r iod so fp a r t i a ld e t e c to r configu r a t i oni tm i gh tb ep r ob l em a t i cs in c eth esm e a r ing m igh tno to c cu r .S in c esho r t run sa r etyp i c a l lyr e l a t edt os om ep rob l em sdu r ingd a t at ak ing ,a l lrun sth a tl a s tfo r l e s sth anth i r ty m inu t e sa r eex c lud ed . Wh i l eth e s em e a su r e sav o idpo t en t i a lh a rm ,th e l iv e t im eo fth es amp l ea f t e rth e s ecu t si sa lmo s tid en t i c a ltoth eto t a ll iv e t im e( s e eF ig . 5 .27 ) . 77 5 . Ev en ts e l e c t i onandr e c on s t ru c t i on 300 F i l te rra te[#/s ] 280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 goodruns Nov2011 fa i led(sho r t ) May2012 Nov2012 fa i led(pa r t ia l ) May2013 fa i led(exc luded ) Nov2013 May2014 Nov2014 May2015 F igu re5 .26 :R a t eo fth eFSSF i l t e r .V e r t i c a ll in e sind i c a t eth eb eg inn ingo fan ewy e a ro f d a t a t ak in g . Run sa r ec l a s s ifi edinfou rc a t ego r i e s . Run sdu r ingwh i chth e d e t e c t o rw a sc a l ib r a t edo rop e r a t edinaf au l tys t a t ea r em a rk eda sex c lud ed . P a r t i a lrun s(m o r eth an50OM sinv e tor eg iond e a c t iv a t ed )a r erun sdu r ing wh i chth ed e t e c t o rw a sop e r a t edw i thasub s e to fOM sbu to th e rw i s ew o rk ed a sin t end ed . Sh o r trun sa r erun sth a ttookl e s sth an30 m inu t e s . Good run sa r ea l lr em a in in grun s . Th ein c r e a s ednumb e ro fp a r t i a lrun sinw in t e r m on th s(N o r th e rnh em i sph e r ew in t e r , An t a r c t i csumm e rf rom Nov emb e r t oF eb ru a ry )c anb eexp l a in edbyin c r e a s ed m a in t en an c eandc a l ib r a t iono f th ed e t e c t o rinth i st im e . Th efi l t e rr a t ec a l cu l a t ionshownh e r ei sno tv e ry p r e c i s ef o rrun sw i thv e rysm a l lrunt im e-l e ad ingtoou t l i e r sth a ta r eno t p a r t i a l .F o rs om eg oodrun sth eshownr a t ei sun exp e c t ed lylow . Th i sh a s b e enid en t ifi eda sf au l tyen t r i e sinth eu s ed mon i to r ingd a t ab a s eandno tin th ed a t a . F igu re 5 .27 :Cumu l a t iv el iv e t im eo fth eIC86 Is e l e c t ionno rm a l i z edtoon efo rbo thth e p a r t i a l( l e f t )andsh o r t( r igh t )runex c lu s ion . 78 6 . Po in t l ik esou rceana ly s i sandre su l t s Th i sch ap t e rd i s cu s s e sh owt os e a r chfo ran eu t r inopo in t l ik esou r c einth ed a t ap rov id ed byth eev en ts e l e c t ionp r e s en t edinth ep r ev iou sch ap t e r .F i r s t ,th es t a t i s t i c a lm e thod u s ed ,th eunb inn ed m ax imuml ik e l ihood m e thod ,i sexp l a in edbo thing en e r a landfo rth e I c eCub e sp e c ifi cimp l em en t a t i on . Th i si sfo l low edbyad i s cu s s iononhowtot r an s l a t e th e s er e su l t sin t oanexp r e s s i ono fp rob ab i l i tyfo rapo in t l ik eem i s s iono fn eu t r ino sf rom ac e r t a inpo in tinth esky . Th i san a ly s i si sapp l i edbo thfo ral i s to fin t e r e s t ingob j e c t s , d i s cu s s edins e c t i on6 . 4 ,andinanunb i a s eds e a r cho fth een t i r esou th e rnh em i sph e r e , d i s cu s s edins e c t i on6 . 5 . 6 .1 . Theunb innedl ik e l ihood me thod Th es imp l eapp r o a cht os e a r chf o rapo in t l ik eem i s s ioni stod efin eas e a r chb ina round aninv e s t i g a t edpo in tinth esky ,c oun tth eev en t sini tandcomp a r eth i snumb e rw i th th eexp e c t ednumb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t s . How ev e r ,i th a sb e enshownin[189 ]th a t th enumb e ro fev en t sr equ i r edf o rad e t e c t ionc anb ed e c r e a s edbyu s ingth eunb inn ed 1. T l ik e l ihoodapp r o a ch wh i chin c lud e sen e rgyin fo rm a t iona sd e s c r ib edn ex t h eb inn ed app ro a chc anb eimp r ov edbyc a l cu l a t ingth ep rob ab i l i tyd en s i tySi too r ig inf romth e inv e s t ig a t eds ou r c eandth ep r ob ab i l i tyd en s i tyBi tob eab a ckg roundev en tfo re a ch ev en t . Bo thp r ob ab i l i tyd en s i t i e sa r ecompo s edo fasp a c i a landanen e rgyt e rm : Si=Si( | xi−xs| ✱ σi)Ei( Ei✱ δi✱ γi) (6 .1 ) Bi=Bi( δ)Ei( Ei✱ δi) (6 .2 ) s edinth i san a ly s i st ak e sin toa c coun tth e Th esp a c i a lt e rmo fth es i gn a l PDF Si u d i s t an c eb e tw e enth er e con s t ru c t edpo s i t ioninth eskyo fth eev en txith epo s i t iono fth e inv e s t ig a t eds ou r c exs a sw e l la sth ee s t im a t ede r ro ro fth eangu l a rr e con s t ru c t ionσ: ✶ − Si( | xi−xs| ✱ σi)= ✷e ✷ πσi ✷ | xi−xs| ✷σ✷ i ✳ (6 .3 ) Du etoi t spo s i t i ona tth eS ou thpo l eth ero t a t ion a lax i so fth ed e t e c to rcoo rd in a t esy s t em andth eequ a t o r i a lc oo rd in a t esy s t ema r ea l ign ed .H en c e ,th ea c c ep t an c eo fth ed e t e c to r 1 Inth eexamp l eg iv enin[189 ]th er equ i r edfluxfo rad i s cov e ry w i l ld e c r ea s eby10 %anduptoabou t 50 %i fanadd i t iona len e rgyPDFi su s ed . 79 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s av e r a g edov e ral on gd a t at ak in gp e r iodl ik eay e a ri sind ep end en to fr igh ta s c en s ionand on lyd ep end en tonth ed e c l in a t i onδo fth esou r c e . Th enumb e ro fexp e c t edb a ckg round ev en t sn e a rth einv e s t i g a t edsou r c ec anb ee s t im a t edbyav e r ag ingov e rth enumb e ro f ev en t sinad e c l in a t i onb and .Inth i san a ly s i s40b and sins in ( δ)a r eu s edinth esou th e rn sky . Th ea c c ep t an c eo fth ed e t e c to ri sd ep end en tbo thonen e rgyandd e c l in a t ion ,a s shownfo rth eeff e c t iv ea r e a sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion5 .3 .3andF ig .5 .19 . Thu s ,atw od im en s i on a l PDFi su s ede s t im a t ingbo then e rgyandz en i thfo rs ign a l andb a ckg r ound .F o rs i gn a lth i sPDFd ep end sadd i t ion a l lyonth ea s sum edsp e c t r a lind ex o fth es ign a lγ. Th ePDF sa r eg en e r a t edbyc r e a t ingtw o -d im en s ion a lh i s tog r am sinun i t s o fs inu so fd e c l in a t i onandl o g✶✵ o fth er e con s t ru c t eden e rgyandin t e rpo l a t ingb e tw e en th eh i s to g r amv a lu e su s in gasp l in efun c t ion . Th ePDF sfo rs ign a landb a ckg rounda r e ( ns) : th encomb in edinas in g l ePDFf ns ns f ns)= Si+ ✶− Bi✳ i( N N (6 .4 ) sth enumb e ro fev en t sinth es amp l eandth es ign a ls t r eng thi sexp r e s s edinns, H e r e ,N i af r e ep a r am e t e r .ns i sc o r r e l a t ed ,bu tno tequ iv a l en ttoth enumb e ro fs ign a lev en t sdu e toth een e r gyd ep end en c eo fSiandBi. Th i sen e rgyt e rmc anl e adtoh ighen e rgyev en t s a lu e sth anth e i rin j e c t ednumb e randv i c e -v e r s afo rlow en e rgyev en t s . y i e ld ingh i gh e rnsv Th ep rodu c to fth eind iv idu a lPDF so fa l lev en t sN mu l t ip l i edd efin e sth el ik e l ihood L: L( ns)= N [ ] f ns) i( (6 .5 ) i Tw ohypo th e s e sa r ec omp a r ed : Th el ik e l ihoodo fth ed a t as e ttocon s i s to fb a ckg round on lyev en t sandthu s ,a" s i gn a ln e s s "p a r am e t e rns =✵i scomp a r edw i thth em ax im i z ed l ik e l ihoodf o rth ed a t as e tw i thnsandγa sf r e ep a r am e t e r s . Th el a t t e ry i e ld sth eop t im a l ns and❫ γ. Th er a t iob e tw e enth enu l lhypo th e s i sand comb in a t i ono fbo thp a r am e t e r s❫ m ax im i z edl ik e l ih oodd efin e sth et e s ts t a t i s t i cTS : ❚❙=−✷ ❧♦❣ L( ns=✵ ) ❫s✱ ❫) L( n γ (6 .6 ) L a rg e rv a lu e so f TS a r el e s sc omp a t ib l ew i thth eb a ckg round -on ly hypo th e s i s . I f th er igh ta s c en s i ono fth ed a t ai ss c r amb l ed ,i tw i l lb epo s s ib l etog en e r a t em anysk i e sfo r wh i chanyc o r r e l a t i onb e tw e enev en t si spu r e lyco in c id en t a l . Th i si sdon ebyr ep l a c ing th er e con s t ru c t edr i gh ta s c en s i onbyar andomv a lu e . Byc a l cu l a t ingth e TSa tth e inv e s t ig a t edpo in tf o re a cho fth e s esk i e si tc anb ee s t im a t edhowl ik e lyi ti sto m e a su r ea 80 6 .1 . Th eunb inn edl ik e l ihood m e thod c e r t a inTSund e rth eb a ck g r ound on lyhypo th e s i s . Byin j e c t in gs i gn a lev en t sa c c o rd ingtoac e r t a in fluxs t r eng thth es en s i t iv i ty ,d i s cov e rypo t en t i a landupp e rl im i t sf o rac e r t a inpo in tinth eskyc anb ee s t im a t ed . Th e s en s i t iv i tyi sd efin eda sth en eu t r inofluxf romapo in t l ik esou r c efo r wh i chin90%o f th ec a s e sth e TSi sl a r g e rth anth em ed i ano fth eb a ckg round -on ly TSd i s t r ibu t ion( s e e F ig .6 .1f o rav i su a l i z a t ion ) . Th ef o l low ingd efin i t ion sa r ea l sod ep i c t edinF ig .6 .1 . Th e d i s cov e rypo t en t i a li sd efin eda sth efluxy i e ld inga m ed i an TS w i thab a ckg roundon ly −✼ ( p rob ab i l i tyf o ra TSth i sl a r g eo rl a r g e ro f2 .87· ✶✵ 5 σ)o rl e s s . Th eupp e rl im i ti s d efin edfo l l ow in gth ec l a s s i c a lapp r o a chbyN eym an[190 ]a sanin j e c t edfluxth a ty i e ld sa h igh e rTSv a lu eth anth ec a l cu l a t edon efo rth eun s c r amb l edskya tth i spo in tin90%o f th ec a s e s .Inth i san a ly s i sth el ik e l ih oodc a l cu l a t ion sa r ep rov id edbyth eskylabp a ck ag e2. 9 10 MCexpe r imen ts 8 10 backg round s igna lsens i t iv i ty med ianTS backg round 7 10 6 10 s igna luppe rl im i t s igna ld isc .po t . expe r imen ta l resu l t 5 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 90% 90% 50% 1 10 0 10 0 5 10 15 20 Tes ts ta t is t ic(TS ) 25 30 35 F igu re6 .1 : Sk e t cho fb a ck g r ound on lyTSd i s t r ibu t ionandTSd i s t r ibu t ion sfo ran eu t r in ofluxf r omapo in t l ik esou r c eco r r e spond ingtos en s i t iv i tyflux ,upp e r l im i tfluxandd i s c ov e rypo t en t i a lflux . Wh i l ei ti s po s s ib l et o ob t a insuffi c i en ts t a t i s t i c sin TS d i s t r ibu t ion sto ev a lu a t e upp e rl im i tandd i s c ov e rypo t en t i a l ,th i sc anb ecompu t a t ion a l lyexp en s iv e . On eso lu t ion ✷ i sth ed e s c r ip t i ono fth eTSd i s t r ibu t ionbyaχ fun c t ion[191 ] . Du etoth er e s t r i c t iono f ns ✵und e rflu c tu a t i on sinth eskyw i l ly i e ldaTSo fz e ro . Th i si sco r r e c t edbyadd ingan add i t ion a lp a r am e t e rη,d efin edbyth er a t ioo ft r i a l sy i e ld ingaTSl a rg e rth an0 .H en c e , th e TSv a lu e sl a r g e rth anz e r oc anb ed e s c r ib edbyη·χ✷( Nd✳ ) . A st w op a r am e t e r s o✳ f ( ns andγ)a r efi t t ed ,th eexp e c t edNd✳ stw o .Inar andomsky ,und e rflu c tu a t ion s o✳ fi a r en a iv e lyexp e c t edf o rfi f typ e r c en to fc a s e s( η=✵ ✳✺ ) .I fth enumb e ro ft r i a l sinwh i ch ns i sfi t t edt o0 ,equ a l l in ga TSv a lu eo f0 ,i sev a lu a t edi ti sfoundth a tth i sv a lu ed i f f e r sf rom0 . 5ands e em st op r e f e rl ow e rv a lu e so fη,l a rg e rp e r c en t ag eo fund e rflu c tu a t ion s . 2 h t tp s ://g i thub . com/ co end e r s/ sky lab 81 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s On el ik e ly exp l an a t i onf o rth e ob s e rv ed abund an c eo f und e rflu c tu a t ion si sth eu s e o fth een e r gyt e rminth eLLH .I th a sb e enshownin mo r ed e t a i lin[192 ]th a tth enumb e r o fd a t aev en t su s edinI c eCub ean a ly s e si stoosm a l ltos amp l eth eb a ckg round PDF co r r e c t ly . Anex amp l eo fsu cha TSd i s t r ibu t ionandacomp a r i sono fafi t t edχ andth e exp e c t edχ c anb ef oundinF i g .6 .2fo r−30°d e c l in a t ion . F igu re6 .2 :χ-fi tt oth eb a ckg round -on ly TSd i s t r ibu t ion . Bo th η and Ndof a r ez en i th -d ep end en t ,s e eF ig . 6 . 3 . F o rth i s an a ly s i s sp l in e fun c t ion sa r efi t t edt o bo th d i s t r ibu t ion sino rd e rtoe s t im a t eηandNdof fo rev e ry d e c l in a t ion . Th ev a lu e so fth e s esp l in ea r eth enu s edtoconv e r tth eev a lu a t ed TSv a lu e s in top -v a lu e s . F igu re6 .3 :Z en i thd ep end en c eo fth etw oχ p a r am e t e r sηandNdof 6 .2 . Sen s i t iv i t ie s Th es en s i t iv i tyo fth i san a ly s i si sshownin F ig .6 .4 . H e r e , bo thth es en s i t iv i tyfo ra − po in t l ik es ou r c ew i than unb r ok enEν sp e c t rumandfo rd iff e r en tcu toffs c en a r io si s 82 6 .2 .S en s i t iv i t i e s −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] shown .A sexp e c t edanunb r ok ensp e c t rumg iv e sth eb e s ts en s i t iv i ty . No t ew o r thyi sa l so th ea lmo s tz en i th ind ep end en tb eh av iou rfo ra l l ,bu tth e10TeVs en s i t iv i tycu rv e . Anex p l an a t ionf o rth ez en i thd ep end en c eb e low10TeVc anb eth elow e rnumb e ro fb a ckg round ev en t sn e a rth eh o r i z ondu et oth ez en i th -d ep end en c eo fth ea tmo sph e r i c muonflux .A s th e muonsp e c t rumi ss t e ep e rth anth eexp e c t edn eu t r inosp e c t rum ,th i seff e c ti s mo r e p rom in en ta tl ow e ren e r g i e swh e r eth een e rgyt e rminth eLLHfun c t ionb r ing sl i t t l eg a in . -9 10 -10 10 -11 10 1 .0 nocu to f f 1PeVcu to f f 100TeVcu to f f 10TeVcu to f f 0 .8 0 .6 s in (δ ) 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 F igu re6 .4 :S en s i t iv i tyo fth eST eVEan a ly s i sfo ranE−✷ ux w i thd iff e r en tcu toff sin ν fl n eu t r in oen e r gy . Th i san a ly s i sw a sop t im i z edf o rn eu t r ino sw i th Eν < 100TeV. Th e r e fo r e ,acu toff i simp l em en t edex c lud in ga l ln eu t r ino sw i thEν >100TeV f romth el ik e l ihoodc a l cu l a t ion .InF i g .6 . 5th es en s i t iv i tyo fST eVEi scomp a r edtoth es en s i t iv i tyo fth ecomb in ed MESEandth r ou gh g o in gs e a r chandth es en s i t iv i tyo fANTARES ,a l ld i s cu s s edins e c t ion 4 .4 . Wh i l e ,ST eVEp e r f o rm sb e t t e rth anth ep r ev iou sI c eCub es e a r ch e s( abou taf a c to r tw oimp r ov em en tf o rth i ss c en a r i o ) ,i ti sou tm a t ch edbyth eANTARESs e a r chbyabou t af a c to r3 . 5 . Th i si sn o tsu rp r i s in gt ak ingth eb e t t e rangu l a rr e so lu t ion ,equ a lo rl a rg e r eff e c t iv ea r e aandl ow e rnumb e ro fb a ckg roundev en t so fth e ANTARESs e a r chin to a c coun t , wh i chc anu s eth eE a r tha ssh i e ldag a in s ta tmo sph e r i c muon s wh enlook inga t th esou th e rnsky . No t on lyth ez en i th -d ep end en c e bu ta l soth een e rgy d ep end en c eo fth es en s i t iv i ty toffs c en a r ioh a sb e enp r e s en t ed .T o i so fin t e r e s t .Inth es e c t i onabov e ,th e100TeVcu g e ta mo r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t i ono fth een e rgyd ep end en c eth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tyi s c a l cu l a t eda sw e l l .F o rth i sanupp e randlow e rcu toffinen e rgyi su s ed .Inth i ss tudyfou r −✷ b in sp e ren e r gyd e c ad ea r eu s ed .Ine a chb inth eev en t sa r ew e igh t edtoanE sp e c t rum . Th ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tyi sc a l cu l a t edfo rST eVEandth eth r e eo th e rI c eCub es e a r ch e s fo rpo in t l ik es ou r c e sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion4 .4 .F o rab e t t e rcomp a r i sonth ed a t ao fth e th rough -g o in gandLESEan a ly s i sa r es c a l eduptoth el iv e t im eo fth e MESEan a ly s i s ( abou t10 0 0d ay s ) .T o g e th e rth e s efou ran a ly s e scov e r mo r eth ans ixd e c ad e so fen e rg i e s , a sshowninF i g .6 . 6 .ST eVEi sth e mo s ts en s i t iv ean a ly s i so fth e s efou rb e tw e en10TeV 83 −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s 9 10 −2 E 100TeVha rdcu to f f 10 10 11 10 12 - 10 STeVE11 -14sens i t iv iy STeVE11 -14d isc .po t . 1 .0 0 .8 STeVE11 -14uppe rl im i ts ANTARES1338days 0 .6 s in (δ ) 4yPS +3y MESE 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 F igu re6 .5 :S en s i t iv i tyf o rapo in t l ik esou r c efo rST eVEandcomb in edth rough -go ing + MESEI c eCub es e a r chandth e ANTARESs e a r ch .A l lshownfo ran E−✷ n eu t r in ofluxw i thacu toffa t100TeV. −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] and100TeV. 6 10 LESE * STeVE MESE 7 10 8 10 th rough -go ing * ANTARES(1338d ) 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 2 Sens i t iv i ty ,-60deg ree ,3yea rso fIceCubeope ra t ion 3 4 5 6 l og10(E / GeV ) ν 7 8 9 F igu re6 .6 : Th ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i t i e sfo rfou rI c eCub epo in t l ik esou r c es e a r ch e sinth e s ou th e rnskyandANTARES[193 ] . Th es en s i t iv i t i e sfo rLESE[166 ] andth e th r ou gh g o in gan a ly s i s[149 ]a r ee s t im a t eds imu l a t ingev en t sw i thal iv e t im e o f MESE[ 1 6 5 ] .F o rST eVEth eth r e ey e a r so fIC86 I I+a r eu s ed . A comp a r i s on o fth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i ty o fa l ls ing l ey e a r s andth e comb in ed fou ry e a rd iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tya r eshownin F ig . 6 .7 . Th eth r e ey e a r so fIC86 I I+ s e l e c t ionp e r f o rmb e t t e rth anth efi r s ty e a r–po s s ib lydu etoth es ign ifi c an tr edu c t ion o fb a ckg r oundev en t s( abou t7 . 5t im e sl e s s )incomb in a t ion w i thcomp a r ab l eeff e c t iv e a r e aand m ed i anan gu l a rr e s o lu t ioninth e mo s ts en s i t iv een e rgyr ang eb e tw e en10TeV to1000TeV. Th i si sc au s edbyth ed iff e r en tandimp rov edev en ts e l e c t ionfo rIC86 I I+ . Th e r ei sn ol a r g ed iff e r en c ev i s ib l eb e tw e enth em–no tun exp e c t edg iv enth eid en t i c a l ev en ts e l e c t i onandc omp a r ab l enumb e ro fl iv e t im e( 324d ,345d ,362d ) . Wh i l ei tw ou ld b e po s s ib l et or edoth eIC86 Is e l e c t ion b a s ed onIC86 I I+r e con - 84 −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] 6 .2 .S en s i t iv i t i e s 7 10 STeVE11 STeVE12 STeVE13 8 10 STeVE14 STeVE11 -14 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 2 Sens i t iv i ty ,-60deg ree 3 4 5 6 l og10(E / GeV ) ν 7 8 9 F igu re6 .7 :C omp a r i s ono fth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i t i e sfo rth efou ry e a r so fd a t aandth e c omb in edf ou ry e a rs e t . Th eth r e eIC86 I I+y e a r sa r ea lmo s tind i s t ingu i sh ab l e . s t ru c t iona l g o r i thm sandv a r i ab l e s ,th eg a in w ou ldno tju s t i fyth er e sou r c e sr equ i r edto doso . Canonedobe t te rthananene rgy zen i th PDF? Th eu s ag eo fanen e rgy z en i thPDF a sadd i t ion a lLLHt e rmh a sb e enu s edinI c eCub es e a r ch e sfo rpo in t l ik eem i s s ionb e fo r e . How ev e r ,du et oth es im i l a ren e r gyr ang eo fb a ckg roundandd a t afo rth eST eVEan a ly s i s o th e rv a r i ab l ec omb in a t i on sc ou ldy i e ldb e t t e rr e su l t sint e rm so fp e r fo rm an c e . Th r e e add i t ion a lLLHimp l em en t a t i on sw e r econ s id e r edandt e s t ed :U s ingon lyasp a t i a lt e rm , en g thtos ta r t . Th e r ep l a c ingth een e r gyw i thth eBDTs co r eandr ep l a c ingen e r gyw i thl s en s i t iv i tyu s in gth e s eimp l em en t a t ion si sshowninF ig .6 .8 .A sth ep e r fo rm an c ei sno t in c r e a s eds i gn ifi c an t lyth e" t r ad i t i on a l"LLHimp l em en t a t ioni su s ed . Th e s et e s t sw e r e p e r fo rm edf o rth eIC 8 6 Is amp l e . −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] -9 10 −2 E 100TeVha rdcu to f f -10 10 -11 10 -12 10 1 .0 STeVE ELLH STeVE BDTLLH 0 .8 STeVEspa t ia lon lyLLH STeVE d is tLLH 0 .6 s in (δ ) ANTARES1338days 4yPS +3y MESE 0 .4 0 .2 0 .0 F igu re6 .8 :Z en i th -d ep end en ts en s i t iv i tyfo rfou rLLHimp l em en t a t ion sfo rth eST eVE s amp l e(h e r eon lyIC 86 I I(324d ay s ) ) .F o ro r i en t a t iona l soth es en s i t iv i ty cu rv e so fth e MESE+th rough -go ingan a ly s i sandth eANTARESEan a ly s i s a r esh own .A l ls en s i t iv i t i e sa r eg iv enfo ranE−✷ 1 0 0 T e Vc u t o ff s c e n a r i o . ν 85 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s 6 .3 .S tud ie so fsy s tema t icunce r ta in t ie s F o rth eg en e r a t i ono fth er and omsk i e s ,u s edtoc a l cu l a t eth es en s i t iv i ty ,as e ed edr andom g en e r a to ri su s ed . Th es en s i t iv i tyc a l cu l a t ion sd iff e ri fd iff e r en ts e ed sa r eu s ed . Th e s i z eo fth i sv a r i a t i oni se s t im a t edbyc a l cu l a t ingth es en s i t iv i tyfo ron ed e c l in a t ion5 , 000 t im e s( s e eF i g .6 . 9 ) . Onav e r a g eth ec a l cu l a t ion sd iff e rbyl e s sth an1✪.Inth i san a ly s i s 800 #o fseeds 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 8 .55 8 .60 8 .65 8 .70 8 .75 8 .80 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm−2 s ] 8 .85 8 .90 8 .95 1e 11 F igu re6 .9 :S t a t i s t i cs tudyw i th5 , 000d iff e r en ts e ed su s edtoc a l cu l a t eth es en s i t iv i tyo f th eIC 8 6 I I+s amp l ea t−60 °d e c l in a t ion(b lu eh i s tog r am ) . A l soshowni s ✷ − (x−µ) t t edtoth i s th er e su l to fa G au s s i anfun c t ion( so l idr edl in e )a·e ✷σ✷ fi −✶ ✶ −✶ ✸ h i s t o g r am(a=✼ ✸ ✺ ✱µ=✽ ✳✼✺·✶✵ ✱ σ=✹ ✳✼✾·✶✵ ( ind i c a t edbyd a sh ed l i gh tr edl in e s ) ) . th eb a ck g r oundi se s t im a t edbys c r amb l ingd a t aev en t s . Th ep r e s en t edp -v a lu e sa r e c a l cu l a t edu s in gon lyth e s ed a t aev en t s .I fth ec a l cu l a t edTSo rp -v a lu ei st r an s l a t edin to as en s i t iv i tyo rupp e rl im i t ,s i gn a ls imu l a t ion w i l lb er equ i r edand w i thth i scom eth e un c e r t a in t i e sond e t e c t o rp r op e r t i e s ,i c ep rop e r t i e s ,c ro s s s e c t ion s ,en e r gylo s s e so f muon s andp rop e r t i e so fth er o ckb e l owth eAn t a r c t i ci c e . H e r e , th e un c e r t a in t i e sr e g a rd in gd e t e c to rp rop e r t i e sa r e exp r e s s ed by con s id e r ing th r e es c en a r i o s . On ew i thth en om in a lqu an tumeffi c i en cyo fth e OMtoconv e r ta r r iv ing pho ton sin t och a r g e ,on ew i thaqu an tumeffi c i en cyd e c r e a s edby10✪ andon ew i tha 0✪. Th eun c e r t a in t i e sonth ei c ep rop e r t i e so fs c a t t e r ing qu an tumeffi c i en cyin c r e a s edby1 andab so rp t i ona r eexp r e s s edbyf ou rs c en a r io s . On ew i thth ei c ep rop e r t i e sob t a in edby th eb e s tfi tin[ 1 5 5 ] ,on ew i thth es c a t t e r ingl eng thun ch ang edbu tth eab so rp t ionl eng th d e c r e a s edby1 0✪,on ew i thth es c a t t e r ingl eng thd e c r e a s edby10✪ andth eab so rp t ion l eng th un ch an g edandon ew i th bo thab so rp t ionands c a t t e r ingl eng thin c r e a s ed by 7 ✳ 1✪. Th e s eth r e ei c es c en a r i o sa r ethough ttob ev e rycon s e rv a t iv ee s t im a t ion so fth e un c e r t a in t i e s . B o th OMeffi c i en cyandi c ep rop e r t i e sa r ea l soinv e s t ig a t edcomb in ed l e ad ingt oat o t a lo ftw e lv ed a t as e t s .F o rcompu t a t ion a lr e a son sth i ssy s t em a t i cch e ck w a sp e r fo rm edf o rth eIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ionon ly . How ev e r ,a sth es e l e c t ion sp e r fo rms im i l a r int e rm so fov e r a l ln eu t r in op r op e r t i e ssu cha seff e c t iv ea r e aandr e so lu t ion ,th er e su l t s c ana l sob eu s edt oe s t im a t eth ee r ro rfo rth eIC86 Is e l e c t ion . 86 6 .3 .S tud i e so fsy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e s Th etw e lv es imu l a t i on d a t as e t sw e r ep ro c e s s ed w i thth eIC86 I I+s ch em e . T oe s t im a t eth eimp a c to fth e s esy s t em a t i cch ang e sth ez en i th -d ep end en ts en s i t iv i tyfo ra 100TeVcu t offw a sc a l cu l a t edandc omp a r edtoth eb a s es e t t ing s .S t a t i s t i cv a r i a t ion sinth e s en s i t iv i tyc a l cu l a t i ona r em in im i z edbyr ep e a t ingth es en s i t iv i tyc a l cu l a t iona100t im e s w i thd iff e r en ts e ed sf o rth er and omskyg en e r a t ionandav e r ag ingth er e su l tandp rov id ing as t and a rde r r o r . Th er a t i oo fs en s i t iv i t i e si sshowninF ig .6 .10 ,F ig .6 .11 ,andF ig .6 .12 . 1 .3 base +10 %abs . sy s t em a t i cd a t as e t b a s e l in ed a t as e t 1 .2 -7 %abs ./-7 %sca t . +10 %sca t . 1 .1 1 .0 0 .9 0 .8 re l . DOMe f f .90% 0 .7 0 .9 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 0 .5 s in (δ ) 0 .4 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 F igu re6 .10 : Sy s t em a t i cs tudyw i th-10%OMeffi c i en cyandfou rd iff e r en tr e a l i z a t ion so f th ei c em od e l . Sh owni sth er a t ioo fth es en s i t iv i tyov e rth es en s i t iv i tyo f th eb a s e l in ed a t a s e t . 1 .3 base +10 %abs . sy s t ema t i cda tas e t ba s e l in eda tas e t 1 .2 -7 %abs ./-7 %sca t . +10 %sca t . 1 .1 1 .0 0 .9 0 .8 re l . DOMe f f .100% 0 .7 0 .9 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 0 .5 s in (δ ) 0 .4 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 F igu re6 .11 : Sy s t em a t i cs tudyw i thnom in a lOMeffi c i en cyandfou rd iff e r en tr e a l i z a t ion s o fth ei c em od e l . Sh owni sth er a t ioo fth es en s i t iv i tyov e rth es en s i t iv i ty o fth eb a s e l in ed a t a s e t . Ing en e r a l ,l ow e rqu an tumeffi c i en cyl e ad stolow e rs en s i t iv i ty . Th i si sexp e c t eda s th i san a ly s i su s e sen e r gya sad i s c r im in a to rons ev e r a lo c c a s ion s . Th ed epo s i t eden e rgy i su su a l lya s s o c i a t ed w i thth ed e t e c t edch a rg einth ev i c in i tyo fth een e rgyd epo s i t ion . H en c e , mo r ed e t e c t edch a r g el e ad st oh igh e ren e rgye s t im a t e sand ,h en c e ,l e ad stoh igh e r ch an c e so fp a s s in gth eL ev e l3andBDTs e l e c t ion . 87 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s 1 .3 base +10 %abs . sy s t em a t i cd a t as e t b a s e l in ed a t as e t 1 .2 -7 %abs ./-7 %sca t . +10 %sca t . 1 .1 1 .0 0 .9 0 .8 re l . DOMe f f .110% 0 .7 0 .9 0 .8 0 .7 0 .6 0 .5 s in (δ ) 0 .4 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 F igu re6 .12 : Sy s t em a t i cs tudyw i th +10% OMeffi c i en cyandfou rd iff e r en tr e a l i z a t ion s o fth ei c em od e l . Sh owni sth er a t ioo fth es en s i t iv i tyov e rth es en s i t iv i ty o fth eb a s e l in ed a t a s e t . F o rth ei c ep r op e r t i e sas im i l a rb eh av io rc anb eob s e rv ed . S im i l a rtoth equ an tum effi c i en cyash o r t e rab s o rp t i onl eng thl e ad stol e s sd e t e c t edch a rg eand ,h en c e ,tolow e r r e con s t ru c t eden e r gy–r edu c in gth ep rob ab i l i tyo fas ign a lev en tto p a s sth eev en t s e l e c t ion .F o rth ein c r e a s eds c a t t e r ingl eng thtw oeff e c t sh av etob et ak enin toa c coun t . Onth eon eh and m o r es c a t t e r in gshou ld , onav e r ag e ,l e adtol e s sd e t e c t edl igh td e c r e a s in gth es en s i t iv i ty . Onth eo th e rh and ,in c r e a s eds c a t t e r ingc ank e ep mo r epho ton s c lo s etoth een e r gyl o s so fth e mu onl e ad ingtoah igh e rch a rg ed epo s i t ionin OM sc lo s e toth et r a ck . Th i sc ou ldh av eapo s i t iv eimp a c tonsom eo fth ev a r i ab l e sinth eBDT( l ik e en e rgyd epo s i t edinth el a r g e s ten e rgyd epo s i t ion ) . Ac lo s e rlooka tth ep r e s en t edr a t io sr ev e a l ssom ein con s i s t en c i e s . A sanex amp l e , inF ig .6 . 1 1a ts in ( δ) =0 . 2 5th es amp l ew i th mo r eab so rp t iony i e ld sab e t t e rs en s i tv i ty th anth eb a s e l in es amp l e . Th i si sno tanexp e c t edb eh av io r . On epo s s ib l eexp l an a t ion o fin c r e a s in gab s o rp t i onen ab l e s muon sf rom non s t a r t ingev en t stoe a s i e rp a s sth e v e tocond i t i on si sd i s f av o r ed wh enth enumb e ro fto t a ls imu l a t edev en t si scomp a r ed toth enumb e ro fs imu l a t eds t a r t ingev en t s( s e eF ig .6 .13 ) . B o ths imu l a t iond a t a s e t s a r edom in a t edbys t a r t in gev en t sanda ts in ( δ) =-0 .25th eb a s e l in ed a t a s e th a sl e s s ev en t sth anth ed a t a s e tw i th + 1 0%ab so rp t ionl eng th . Th i sl e av e stw opo s s ib l eexp l a n a t ion s . F i r s tal a ckins t a t i s t i c sins imu l a t edev en t s . F o rth i san a ly s i sth eb a s e l in e d a t a s e tc on s i s t so f4 5 6 2 1s imu l a t edev en t s andth ed a t a s e tw i th +10% ab so rp t ion l eng tho f4 7 4 3 7ev en t s . A l t e rn a t iv e ly ,th i sd iff e r en c ec anb eexp l a in edbyas e l e c t ion eff e c to fth eBDTth a tp r e f e r sev en t ss imu l a t edw i th mo r eab so rp t ionfo rth i sd e c l in a t ion . C l a r ifi c a t i on o fth i si s su er equ i r e se i th e r mo r es t a t i s t i c sinth ep r e s en tsy s t em a t i c d a t a s e t so radd i t i on a ld a t as e t sw i thin t e rm ed i a t ei c ep rop e r t i e stob e t t e rund e r s t andth e t r an s i t ionins en s i t iv i tyb e tw e enth em .A sbo thop t ion sa r eno tav a i l ab l ea tth i st im ea con s e rv a t iv ee s t im a t eo fth ec omb in edsy s t em a t i cun c e r t a in t i e soni c eandop t i c a l modu l e p rop e r t i e so f2 0✪ i sa s sum ed . 88 6 .4 .R e su l t sfo rth eSou r c eC a t a log 0 .30 −2 a .u .Eν 0 .25 0 .20 0 .15 base base(con t . ) re l . DOMe f f .100% 0 .10 1 .0 0 .8 0 .6 s in (δ ) 0 .4 +10 %abs . +10 %abs .(con t . ) 0 .2 0 .0 F igu re6 .13 :C omp a r i s onb e tw e enth eexp e c t edn eu t r inoev en t sw e igh t edtoana rb i t r a ry E−✷fluxb e tw e enth eb a s e l in ei c emod e landani c emod e lw i th+10%ab so rp t i onl en g th .B o thth een t i r es imu l a t edn eu t r inos amp l eandth esub s amp l e o fev en t ss t a r t in gin s id eth ed e t e c to r( l igh t e rco lo r s )a r eshown . Add i t ion a l ly ,th ed e c l in a t i ononwh i chth e+10%ab so rp t ionl eng thi c e mod e l sy i e ld s ab e t t e rs en s i t iv i tyinF ig .6 .11i sind i c a t ed . Un c e r t a in t i e son n eu t r in oc r o s s s e c t ion sa r ee s t im a t edto b el e s sth an 5✪ fo l low ing th es tudyin[ 1 6 7 ] . T au -n eu t r in o sin t e r a c t in gin s id eth ed e t e c to rp rodu c eat au . Wh i l e nosu chev en t h a sb e enid en t ifi edy e t ,in p r in c ip l eacon t r ibu t iontoth e ST eVE s e l e c t ionc an b e exp e c t edf r omth e s eev en t s . Tw os c en a r io sa r epo s s ib l eh e r e .F o rv e ryh ighen e rg e t i ct au s ( Eτ >10PeV)th et r a cko fth et aui t s e l fcou ldb er e con s t ru c t edandth eev en tcou ldb e sub s equ en t lyu s edinth ean a ly s i s .F o ren e rg i e sb e lowth et aui sexp e c t edtod e c ayv e ry f a s t .17✪ o fth et au sd e c ayd i r e c t lyin toa muon( andth eco r r e spond ingn eu t r ino s )[15 ] wh i chint e rmc anp r odu c eal on gt r a ck . Th i slongt r a ckandth el a rg ein i t i a len e rgy d epo s i t ionc au s edbybo thth ein i t i a ln eu t r inoin t e r a c t ionandth et aud e c ayc anl e ad toas ign a tu r eth a ti sd e t e c t ab l ebyth eST eVEs e l e c t ion .F o rnowth econ t r ibu t iono f 14 ✳ 5✪ o rl e s s t au -n eu t r in o si sn e g l e c t eda si t sov e r a l lcon t r ibu t ioni sexp e c t edtob esm a l l( i feuq a lnumb e r so f mu on -andt au -n eu t r ino sa r eexp e c t eda tE a r th . ) .Imp l em en t a t ion o ft au -n eu t r in oc on t r ibu t i oni sexp e c t edtos l igh t lyimp rov eth er e su l t sa sth enumb e ro f exp e c t edev en t sf r omapo in t l ik es ou r c ew ou ldb ein c r e a s ed . 6 .4 . Re su l t sfo rtheSou rce Ca ta log A sh a sb e ensh ownins e c t i on2 . 5 , TeVg amm ar ayem i s s ioncou ldb ea c comp an i edby n eu t r inoem i s s i onf r omth es am es ou r c e s .H en c e ,TeVg amm ar aysou r c e sa r ean a tu r a l cho i c etol ookf o rpo in t l ik eem i s s iono fn eu t r ino s . Th eT eVC a tp r e s en t edins e c t ion 4 .1p rov id e sth e s es ou r c e s .T oen su r ecomp a t ib i l i tyb e tw e enth ed iff e r en ty e a r so fd a t a s e l e c t ionth es ou r c ec and id a t e su s edinth ean a ly s i so fIC86 Ia r eu s eda l sofo rIC86 I I+ . 89 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s Add i t ion a l ly ,tw e lv es ou r c ec and id a t e su s edinp r ev iou sI c eCub es e a r ch e sa r eadd ed . Th e r e su l t so fth eLLH m in im i z a t i onf o re a chsou r c eandupp e rl im i t sfo ranE✷ s p e c t r uma s ν w e l la sfo rth r e ecu t offs c en a r i o sc anb ef oundint ab l e s6 .1(B in a r i e s ),6 .2(SNR s ) ,6 .3 (PWN s ), 6 . 4(C lu s t e r s ) ,6 . 5(Un id en t ifi edsou r c e s ) ,6 .6(Ex t r a -g a l a c t i csou r c e s )and6 .7 (O th e r s ) . Th etw e lv es ou r c e sn o tp r e s en tinth eT eVC a ta r eind i c a t edbyana s t e r i sk .A sp e c i a lc a s ea r eth eth r e eob j e c t sf oundinth eL a rg eM ag e l l an i cC loud ,as a t e l l i t edw a r f g a l axyo fth eM i lky W ay . F o rth i san a ly s i sth eya r eadd edinth ec a t ego ry"O th e r s" . A tad i s t an c eo fabou t5 0kp c[ 8 ]th e s esou r c e sa r einanin t e rm ed i a t ed i s t an c eb e tw e en g a l a c t i candex t r a g a l a c t i c . HESS J1 6 1 6 5 0 8i sth es ou r c ec and id a t e w i thth elow e s tb a ckg round p rob ab i l i ty . I ty i e ld sap -v a lu eo f0 ✳ 2✪. N on e th e l e s s ,th ep rob ab i l i tytod e t e c tsu chanov e rflu c tu a t ion inas amp l eo f9 6po in t sbych an c eh a stob ea c coun t edfo r . Th i sc anb ee s t im a t ed bys c r amb l in gth er i gh ta s c en s i ono fth e fin a ll ev e lev en t sr andom ly . Byfo l low ing th i sapp r o a chr and omsk i e son wh i chev e ryov e r -flu c tu a t ioni spu r e lyco in c id en t a la r e g en e r a t ed . Th eu s a g eo fm anyth ou s andr andomsk i e s ,h e r e20 ,000r andomsk i e s ,h e lp s toe s t im a t eth eb a ck g r oundp r ob ab i l i ty .A f t e rco r r e c t ingfo rth e s et r i a l sth eb a ckg round p rob ab i l i tyf o rHESSJ 1 6 1 6 5 0 8b e c om e s19 ✳ 8✪,s e eF ig .6 .14 . 3 Numbe ro ft r ia ls 10 1σ 2σ 3σ 2 10 measu redho tspo t sc ramb ledt r ia ls pos tt r ia lp -va lue HS =0 .198 1 10 0 10 1 2 3 4 pret r ia l-log -va lue ) 10 (p 5 6 F igu re6 .14 :D i s t r ibu t i ono fp r e t r i a lp -v a lu e sfo r20 ,000r andomsk i e s . Th i sd i s t r ibu t ion i su s edt oev a lu a t eth es ign ifi c an c eo fth em e a su r edp -v a lu eo fth er e a lsky . H en c e , n oind i c a t i onf o rn eu t r in o em i s s ionf rom any o f th einv e s t ig a t ed sou r c e c and id a t e sh a sb e enf ound . 6 .5 . Re su l t sfo rthea l l skyscan Th i sapp r o a chi sm o t iv a t edbyth epo s s ib i l i tyo fpo in t l ik en eu t r inoem i s s ionf roman ob j e c tth a th a sn o tb e end e t e c t edbyob s e rv a t iono fo th e rm e s s eng e rp a r t i c l e s . Th i si s imp l em en t edbyev a lu a t in gth et e s ts t a t i s t i conag r idw i thab inn ingb e lowth eangu l a r r e so lu t iono fth ean a ly s i s . Th ec oo rd in a t e so fth epo in t sinv e s t ig a t eda r ep rov id edbya HEALp ix[ 1 9 4 ]g r idw i thab inw id tho f0 ✳ 46° . 90 6 .5 .R e su l t sfo rth ea l l skys c an T ab le6 .1 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda sb in a r i e sa c co rd ingto T eVC a t . A s t e r i sk s ind i c a t eth es ou r c ec and id a t e swh i cha r eno tp r e s en tinT eVC a tbu tinp r e v i ou sI c eCub es e a r ch e s .L i s t eda r eth es ign a ln e s sp a r am e t e r❫ ns,th efi t t ed ❫,th sp e c t r a lind exγ ec a l cu l a t edb a ckg roundp rob ab i l i tyb e fo r eanda f t e rt r i a l −✷ c o r r e c t i onandth eupp e rl im i tonth efluxfo ranE sp e c t rumw i thou tacu t −✶ −✷ −✶ −✶ ✷ offandth r e es c en a r i o sw i thah a rdcu toffinun i t so f✶✵ T eV cm s . ❫s c Ad a shinth en o lumnind i c a t e sac a l cu l a t edTSo f0 .Inth i sc a s ep -v a lu e s a r en o tg iv ena sth i si sanund e rflu c tu a t ion . ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ ❫s γ ❫ p Sou r c e n -v a lpre p -v a lpost Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV PSRB1 2 5 9 6 3 – – – – 36 42 91 1372 HESSJ 1 0 1 8 5 8 9 – – – – 40 44 92 1233 GX339 4* – – – – 33 37 72 639 – – – – 47 51 82 432 LS5039 C i rX -1* – – – – 34 36 76 1001 T ab le6 .2 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda ssup e rnov ar emn an t sa c co rd ingto T eVC a t . S e eT ab .6 . 1f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . Sou r c e ❫s n ❫ p γ -v a lpre RCW86 – – 0 . 1 4 . 0 HESSJ1 8 0 0 2 4 0B < SNR G0 1 5 . 4+ 0 0 . 1 – – RXJ085 2 . 0 4 6 2 2 – – – – W28 SN1006SW – – – – CTB37A CTB37B – – RXJ171 3 . 7 3 9 4 6 – – HESSJ1 8 0 0 2 4 0A 1 . 2 4 . 0 SNR G3 4 9 . 7+ 0 0 . 2 1 . 0 2 . 5 HESSJ1 7 3 1 3 4 7 – – SN1006NE – – SNR G3 1 8 . 2+ 0 0 . 1 – – HESSJ1 7 4 5 3 0 3 – – – 0 .267 – – – – – – – 0 .239 0 .23 – – – – p -v a lpost – 1 .0 – – – – – – – 1 .0 1 .0 – – – – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 37 43 91 1301 53 60 110 950 45 52 85 476 38 45 81 741 53 57 110 766 42 45 80 650 48 49 94 830 47 49 92 781 45 47 91 832 54 61 111 938 51 54 93 801 45 48 81 539 41 43 79 628 42 47 99 1343 41 51 87 690 91 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s T ab le6 .3 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda spu l s a rw indn ebu l aa c co rd ingtoT eVC a t .S e e T ab .6 . 1f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . Sou r c e ❫s n HESSJ1 8 2 5 1 3 7 V e l aX HESSJ1 3 0 3 6 3 1 HESSJ1 8 1 3 1 7 8 HESSJ1 4 5 8 6 0 8 HESSJ1 7 1 8 3 8 5 K ook abu r r a(PWN ) HESSJ1 7 0 8 4 4 3 HESSJ1 8 3 1 0 9 8 HESSJ1 6 4 0 4 6 5 SNR G3 2 7 . 1 0 1 . 1 HESSJ1 8 3 7 0 6 9 HESSJ1 0 2 6 5 8 2 HESSJ1 6 3 2 4 7 8 K ook abu r r a(R abb i t ) SNR G2 9 2 . 2 0 0 . 5 HESSJ1 8 0 9 1 9 3 HESSJ1 3 5 6 6 4 5 SNR G0 0 0 . 9+ 0 0 . 1 MSH15 5 2 HESSJ1 6 1 6 5 0 8 IGRJ18 4 9 0 0 0 0 0 HESSJ1 8 4 6 0 2 9 – 2 . 2 – – 0 . 8 – – 1 . 5 5 . 4 – – – – 3 . 6 – 3 . 6 – – 9 . 2 1 . 9 4 . 4 0 . 4 – 92 ❫ p γ -v a lpre – 4 . 0 – – 2 . 3 – – 4 . 0 2 . 9 – – – – 4 . 0 – 4 . 0 – – 3 . 9 4 . 0 2 . 2 4 . 0 – – 0 .201 – – 0 .237 – – 0 .294 0 .034 – – – – 0 .115 – 0 .134 – – 0 .007 0 .166 0 .002 0 .117 – p -v a lpost – 1 .0 – – 1 .0 – – 1 .0 0 .973 – – – – 1 .0 – 1 .0 – – 0 .5 1 .0 0 .198 1 .0 – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 36 39 61 339 42 48 90 933 36 41 89 1355 43 50 91 598 44 51 108 1583 48 50 95 829 44 50 108 1512 43 47 86 835 59 61 90 486 38 45 82 726 36 40 79 998 34 35 50 202 36 40 83 1097 44 50 94 992 43 49 106 1496 48 53 111 1757 50 57 100 654 40 47 99 1464 76 90 162 1591 43 48 99 1400 70 79 157 1963 97 98 142 477 32 32 47 164 6 .5 .R e su l t sfo rth ea l l skys c an T ab le6 .4 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda sc lu s t e r sa c co rd ingtoT eVC a t .S e eT ab .6 .1 f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . Sou r c e ❫s n ❫ p γ -v a lpre HESSJ1 6 1 4 5 1 8 3 . 1 2 . 2 W e s t e r lund2 – – W e s t e r lund1 – – HESSJ1 8 4 8 0 1 8 – – T e r z an5 – – 0 . 013 – – – – p -v a lpost 0 .742 – – – – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 58 64 127 1702 36 38 80 1032 38 43 85 739 43 44 64 225 54 61 113 1068 T ab le6 .5 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda sun id en t ifi eda c co rd ingt oT eVC a t .S e eT ab . 6 . 1f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . Sou r c e ❫s n HESSJ1 6 2 6 4 9 0 HESSJ1 6 3 4 4 7 2 HESSJ1 8 0 4 2 1 6 HESSJ1 8 0 8 2 0 4 HESSJ1 7 2 9 3 4 5 HESSJ1 7 0 8 4 1 0 HESSJ1 8 3 4 0 8 7 HESSJ1 6 4 1 4 6 3 HESSJ1 8 4 1 0 5 5 HESSJ1 4 2 7 6 0 8 HESSJ1 8 4 3 0 3 3 HESSJ1 5 0 7 6 2 2 HESSJ1 7 4 1 3 0 2 HESSJ1 7 0 2 4 2 0 G a l a c t i cC en t r e HESSJ1 8 3 2 0 9 3 HESSJ1 5 0 3 5 8 2 2 . 8 2 . 1 – – – 1 . 9 – – – – – 4 . 4 – – – – – ❫ p γ -v a lpre 3 . 2 4 . 0 – – – 2 . 6 – – – – – 2 . 3 – – – – – 0 . 218 0 . 18 – – – 0 . 286 – – – – – 0 . 039 – – – – – p -v a lpost 1 .0 1 .0 – – – 1 .0 – – – – – 0 .986 – – – – – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 37 42 82 857 41 48 89 883 48 52 101 583 51 57 102 630 45 48 82 541 45 48 87 777 37 38 55 245 38 44 82 753 33 34 47 171 43 49 107 1536 31 32 46 157 38 44 92 1328 41 51 88 702 40 43 78 629 41 48 84 656 39 39 55 258 37 40 83 1103 93 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s T ab le6 .6 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sc l a s s ifi eda sex t r ag a l a c t i ca c co rd ingtoT eVC a t .S e eT ab . 6 . 1f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . Sou r c e ❫s n ❫ p γ -v a lpre PKS145 4 3 5 4* – – PKS162 2 2 9 7* 1 . 2 4 . 0 H2356 -3 0 9 0 . 6 4 . 0 C en t au ru sA – – – – 1ES034 7 1 2 1 – – APL ib PKS140 6 0 7 6* – – PKS072 7 1 1* – – 0 . 1 3 . 3 SHBLJ 0 0 1 3 1 8 8 < KUV003 1 1 1 9 3 8 6 . 7 2 . 8 1 . 6 2 . 5 QSO173 0 1 3 0* ESO139 -G 1 2* – – < 0 . 1 4 . 0 1ES110 1 2 3 2 1RXSJ1 0 1 0 3 1 1 4 . 9 4 . 0 PKS045 4 2 3 4* – – < 0 . 1 4 . 0 PKS054 8 3 2 2 NGC253 – – 0 . 7 3 . 5 PKS215 5 3 0 4 PKS151 0 0 8 9 – – – – PKS042 6 3 8 0* PKS030 1 2 4 3 – – – – QSO202 2 0 7 7* 1ES131 2 4 2 3 – – – – 3C279 PKS200 5 4 8 9 6 . 9 3 . 2 PKS044 7 4 3 9 – – PKS053 7 4 4 1* – – 94 – 0 .278 0 .33 – – – – – 0 .425 0 .05 0 .45 – 0 .308 0 .051 – 0 .437 – 0 .324 – – – – – – 0 .037 – – p -v a lpost – 1 .0 1 .0 – – – – – 1 .0 0 .995 1 .0 – 1 .0 0 .996 – 1 .0 – 1 .0 – – – – – – 0 .982 – – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 43 47 78 562 43 53 92 795 42 51 88 728 40 43 79 645 36 36 54 304 54 61 110 973 37 37 53 217 36 37 54 304 47 54 94 609 79 89 159 1059 38 39 59 359 44 49 105 1449 54 58 108 811 59 69 122 1213 55 59 110 802 39 45 75 568 54 61 118 1095 43 51 89 743 37 38 55 257 46 47 90 753 54 60 108 932 35 36 51 216 39 42 77 646 34 35 48 174 51 58 115 1301 39 43 79 655 39 43 80 685 6 .5 .R e su l t sfo rth ea l l skys c an T ab le6 .7 . :T ab l eo fa l ls ou r c e sth a tdono tb e longtoanyo fth ec a t ego r i e sabov e . Th e s e a r eth eV e l a Pu l s a randth eth r e eob j e c t sinth eL a rg eM ag e l l an i cC loud : SNRLMCN 1 3 2D ,supp e rbubb l e30Do rCandPWNLHA120 -N157B .S e e T ab .6 . 1f o ra m o r ed e t a i l edd e s c r ip t ion . ❫s n Sou r c e ❫ p γ -v a lpre V e l aPu l s a r 1 . 1 4 . 0 LMCN1 3 2D – – LHA120 -N1 5 7B – – 30Do rC – – 0 .293 – – – p -v a lpost 1 .0 – – – ✵✪ −✶✷T −✷s −✶ Φ✾ ✵ eV−✶cm νµ+✖ νµ ×✶ Ecut Non e 1PeV 100TeV 10TeV 40 45 86 836 43 56 129 1943 46 57 132 2015 46 57 132 2013 A f t e rev a lu a t in gth el ik e l ih ooda tev e ry po in to fth eskyth e po in tw i thth elow e s t b a ckg roundp r ob ab i l i tyd efin e sth e"ho t t e s tspo t" . Wh i l eth eb a ckg roundp rob ab i l i tyo f su chapo in tb e in gs i gn ifi c an tdu et ob a ckg roundflu c tu a t ion si sv e rylow ,inth ecomb in ed −✹ ✳✾✸,t fou ry e a r so fST eVEa sl owa s✶ ✵ h i sh a stob er e l a t edtoth el a rg enumb e ro f 3p o in t s ) . A sd i s cu s s edabov er andom ly an a ly s edpo in t s( t r i a l s )inth esky(h e r e98304 g en e r a t edsk i e sc anb eu s edbys c r amb l ingth eev en t ’ sr igh ta s c en s ionandc a l cu l a t ingth e ho t t e s tspo tf o re a cho fth em .N ow ,i tc anb eev a lu a t edhows ign ifi c an tth e"ho t t e s tspo t" o fth er e a lsky m api sinc omp a r i s on . Ah i s tog r amo fth ep -v a lu e sfo r20 ,000r andomsk i e s andth em e a su r ed"h o t t e s tspo t "i sshowninF ig .6 .15 . W i th34 ✳ 4✪ o fr andomsk i e s g en e r a t in ga"h o t t e s tspo t "equ a lo r mo r es ign ifi c an tth i si sw e l lw i th inth eexp e c t a t ion s o fab a ck g r ound on lyhypo th e s i s . 4 Numbe ro ft r ia ls 10 1σ 2σ 3σ 3 10 measu redho tspo t sc ramb ledt r ia ls 2 10 pos tt r ia lp -va lue HS =0 .344 1 10 0 10 3 4 5 6 7 pret r ia l-log -va lue ) 10 (p 8 9 10 F igu re6 .15 :D i s t r ibu t i ono fp r e t r i a lp -v a lu e sfo r20 ,000r andomsk i e s . Th i sd i s t r ibu t ion i su s edt oev a lu a t eth es ign ifi c an c eo fth em e a su r edp -v a lu eo fth er e a lsky . 3 Ha l fo fth eg r idpo in to fah ea lpy mapw i thab inw id tho f0 ✳ 4 6°/n s id e=128 . 95 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s H en c e ,th e r ei sn oind i c a t i onf o r a po in t l ik esou r c eo fn eu t r inoem i s s ion . Th ep v a lu em ap o fth es ou th e rnskyi sshownin F ig . 6 .16 . Th r e e add i t ion a l po in t so f comp a r ab l es i gn ifi c an c ea r ea l sov i s ib l ebyey e . W i thth e mo s ts ign ifi c an tpo in td e s c r ib ed w e l lbyth eb a ck g r oundon lyhypo th e s i sth i si sa l sot ru efo rth em . Add i t ion a l ly ,th r e eo f fou rpo in t sa r ec l o s et oth eh o r i z on .Inth i sr eg ion ,th es e a r ch w i thth rough -go ingev en t s andth es e a r chc omb in in g MESEandth rough -go ingev en t sp rov id eab e t t e rs en s i t iv i ty th anST eVE. 24h 0h −1 5◦ −4 5◦ E qua to r ia l ◦ −7 5 0 . 0 0 . 6 1 . 2 1 . 8 2 . 4 3 . 0 3 . 6 4 . 2 -log ret r ia lpva lu) e 10(p 4 . 8 5 . 4 6 . 0 F igu re6 .16 :F ou ry e a rskym apo fth eSou th e rnsky w i thST eVE. Th epo in tw i thth e l ow e s tb a ck g r oundp r ob ab i l i tyi sind i c a t edbyth eb l a ckbox . 6 .5 .1 .D i scu s s iono fthere su l t s Compa r i son w i tho the rI ceCubesea r che s Th i ss e a r chimp r ov e sth es en s i t iv i tyo fI c eCub efo rsou r c e so fpo in t l ik en eu t r inoem i s s ion b e low100TeVinth es ou th e rnskybyabou t50 to100 . F o rv e ryho r i zon t a lpo in t s , c lo s e rth an1 0°t oth eh o r i z on ,th ecomb in edth rough -go ingand MESEs e a r chi s mo r e s en s i t iv e .B e l ow1 0TeVST eVEp e r fo rm sw o r s eth anth e LESEs e a r ch-op t im i z edfo r th i sen e r gyr an g e . Th er e su l t so fa l lI c eCub ean a ly s e sp r e s en t edh e r e( th rough -go ing , MESE , ST eVEandLESE )a r eina g r e em en tw i thth eb a ckg round -on lyhypo th e s i s . Compa r i son w i tho the r ANTARESsea r che s Th es en s i t iv i tyo f ANTARESf o ra100TeVcu toffs c en a r ioi saf a c to rtw otofou rb e t t e r eVE.S im i l a rtoth eo th e rI c eCub es e a r ch e s ,th eANTARESd a t a th anth es en s i t iv i tyo fST 96 6 .5 .R e su l t sfo rth ea l l skys c an i sinag r e em en tw i thth eb a ck g r ound -on lyhypo th e s i s .D i r e c tcomp a r i sono fth eANTARES andth eST eVEs amp l ep r ov id e sexp l an a t iono fth ed iff e r en c eins en s i t iv i ty . Wh i l ebo th h av eacomp a r ab l eeff e c t iv ea r e aabov e3TeV,th eANTARESs e l e c t ionp rofi t sf rombo th alow e rnumb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t s–4136in1338d ay sfo rANTARES[195 ]comp a r ed to15043ev en t sin3 3 7d ay sf o rth eIC86 Is e l e c t iono r7005ev en t sin1030d ay sfo rth e IC86 I I+o fST eVEandab e t t e rm ed i anangu l a rr e so lu t iono f∼0 ✳ 4 °[195 ] . Th ed iff e r en c e ins en s i t iv i tyb e c om e sm o r es i gn ifi c an tfo ren e rg i e sb e low10TeV. H e r e ,th eeff e c t iv ea r e a o fST eVEi ssm a l l e randth em ed i anangu l a rr e so lu t ionw o r s en s( l a rg e rth an2 ° ) . Rev i s i t ingthegamma -neu t r inoconne c t ion Th eg amm a -n eu t r in om od e l sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .5 .1c anb eu s edandandr e l a t edto th ec a l cu l a t ed TS . As im i l a rapp r o a chh a sb e encho s enfo rth eE−✷ s c e n a r i o s w i t hand ν w i thou ten e r gycu t offg iv enins e c t ion6 .4 . U s ingth ep a r am e t r i z a t iong iv enin[97 ]a mod e lr e j e c t i onf a c t o r(MRF )c anb ec a l cu l a t ed . Th e MRFi sd efin eda sth eupp e rl im i t ov e rth efluxp r ed i c t i on .V a lu e ssm a l l e rth anon er e s t r i c tth e mod e l ,l a rg e ron e sdono t r e s t r i c tth em od e l .F o rs om eo fth esou r c e sd i s cu s s edinth ep ap e r(PWNV e l aXandSNR RXJ1713 . 7 3 9 4 6 )th e ANTARESc o l l abo r a t iong iv e supp e rl im i t s ,e .g .in[162 ] . Th e s e andth eupp e rl im i t sp r ov id edbyST eVEfo rbo thth e mo s tp rom i s ingSNRandPWN c and id a t e sa r esh ownandc omp a r edtoth emod e lp r ed i c t ion sinF ig .6 .17andinF ig .6 .18 . N e i th e rth e an a ly s i s byth e ANTARESco l l abo r a t ion no rth i s an a ly s i sc anr e s t r i c t th e mod e l s . G iv enth esm a l ls en s i t iv i tyo fST eVE fo rn eu t r ino sb e low10TeV and rb e lowfo rth esou r c e s th es t e epsp e c t r aand/o rcu t offinen e rgya taf ewTeV o i ts e em sv e rych a l l en g in gt or e s t r i c tth e s e mod e l sw i thST eVE ev en w i thadd i t ion a l ew y e a r s . H e r e ,a g a inth ef o cu so fth ean a ly s i sonen e rg i e sb e tw e en10TeV andaf 100TeV b e c om e sv i s ib l e . B o th PWNh av eah igh e rexp e c t edn eu t r inofluxb e tw e en 50TeVto5 00TeVy i e ld in gb e t t e rr e j e c t ion sf a c to r swh i l eth el a rg econ t r ibu t iono fn eu t r i 0G eVt o1 00 0G eVf o rth eSNRi sa lmo s tin a c c e s s ib l efo rth eST eVEan a ly s i s . no sinth e1 Th ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i ty a tth esou r c ed e c l in a t ionfo rth efou rsou r c e sd i s cu s s ed h e r ec anb eu s edt oe s t im a t et o wh i chp a r to fth ep r ed i c t edfluxth eST eVEan a ly s i s i s mo s ts en s i t iv e .F o rth i sth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i ty w a sc a l cu l a t ed w i thafin eb inn ing o ftw en tyb in sp e ren e r gyd e c ad e ,fiv et im e sa sfin ea sfo rth ed i s cu s s ionins e c t ion6 .2 . Inv e r t edand mu l t ip l i ed w i thth efluxp r ed i c t ionth i sy i e ld saun i t l e s squ an t i ty ,h e r e c a l l edd iff e r en t i a lm od e lr e j e c t i onf a c to r(DMRF ) ,s e eF ig .6 .19 . Wh i l eth e ab s o lu t ev a lu eo fth i s qu an t i tyi sa rb i t r a ry du ei t sd ep end en c e onth e w id tho fb in sf o rth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tyon ec anr ankth eb in sa c co rd ingtoi t .In sp i r ed by[196 ]th e DMRF so fth e s er ank edb in sa r eadd edupun t i lth esumi sl a rg e rth an90✪ o fth eto t a lDMRF .Th een e r gyr an g ep rov id edbyth i sm e thodc anb es e ena sane s t im a t e o fth es en s i t iv i tyr an g eo fST eVEtoac e r t a influx mod e landi sind i c a t edbyar edl in e inF ig .6 . 1 7andF i g .6 . 1 8 . Th i squ an t i tyc anh e lptov i su a l i z eth e"p e ak s en s i t iv i ty"o f 97 2 −1 E2 f luxl im i t[GeVcm s ] ν· 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s 5 10 6 STeVE( MRF =128,TS=0 ) 7 ANTARES( MRF =8. 8 ) 10 10 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 2 −1 E2 f luxl im i t[GeVcm s ] ν· f luxp red ic t ion 8 10 RXJ1713 .7 -3946 2 3 4 5 og10 (E eV ) l ν/ G 6 7 5 10 6 STeVE( MRF =144,TS=0 ) 7 f luxp red ic t ion 10 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 RXJ0852 .0 -4622 2 3 4 5 og10 (E eV ) l ν/ G 6 7 F igu re 6 .17 :Upp e rl im i t sand MRF sonn eu t r inoem i s s ionp r ed i c t edf romth eh ad ron i c p r odu c t i onm od e ld i s cu s s edin[97 ]fo rtw osup e rnov ar emn an t s . Th er e su l t s f o rANTARESa r et ak enf rom[162 ] . th ean a ly s i s . S im i l a rt oth e SNR sand PWN sd i s cu s s edabov eth eob s e rv edg amm ar ayem i s s ion f romth eG a l a c t i cC en t r ec ana l sob eu s edtop r ed i c tan eu t r inoflux[81 ] . How ev e r , s im i l a rtoo th e rg a l a c t i cc and id a t e sth eST eVEan a ly s i sc anno tconfi rmo rr e s t r i c tth e s e mod e l sw i thth eg iv ens en s i t iv i ty ,s e eF ig .6 .20 . A sexp e c t ed ,th el im i t sfo rs c en a r io s w i thah igh e rcu t offy i e ldb e t t e r MRFa sbo th mo r eandh igh e ren e rg e t i cn eu t r ino sa r e p r ed i c t ed . Howdothere su l t so fST eVEre la tetotheob se rvedd iffu seneu t r inoflux? I c eCub eh a sm e a su r edafluxo fa s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s . T oinv e s t ig a t eth er e l a t ion b e tw e enth i sfluxandth er e su l t sf romST eVEsom ea s sump t ion sabou ti t sp rop e r t i e s h av etob em ad e . F i r s t ,th eo r i g inf romap iond e c ays c en a r io . Ev e rych a rg edp ion d e c ayy i e ld stw o( an t i )mu on -n eu t r ino sandon e( an t i ) e l e c t ron -n eu t r ino .A sd i s cu s s edin s e c t ion3 . 1 . 1 ,th i sb e c om e sonav e r ag eon eo fe a chfl av o ra tE a r th .H en c e ,a m e a su r em en t o f muonn eu t r in o sc ana c c oun tf o ron eth i rdo fth eto t a la s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux . 98 2 −1 E2 f luxl im i t[GeVcm s ] ν· 6 .5 .R e su l t sfo rth ea l l skys c an 5 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 2 −1 E2 f luxl im i t[GeVcm s ] ν· STeVE( MRF =65,TS=0. 4 ) ANTARES(MRF=9. 1) f luxp red ic t ion 6 10 Ve laX 2 3 4 5 og10 (E eV ) l ν/ G 6 7 5 10 6 STeVE( MRF =60,TS=0 ) 7 f luxp red ic t ion 10 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 - 10 RXJ1825 -137 2 3 4 5 og10 (E eV ) l ν/ G 6 7 F igu re 6 .18 :Upp e rl im i t sand MRF sonn eu t r inoem i s s ionp r ed i c t edf romth eh ad ron i c p r odu c t i onm od e ld i s cu s s edin[97 ]fo rtw opu l s a rw indn ebu l a e . Th er e su l t s f o rANTARESa r et ak enf rom[162 ] . 9 a .u . 10 8 10 7 10 6 10 3 .0 f luxp red ic t ion·inve r tedsens i tv i i ty inve r tedsens i t iv i ty f luxp red ic t ion 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 l og10(E / GeV ) ν 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 F igu re 6 .19 :Ex amp l ef o rth ep r o c edu r eth a ty i e ld sth ed iff e r en t i a lmod e lr e j e c t ionf a c to r (DMRF ) .Th ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tya tsou r c epo s i t ioni sinv e r t ed(b rown l in e )and mu l t ip l i edw i thth efluxp r ed i c t ion( l igh tb lu el in e )inth ec en t e r o fth ed iff e r en t i a ls en s i t iv i tyb in ,y i e ld ingth e DMRF( r edl in e ) .F o rth i s p l o tth eth r e ecu rv e sa r es c a l edtofi tinth es am ep lo t . Th er ang eo fth e b in sy i e ld in g9 0✪ o fth eto t a lDMRFi sind i c a t edbytw od a sh edr edl in e s . 99 2 −1 E2 f luxl im i t[GeVcm s ] ν· 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 Ga lac t icCen t re 11 10 2 3 cu to f fa t1PeV MRF =304 a t10PeV MRF =178 4 5 og10 (E eV ) l ν/ G a t100PeV MRF =146 6 7 F igu re6 .20 : Upp e rl im i t sand MRF sonn eu t r inoem i s s ionp r ed i c t edf romth eh ad ron i c p r odu c t i on m od e ld i s cu s s edin[81 ]fo rth eG a l a c t i cC en t r e . Th eth r e e mod e l ssh ownh e r ea s sum eanexpon en t i a lcu toffinth ep a r en tp ro tonsp e c t rum a t1PeV(b r own ) ,1 0PeV( tu rquo i s e )o r100PeV( r ed ) . −2 −1 −1 E2 dN/dE[ GeVcm s s r ] A sa l r e ady d i s cu s s edabov e , ST eVE i s mo s ts en s i t iv eb e low100TeV. Thu s ,h e r e th ed i s cov e ry po t en t i a lf o rST eVE ina100TeV cu toffs c en a r ioi scomp a r edtoth e 00TeV. H e r e ,i ti sa s sum edth a tapo in t l ik esou r c ei sju s t av e r a g ed iffu s efluxb e l ow1 b e lowth eav e r a g ed i s c ov e rypo t en t i a lo fST eVE,s e eF ig .6 .5 . Th i spo in t l ik esou r c eflux i sth end iv id edby✹ πt ot r an s l a t ei tin toad iffu s eflux .A sc anb es e eninF ig .6 .21 ,a eVEd i s cov e ryflux w ou ldcon t r ibu t e30✪ to po t en t i a lpo in ts ou r c eju s tb e l owth eST 50✪ toth em e a su r edov e r a l ld iffu s en eu t r inoflux . Th i si sind i s ag r e em en tw i thi so t r opy eVE a l l skys c ani sinv e ry m e a su r em en t so fth ed iffu s en eu t r inoflux . S in c eth e ST goodag r e em en tw i thth eb a ck g r ound -on lyan a ly s i s ,th e r ei snoind i c a t ionfo ranys ing l e po in t l ik es ou r c e" a r oundth ec o rn e r" .A tth e mom en tth ed iff e r en t i a ld iffu s efluxi son ly p rov id edf o rth een t i r esky ,du et ol owev en tcoun t s . 5 10 Eν<100TeV : ν e+ν µ+ν τ Eν<100TeV : ν µ 6 10 ave raged isc .po t .STeVE D i f fe ren t ia lν e+ν µ+ν τ 7 10 8 10 4 10 5 10 6 Eν[GeV ] 10 7 10 F igu re6 .21 : Sh ownh e r ea r eth em e a su r edd iff e r en t i a la s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux ,t ak en −✷ f r om[ 9 2 ] ,afi to fanE sp e c t rumtoth ed a t apo in t sb e low100TeV,andth e p r ed i c t edc on t r ibu t i ono f muonn eu t r ino stoth i sflux . Th i si scomp a r edto th eav e r a g ed i s c ov e rypo t en t i a lo fST eVEt r an s fo rm edin toad iffu s ea l l sky flux . 100 6 .6 .F u tu r eapp l i c a t iono fth eST eVEev en ts amp l e −2 −1 −1 E2 dN/dE[ GeVcm s s r ] Th ec a l cu l a t ed upp e rl im i t sf o rth esou r c e sinv e s t ig a t edins e c t ion6 .4c ana l so b e r e l a t edtoth ed iffu s ea s t r ophy s i c a ln eu t r inoflux .H e r e ,th esumo fa l lupp e rl im i t so fon e sou r c ec l a s si sc omp a r edt oth ed iffu s ea s t rophy s i c a l muonn eu t r inofluxb e low100TeV. A sshowninF i g .6 . 2 2 ,on lyf o rth esm a l lsou r c ec l a s s e so fb in a r i e sandg a l a c t i cc lu s t e r s (bo thcon s i s to ffiv es ou r c e s )th esumo fa l lupp e rl im i t si so fth es am em agn i tud ea sth e m e a su r edd iffu s eflux .Inc omb in a t ion w i thth eob s e rv edi so t ropyo fth ed iffu s efluxi t c anb ea r gu edth a tth e s esp e c ifi cfiv esou r c e sc anno ta c coun tfo rth eob s e rv edd iffu s eflux . 5 10 Eν<100TeV : ν µ suma l l UL sumb ina r ies UL sumPWN UL 6 10 sumSNR UL sumun iden t i f ied UL sumc lus te r UL D i f fe ren t ia lν e+ν µ+ν τ 7 10 8 10 4 10 5 10 6 Eν[GeV ] 10 7 10 F igu re6 .22 :L ik einF i g .6 . 2 1th ed iff e r en t i a ld iffu s efluxandth ep r ed i c t edcon t r ibu t ion o f mu onn eu t r in o st oafi t t edE−✷sp e c t rumb e low100TeVa r eshown .A l so eVE sh owna r eth esumo fa l lupp e rl im i t sfo rc e r t a insou r c ec l a s s e so fth eST an a ly s i s . I tshou ldb en o t edth a tth em e thodo fsumm ingupind iv idu a lupp e rl im i t si sin f e r io rtoad ed i c a t eds t a ck in gan a ly s i sc a l cu l a t ingth econ t r ibu t iontoth ed iffu s efluxa s u s edin[1 4 9 ,1 8 2 ,1 9 7 ] . 6 .6 . Fu tu reapp l ica t iono ftheST eVEeven tsamp le Th ean a ly s i sp r e s en t edh e r ef o cu s edonpo t en t i a ln eu t r inoem i s s ionf rombo thknown ( sou r c el i s t )and unkn own( a l l skys c an )s t e ady po in t l ik esou r c e s . Th r e e po s s ib l e ex t en s ion st oth i ss ou r c ehypo th e s i sd e s e rv efu r th e rinv e s t ig a t ion . F i r s t ,th eev en ts e l e c t i onc an b eu s edtos e a r chfo rt im e -d ep end en tem i s s ion . A s b r i efly d i s cu s s edins e c t i on2 . 3 , m anysou r c e sh av e ph a s e so fh ighg amm aem i s s ion . T im e -d ep end en ts e a r ch e s[ 1 9 8 – 2 0 0 ]t ak eadv an t ag eo fth i stor edu c eth e numb e ro f b a ckg roundev en t s . S e cond ,ex t end edr e g i on so fn eu t r inoem i s s ionl ik eth eg a l a c t i cp l an eo rth eF e rm i bubb l e s ,l a r g esph e r i c a ls t ru c tu r e sw i thar ad iu so fth eo rd e r50°abov eandb e lowth e c en t e ro fou rG a l axy[ 5 8 ]c anb einv e s t ig a t ed . Th es i z eo fth e s er eg ion sin c r e a s e sth e 101 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s numb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t s .P oo rangu l a rr e so lu t ioncomp a r edtoo th e rs e a r ch e sf rom ANTARESo rI c eCub em i gh tl e adtor e l a t iv esm a l l e rlo s s e sins en s i t iv i ty- m ak ingth e ST eVEs amp l ein t e r e s t in gf o rex t end edsou r c er eg ion s . Th i rd ,u s in gth eev en ts e l e c t i onf o ras t a ck ingan a ly s i sc an h e lpto findo rr e s t r i c t con t r ibu t i ono fen t i r esou r c ec l a s s e stoth ed iffu s en eu t r inoflux .Sup e rnov ar emn an t sa r e ang eandth eev id en c efo r anobv iou sc and id a t edu et oob s e rv edg amm ar ay sinth eTeVr h ad ron i cp r o c e s s e sw i th inth em ,a sd i s cu s s edins e c t ion2 .4 . On ed i s adv an t a g ec omp a r edt oth e ANTARESan a ly s i si sth ew o r s eangu l a rr e so lu t ion . Th i sh a s( a tl e a s t )th r e er e a son s . F i r s t ,th eop t i c a lp rop e r t i e so fs e aw a t e r andth ed e epg l a c i a li c ea tth eS ou th P o l ea r ed iff e r en t . Wh i l eth ei c eh a salong e r ab so rp t ionl en g th ,i t ss c a t t e r in gl eng thi ssho r t e r . H en c e , mo r ed i r e c t ion a lin fo rm a t ion i slo s tini c e .S e c ond ,th e r ei sad e c r e a s edl ev e ra rmo fas t a r t ingt r a ckcomp a r edtoa th rough -g o in gt r a ck . Th i sc ann o tb ech ang edi fs t a r t ingt r a ck sa r eu s eda ss ep a r a t ion b e tw e ena tm o sph e r i c mu on sanda s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino s . Th el a s t po in ti sth ep e r f o rm an c eo fth ea lgo r i thm . Th e hypo th e s i su s ed a tth e mom en ti sath r ou gh g o in g mu ont r a ck w i thou ts to ch a s t i cen e rgylo s s e s . Th i sdo e sno t r ep r e s en tth et ru thr e a l i s t i c a l ly . On eo th e ra lgo r i thmth a tm igh tb esu i t edtoimp rov e th eangu l a rr e c on s t ru c t i oni sth etopo logyen e rgyr e con s t ru c t iond e s c r ib edins e c t ion 5 .2 .5 . Th er e su l t so fth een e r gyl o s sfi tc anb eu s edtoc a l cu l a t eal ik e l ihood . Th i s l ik e l ihoodc anth enb eu s eda sp a r am e t e rfo ra m in im i z e rtofindth eb e s tfi t t ingp a r t i c l e t r a ck . Th i sa l g o r i thmp r ov id e sab e t t e rm ed i anangu l a rr e so lu t ionth anth e MPELLH a lgo r i thmu s in gsp l in e s( abou t0 ✳ 4 °b e low10TeVandabou t0 ✳ 1 °abov e1PeV) ,s e eF ig . 6 .23 . Ad i s adv an t a g ei sth a ti ti sc ompu t a t ion a l lyexp en s iv e . Th i sw ou ldb e com e mo r e p rob l em a t i c ,i fadd i t i on a lfi t st oe s t im a t ei t se r ro ra r en e ed ed . Non e th e l e s s ,inc a s eo f av e rylowb a ck g r oundp r ob ab i l i tyfo rasou r c ei tm igh tb eo fw o r thtoinv e s tth e s e compu t a t i on a lr e sou r c e s . 3 .0 MPELLHreco .(sp l ine ) Ψ [° ] 2 .5 ene rgy &topo logyreco . 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 3 .0 3 .5 4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 l og10 (E / GeV) ν 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 F igu re6 .23 :M ed i anan gu l a rr e c on s t ru c t ionfo rth e MPELLHa lgo r i thmu s ingsp l in e s th a ti su s edf o rth eST eVEan a ly s i sandfo rth een e r gyandtopo logyr e c on s t ru c t i ond i s cu s s edins e c t ion5 .2 .5u s eda sangu l a rr e con s t ru c t ion . 102 6 .6 .F u tu r eapp l i c a t iono fth eST eVEev en ts amp l e 6 .6 .1 . Pa thtoacomb inedsou the rnskyIceCubesamp le F ou rg en e r a lpu rpo s eev en ts e l e c t i on sinth esou th e rnskyex i s tfo rI c eCub einth e86s t r ing configu r a t i on .A l lo fth emp r ov id ep e aks en s i t iv i tya td iff e r en ten e rgyr ang e sa sd i s cu s s ed ins e c t ion6 . 2andv i s ib l einF i g .6 .6 .F o rth e MESEandth rough -go ingev en ts e l e c t ion ajo in ts amp l ew a sc r e a t edbyex c lud ingev e ryev en tp a s s ingth e MESEev en ts e l e c t ion f romth eth r ou gh g o in gs amp l ef o rbo ths ign a landd a t a .S in c eth eth rough -go ingev en t s amp l er e l i e sonen e r gyt od i s c r im in a t eb a ckg roundands ign a l ,th eav e r ag e MESEs ign a l ev en th a son lyal owc on t r ibu t i ont oth es en s i t iv i tyinth eth rough -go ings amp l e . On et r iv i a lw ayt oadd ST eVE t oth i scomb in edev en ts e l e c t ioni sth eex c lu s iono f ev en t sw i th m o r eth an1 50 0PEo fd epo s i t edch a rg einth ed e t e c to r . Du etoth ech a rg e th r e sho ldo f MESEa tth i sv a lu eth es amp l e sw ou ldb ed i s jun c t . F o rth em e rg ingo f eVE an a ly s e s ,i th a sto b einv e s t ig a t ed how d i s jo in t th eth rou gh g o in gandth eST th etw os amp l e sa r e .I fth es ep a r a t iono f MESEandST eVE s e a r chi sa ch i ev edby eVE s amp l ew i l lb e ach a rg ecu t ,th eov e r l apb e tw e enth eth rough -go ingandth eST exp e c t edt ob esm a l lf o ra l lbu th o r i zon t a lev en t sdu etoth een e rgy -d ep end en ts e l e c t ion o fth eth r ou gh g o in gs amp l e[ 1 4 9 ] . A tth e ho r i zonth eb a ckg roundo fa tmo sph e r i c muon si sv e rysm a l l ,m ak in gth eth rough -go ings amp l ev i ab l eev enfo rlow e ren e rg i e s . H e r e ,th ech a r g ecu ta l on em i gh tno tb easuffi c i en ts ep a r a to ra si tw ou lda l sor e j e c t th rough -g o in gt r a ck sw i thd epo s i t eden e rgyinth eTeVr ang e . D i s c a rd inga l lev en t s th a tp a s sth eFSSfi l t e rf r omth eth r ough -go ingt r a cks e a r chc anb eanadd i t ion a lc r i t e r ion . Comb in in g LESEand ST eVE c an b ea ch i ev ed byex c lud ingev en t sf romth e LESE eVE. Th ep ropo s edd e c i s iont r e eonhow ev en ts amp l eth a tp a s sth eL ev e l3cu t so fST tos ep a r a t eth eev en ts amp l e sc anb efoundinF ig .6 .24 . Th i ss ch em eh a sth eadv an t ag e th a ti ti ss imp l eandr e l i e sonv a r i ab l e sa l r e adyav a i l ab l eonL ev e l2– m ak ingi tinth eo ry a l sov i ab l ef o rf a s ts e a r ch e sl ik eanop t i c a lfo l low -upp rog r am . Ad i s adv an t ag ei sth a ti t i sv e ryl ik e lyt on o ts ep a r a t eop t im a l lyint e rm so fov e r a l ls en s i t iv i ty . 103 6 .P o in t l ik es ou r c ean a ly s i sandr e su l t s F igu re6 .24 : Sk e t cho fth ep r opo s eds ch em eto m e rg eth efou rI c eCub epo in t l ik esou r c e s e a r chev en ts amp l e s . 104 7 . Conc lu s ion sand Ou t look 7 .1 . Summa ryandimp l ica t ion s Th ean a ly s i sp r e s en t ed h e r e , ST eVE,a im eda td e t e c t ing n eu t r inoem i s s ionf r oma po in t l ik es ou r c einth es ou th e rnsky . Th i sr eg iono fth eskyho s t sth eG a l a c t i cC en t e r and m anyo th e rg a l a c t i cs ou r c e so fTeVg amm ar ayem i s s ionwh i ch m igh tb econn e c t edto a s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in o sanda r ec and id a t es i t e sfo rco sm i cr aya c c e l e r a t ion . Th ed e t e c t ion o fn eu t r in o sf r omth e s es i t e sw ou ldb ea" smok inggun"fo rh ad ron i ca c c e l e r a t ion . Wh i l e th ea s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in ofluxh a sb e en m e a su r edbyth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r ,th e r eh a sno t b e enanyind i c a t i ono fano r i g inf r omon eo r mo r epo in t l ik esou r c e s .H en c e ,th esou r c e s o fa s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in o sa r es t i l lunknown . F o rth i ss e a r ch ,d a t at ak en byth eI c eCub en eu t r inot e l e s cop eb e tw e en M ay 2011 and M ay2 0 1 5h a sb e en u s ed . Th em a inch a l l eng eo fth i sw o rki ssupp r e s s ingth e b a ckg roundo fa tm o sph e r i c mu on s , wh i chou tm a t ch e sth es e condl a rg e s tb a ckg round ✻a ndamoun t stoa lmo s ta100b i l l ion o fa tmo sph e r i cn eu t r in o sbyabou taf a c to r✶✵ ev en t st r i g g e r edandr e c on s t ru c t ed w i thf a s ta lgo r i thm sbyth ed e t e c to re a chy e a r . Th e r e con s t ru c t i on sd iff e r en tb e tw e enth ed a t at ak enb e tw e en M ay2011and M ay2012and th ed a t at ak enb e tw e en M ay2 0 1 2and M ay2015 . Thu s ,tw od iff e r en tev en ts e l e c t ion s w e r eu s edinth i san a ly s i s . Th es t r a t e gyt osupp r e s sb a ck g r oundfo l low edinth i ss tudyi sth es e l e c t iono fev en t sw i th as t a r t ingt r a ckt opo lo gy . Th e s eev en t so c cu rwh ena muonn eu t r inoin t e r a c t sw i th inth e d e t e c to rv o lum eandat r a cki sd e t e c t edth a ts t a r t sin s id eth ed e t e c to r . Afi l t e rd ev e lop ed tos e a r chf o rs t a r t in gt r a ck si su s edtop r e s e l e c tth e s eev en t s .Incomb in a t ion w i thth i s fi l t e rth een e r gyo fth eev en ti su s edtod i s c r im in a t elowen e rg e t i ca tmo sph e r i c muon s f romn eu t r in o sw i th en e r g i e sb e tw e en10TeVto100TeV. Th e s etw os e l e c t ions t ep sr edu c e th enumb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t sbyabou taf a c to r100wh i l ek e ep ing mo r eth an50✪ o f a l ls t a r t in g mu onn eu t r in oev en t sw i thEν >10TeV. Th er em a in in gev en t sa r eth enr e con s t ru c t ed w i thb e t t e r , bu tcompu t a t ion a l ly mo r e exp en s iv ea l g o r i thm s . V a r i ab l e sc a l cu l a t edonth eb a s i so fth e s er e con s t ru c t ion sa r e th enu s edt ot r a inaboo s t edd e c i s iont r e e sa lgo r i thmtofu r th e rr edu c eth enumb e ro f b a ckg roundev en t s . Th i sfin a ls e l e c t ionl e ad stoanumb e ro f15043ev en t sfo rth efi r s t y e a ro fd a t au s edh e r eand7 0 0 5ev en t sfo rth esumo fth eth r e efo l low ingy e a r s .A lmo s t a l lo fth e s eev en t sa r eexp e c t edt ob ea tmo sph e r i c muon s– w i thex c ep t iono faf ew hund r eda tm o sph e r i c mu on sandabou t37exp e c t eda s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino sf romth e 105 7 . Con c lu s i on sand Ou t l ook d iffu s eflux . Th em ed i anan gu l a rr e so lu t ioni sabou t2 °a t10TeVandth eeff e c t iv ea r e a fo r muonn eu t r in o si sc omp a r ab l ew i thth a to fth e ANTARESd e t e c to r ,lo c a t edinth e M ed i t e r r an e anS e a ,abov eaf ew TeV. Th es e a r chf o rpo in t l ik eem i s s i oni sp e r fo rm edu s inganunb inn edl ik e l ihood m e thod . No ind i c a t ionf o rapo in t l ik es ou r c eh a sb e enf oundinbo thas c ano fth eskyandal i s to f sou r c ec and id a t e s . Wh i l eth i ss e a r chimp rov edth es en s i t iv i tyfo rI c eCub einth esou th e rn 00TeV,th e ANTARESd e t e c to rp rov id e sb e t t e rs en s i t iv i tyfo r skyfo ren e r g i e sb e l ow1 equ a ll iv e t im e . Th i si sn o tun exp e c t eda s ANTARESb en efi t sf romab e t t e rangu l a r r e so lu t ionandc anu s eth eE a r tha ssh i e ldag a in s ta tmo sph e r i c muon s .B e ingdom in a t ed bya tmo sph e r i cn eu t r in o sth i sy i e ld sanumb e ro fb a ckg roundev en t srough lyh a l fth eon e o fth eIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t i on . Th e find in g so fth i ss e a r ch w e r eu s edtor e l a t eth em bo thtoth ed e t e c t ed d iffu s e a s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r in ofluxandt oa mod e lconn e c t ingd e t e c t edg amm ar aysp e c t r ato n eu t r inoem i s s i on .I fth i ss e a r chh add e t e c t edasou r c eo fpo in t l ik en eu t r inoem i s s ion ,i t w ou ldh av es i gn ifi c an t lyc on t r ibu t edtoth ed e t e c t eda s t rophy s i c a lflux( abou t50% ) . Th e p r ed i c t edn eu t r in ofluxf r oma m od e lconn e c t ingg amm ar ay sandn eu t r ino si sing en e r a l toolowt ob ec on s t r a in edbyth i san a ly s i s . 7 .2 . Ou t look Th ecu r r en tg en e r a t i ono fn eu t r in ot e l e s cop e si sapp ro a ch ingal im i tint e rm so fs en s i t iv i ty fo rpo in t l ik es ou r c e s . Add i t i on a ly e a r so fd a t aw i l lon lys low lyimp rov eth es en s i t iv i ty . Imp rov em en t sind a t as e l e c t i onandr e con s t ru c t ionc anh app en ,bu tth el ev e lo fimp rov e m en ti sh a rdt op r ed i c t . Thefu tu refo rST eVE Add i t i on a ly e a r so fd a t aw i l limp rov eth es en s i t iv i ty ,a sshown inF ig .7 . 1 .I ts e em st ob ev e rych a l l eng ingtoev enr e a chth ecu r r en ts en s i t iv i tyo fth e ANTARESs e a r ch . H ow ev e r ,f o rev e ryy e a ro fd a t at ak ingth e ST eVEs e a r ch w i l ladd mo r ed ay sdu et oth eb e t t e rupt im e . 106 −2 −1 E2 dN/dE[TeVcm s ] 7 .2 . Ou t look ca lcu la tedsens i t iv i ty sens i t iv i ty∼ 1 ANTARESsens i t iv i ty ∼ 1 t t −2 E 100TeVha rdcu to f f 10 10 11 10 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 l ive t ime[days ] 6000 7000 8000 F igu re7 .1 : Th eg a inins en s i t iv i tybyadd ingadd i t ion a ld ay so ry e a r stoth ecu r r en t l iv e t im eo fth eST eVEand ANTARESan a ly s e s .F o rST eVEbo thth eex p e c t eds en s i t iv i tybys imu l a t ingadd i t ion a ll iv e t im eandbya s sum ingag a in ✶ √ p r opo r t i on a lt o ta r eshown .F o r ANTARES[159 ]on lyth eg a inp ropo r - ssh owna si tdo e sno tr equ i r ea c c e s stoth eund e r ly ingd a t a . t i on a lt o√✶t i −✷ Th es en s i t iv i tyi sc a l cu l a t eda t −60 °fo ranE sp e c t rum w i thacu toffa t 1 00TeV. Anewgene ra t iono fde te c to r sw i l len te rthefie ld Ev en tu a l ly ,an ewg en e r a t iono f n eu t r inot e l e s c op e si sr equ i r edf o rfu r th e rimp rov em en tint e rm so fs en s i t iv i ty . A tth e mom en tth r e ep r o j e c t sa r ee i th e rinp l ann ingo rcon s t ru c t ions t ag e wh i cha r eexp e c t ed toimp rov es en s i t iv i tyf o rbo thth ed e t e c t edd iffu s ea s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r inofluxandth e s e a r chfo rpo in t l ik esou r c e s . Tw oo fth em , KM3N eTinth eM ed i t e r r an e anS e a ,and GVDinl ak eB a ik a la r et ob eop e r a t edinth eNo r th e rnh em i sph e r e .H en c e ,th eyc anu s e th eE a r tha ssh i e lda g a in s ta tm o sph e r i c muon sfo rob j e c t sinth esou th e rnh em i sph e r e . Th i sh a sth el a r g eb en efi tth a tan a ly s e sa r eno tl im i t edtou s eon lys t a r t ingo rv e ryh igh en e rg e t i cn eu t r in oev en t sinas e a r chfo rpo in t l ik esou r c e s . Th es t r en g tho fth i seff e c ti sa l r e adyv i s ib l e wh encomp a r ingth es en s i t iv i tyo fth e ANTARESd e t e c t o randth eI c eCub es e a r ch e sfo rn eu t r inoen e rg i e sb e low 100TeV. Th e ANTARESd e t e c t o ri sabou taf a c t o r100sm a l l e rth anI c eCub eands t i l lou tp e r fo rm si t byaf a c to ro ffiv e . An o th e rpo t en t i a ladv an t ag ei sth eu s eo fc a s c ad e l ik es ign a tu r e sfo r po in t l ik es ou r c e s . Wh i l eth er e s o lu t ioni spoo rinI c eCub e ,th e r ea r eind i c a t ion sth a ta 2 °r e so lu t i on m i gh tb ef e a s ib l einw a t e r[137 ]du etoi t sb e t t e rsu i t edop t i c a lp rop e r t i e s . Inth e i rL e t t e ro fIn t en t[ 1 3 7 ]th e KM3N eTco l l abo r a t ion p r e s en t sth ep ro sp e c t sto d e t e c tSNR RXJ 1 7 1 3and PWN V e l a Xu s ingcomp a r ab l e mod e l sa sd i s cu s s edinth i s th e s i sins e c t i on2 . 5 . 1ands e c t i on6 .5 .1 . F o rth e s e mod e l s ,th eyexp e c tar equ i r ed ob s e rv a t iont im et od e t e c tan eu t r inofluxo fs ev eny e a r sfo rth ePWNandtw e lv ey e a r s fo rth eSNRa tth e5 σl ev e l. Inth esou th e rnh em i sph e r eanex t en s ion/su c c e s so ro fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to ri sp l ann ed 107 7 . Con c lu s i on sand Ou t l ook [201 ] .P a r to fth e s ep l an sa r eth eadd i t iono fs t r ing sa roundth eI c eCub ed e t e c to r ,bu t w i thin c r e a s edsp a c in g ,andal a r g e rsu r f a c ea r r aytod e t e c tandv e toco sm i cr ayshow e r s . Th ein c r e a s ed v o lum eo fth ed e t e c to rw i l lin c r e a s eth ev o lum eu s ab l efo ras e a r ch fo rs t a r t in gev en t s . H ow ev e r ,s t a r t ingev en t sa r eon lyau s e fu lev en ttopo logyi fth e numb e ro fb a ck g r oundev en t sc anb er edu c edtoaf ewthou s ando rl e s s . Th ein c r e a s ed sp a c ingb e tw e enth en ews t r in g sm igh tm ak ei te a s i e rfo ra tmo sph e r i c muon stop a s sth e v e tor eg ion w i th ou td epo s i t in gch a r g einon eo fth e OM s .F o rg a l a c t i cTeVsou r c e sth e v e to ingo fa tm o sph e r i c mu on sc ou ldb e com eev en mo r ech a l l eng ingth ani ti snow . Th een l a r g edsu r f a c ea r r ayc ou ldb eu s edtov e to muon sinI c eCub eth a ta r ea c comp an i ed byad e t e c t edco sm i cr aysh ow e r .I fth ev e toeffi c i en cyi sv e ryh igh( app ro a ch ing100✪) anydown g o in gev en td e t e c t ed w i l la lmo s tc e r t a in lyb eana s t rophy s i c a ln eu t r ino .F o r g a l a c t i cTeVs ou r c e sasu r f a c ev e t oi scon f ron t edw i thtw od iffi cu l t i e s .F i r s t ,th eG a l a c t i c C en t r eand m anys ou r c e sa l on gth eG a l a c t i cP l an ea r ea round−30 °d e c l in a t iono rb e low . H en c e ,asu r f a c ev e t oc ap ab l et od e t e c tco sm i cr ay sf romth i sd i r e c t ionh a stoex t end s ev e r a lk i l om e t r e sov e rth ef oo tp r in to fI c eCub eandi t sex t en s ion .S e cond ,th ed e t e c t ion effi c i en cyh a st ob ev e ryh i gh .In m o s td e s igns tud i e sfo rth esu r f a c ea r r ayi ton lya ch i ev e s h ighs ign a l pu r i tyabov e1 00TeV n eu t r inoen e rgy wh i l e TeV n eu t r ino sf rom(mo s t ) g a l a c t i csou r c e sa r eexp e c t ed . Wh i l eanex t en s i ono fth eI c eCub ed e t e c to rw ou ldg iv eh igh e rs t a t i s t i c sfo rn eu t r i no sw i then e r g i e sabov e1 00TeV,i ts e em sv e rych a l l eng ingtofindad e s ignth a tc an r c e sw i thou tb e ing p roh ib i t o ry p rov id es i gn ifi c an timp r ov em en tf o rsou th e rn TeV sou exp en s iv e . Th ed i s cov e ryo fag a l a c t i c po in t l ik esou r c eo f TeV n eu t r inoem i s s ioni sinr e a ch , bu tm igh tt ak ean o th e rd e c ad e . 108 8 .A cknow ledgemen t s Th i sth e s i si sth ecu lm in a t i ono faon ed e c ad e longjou rn eyth roughth eam a z ing w o r ld o fphy s i c s .F o l l ow in gth i sp a thl e adtoin t e r a c t ionw i th m anyp eop l eIow e myg r a t i tud e . F i r s tI w ou ldl ik et oth ink myadv i s e r ,p ro f e s so rA l ex and e rK app e s ,fo rg iv ing m e th eoppo r tun i tyt od oth er e s e a r chl e ad ingtoth i sth e s i s .H i sadv i c eandgu id an c ea sw e l l a sh i ssuppo r tw e r ea lw ay sw e l c om e . A l soIamg r a t e fu lf o rev e ry on ewh oag r e edtob ep a r to f mycomm i t t e e . Iw ou ldl ik et oth ankth een t i r ea s t rop a r t i c l ecommun i tyin Z eu th enande sp e c i a l ly th eI c eCub eg r oupf o rth ec oun t l e s ss c i en t ifi candso c i a la c t iv i t i e sth eyoff e r edto m e . B igth ank st oD r . R o l f Büh l e r ,D r . Ju an -P ab lo Y an e z ,D r . Tho r s t en G lü s enk amp and M i s t e r An g e lC ru zf o rp r oo f r e ad ing myth e s i sandth e i rsugg e s t ion s .T oEm anu e l J a cob iandH an s -P e t e rB r e t z :I tm i gh tno th av eb e enth e mo s tp rodu c t iv eid e atopu tu s inanoffi c e -bu tIth inki tw a sth eb e s t .T oa l l myf r i end s :Y oua r esup e r io r ! T o my p a r en t s wh oh av esuppo r t ed m e bo th fin an c i a l ly and o th e rw i s eth ank y ou fo rsp end in gov e r4 000 0Eu ro son m el e a rn ingabou t"p a r t i c l es tuff" ! . Myl a s tand b i g g e s tth ank sg o e sto S ab r in a . H e rend l e s ssuppo r t , op t im i smand mo t iv a t ion m ad eth i spo s s ib l e . 109 B ib l iog raphy [1 ] M .S .L on g a i r .H i ghen e r gya s t r ophy s i c s,v o lum e1 .C amb r idg eUn iv e r s i tyP r e s s , 2 .ed i t i on ,1 9 9 2 .ISBN05 2 1383746 . [2 ]T .K .G a i s s e r ,T .S t an ev , and S .T i l av . 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Ov e r t r a in in gp l o t sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t ion 1 . 0 sepa ra t ion leng th d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss 0 . 8 s ta r tene rg y sp l inend i rdom s 0 . 6 sp l ined i rt ra c kleng th sp l ineco szen i th 0 . 4 p re leng th p reene rg y 0 . 2 l fspeed leng thtos ta r tcon t 0 . 0 leng thto lea ve leng th −0 . 2 h l cd i s ha l f leng th −0 . 4 ene rg yinde te c to r cogz −0 . 6 cogy cogx −0 . 8 sepa ra t ion leng th s ta r tene rg y d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne s s sp l inend i rdom s sp l ined i rt ra c k leng th p re leng th sp l ineco szen i th l fspeed p reene rg y leng thtos ta r tcon t leng th h l cd i s ha l f leng th cogz ene rg y inde te c to r cogy cogx ang led i f f a vgdomd i s tqto tdom ang led i f f leng thto lea ve a vgdomd i s tqto tdom −1 . 0 F igu re A .2 : BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t ion M a t r ix(S ign a l )fo rth eIC86 Is e l e c t ion . 130 1 . 0 sepa ra t ion leng th d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne ss 0 . 8 s ta r tene rg y sp l inend i rdom s 0 . 6 sp l ined i rt ra c kleng th sp l ineco szen i th 0 . 4 p re leng th p reene rg y 0 . 2 l fspeed leng thtos ta r tcon t 0 . 0 leng thto lea ve leng th −0 . 2 h l cd i s ha l f leng th −0 . 4 ene rg yinde te c to r cogz −0 . 6 cogy cogx −0 . 8 sepa ra t ion leng th s ta r tene rg y d i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thne s s sp l inend i rdom s sp l ined i rt ra c k leng th p re leng th sp l ineco szen i th l fspeed p reene rg y leng thtos ta r tcon t leng th h l cd i s ha l f leng th cogz ene rg y inde te c to r cogy cogx ang led i f f a vgdomd i s tqto tdom ang led i f f leng thto lea ve a vgdomd i s tqto tdom −1 . 0 F igu re A .3 : BDTv a r i ab l e sc o r r e l a t ion M a t r ix(B a ckg round )fo rth eIC86 Is e l e c t ion . . 131 B . BDTva r iab le sfo rIC86 Ise lec t ion 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 sp l ined i rt rackleng th 1500 2000 F igu re B .1 : sp l in ed i rt r a ckl eng th 3 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 2 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 da ta/ MC 10 0 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 ang led i f f 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 F igu re B .2 : ang l ed iff 133 B . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t i on da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 4 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 r log l 14 16 18 20 F igu re B .3 :r log l 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 ene rgyinde tec to r 4 5 6 F igu re B .4 : en e rgyind e t e c to r 134 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 1000 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1000 500 0 500 1000 500 0 leng thtos ta r tcon t 500 1000 F igu re B .5 :l eng thtos t a r tcon t 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 20 40 20 40 sp l inend i rdoms 60 80 100 60 80 100 F igu re B .6 : sp l in end i rdom s 135 B . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t i on 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 4 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 2 0 2 0 p reene rgy 2 4 6 2 4 6 F igu re B .7 :p r een e rgy 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 cogz 200 400 600 F igu re B .8 : cogz 136 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 cogy 200 400 600 F igu re B .9 : cogy 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 0 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 200 400 200 400 ha l fleng th 600 800 1000 600 800 1000 F igu re B .10 :h a l fl eng th 137 B . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t i on 2 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 10 -7 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 200 400 600 800 h lcd is 1000 1200 1400 F igu re B .11 :h l cd i s 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 2000 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 t rackh i tssepa ra t ionleng th 1000 1500 2000 F igu re B .12 :t r a ckh i t ss ep a r a t ionl eng th 138 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 p releng th 1500 2000 F igu re B .13 :p r el eng th 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 t rackh i tsd is t r ibu t ionsmoo thness 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re B .14 :t r a ckh i t sd i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thn e s s 139 B . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t i on 2 10 1 10 Ra te[1 /s ] −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 da ta/ MC 10 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 s ta r tene rgy 2 4 F igu re B .15 :s t a r ten e rgy 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 leng th 1500 2000 F igu re B .16 :l eng th 140 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 2 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 sp l inecoszen i th 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re B .17 : sp l in eco sz en i th 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 0 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .2 0 .4 l fspeed 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 F igu re B .18 :l fsp e ed 141 B . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 Is e l e c t i on 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 0 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 leng thtoleave 1500 2000 F igu re B .19 :l eng thtol e av e 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 cogx 200 400 600 F igu re B .20 : cogx 142 2 10 da ta6 .781 /s a tmo .µ 6 .211 /s 1 10 0 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 50 100 150 200 50 100 avgdomd is tqto tdom 150 200 F igu re B .21 : avgdomd i s tqto tdom 143 C . BDTva r iab le sfo rIC86 I I+se lec t ion 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 d i rec tl igh tt rackleng th[m ] 1500 2000 F igu re C .1 : sp l in ed i rt r a ckl eng th 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 da ta/ MC 10 0 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 1 .5 ang led i f f[s r ] 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 F igu re C .2 : ang l ed iff 145 C . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ion 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 4 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 r log l 14 16 18 20 F igu re C .3 :r log l 2 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 10 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 4 log 10(ene rgyinde tec to r/ GeV) 5 6 F igu re C .4 : en e rgyind e t e c to r 146 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 1500 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 1000 500 0 leng thtos ta r t(con t . )[m ] 500 1000 1500 F igu re C .5 :l eng thtos t a r tcon t 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 20 40 20 40 #d i rec tdoms 60 80 100 60 80 100 F igu re C .6 : sp l in end i rdom s 147 C . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ion 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 4 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 2 0 2 2 0 2 log 10(p reene rgy / GeV) 4 6 4 6 F igu re C .7 :p r een e rgy 2 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 COGZ[m ] 200 400 600 F igu re C .8 : cogz 148 2 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 COGY[m ] 200 400 600 F igu re C .9 : cogy 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 200 400 200 400 ha l fleng th[m ] 600 800 1000 600 800 1000 F igu re C .10 :h a l fl eng th 149 C . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ion −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 10 ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800 maxLCd is tance[m ] 1000 1200 1400 1000 1200 1400 F igu re C .11 :h l cd i s 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 2000 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 sepa ra t ionleng th[m ] 1000 1500 2000 F igu re C .12 :t r a ckh i t ss ep a r a t ionl eng th 150 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 p releng th[m ] 1500 2000 F igu re C .13 :p r el eng th 2 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 10 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 smoo thness[m ] 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re C .14 :t r a ckh i t sd i s t r ibu t ionsmoo thn e s s 151 C . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ion −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 da ta/ MC 10 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 log 10(s ta r tene rgy / GeV) 2 4 F igu re C .15 :s t a r ten e rgy 2 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 leng th[m ] 1500 2000 F igu re C .16 :l eng th 152 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 da ta/ MC 10 1 .0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 sp l inecoszen i th 0 .5 1 .0 F igu re C .17 : sp l in eco sz en i th 3 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 2 10 1 Ra te[1 /s ] 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 1500 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 1000 500 0 leng thtoleave[m ] 500 1000 1500 F igu re C .18 :l eng thtol e av e 153 C . BDTv a r i ab l e sf o rIC 8 6 I I+s e l e c t ion 2 10 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 da ta/ MC 10 600 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 400 200 0 COGX[m ] 200 400 600 F igu re C .19 : cogx 2 da ta19 .011 /s a tmo .µ 17 .11 /s 10 1 10 −2 As t roν (a .u . ) µ E ν ra in ingse lec t ion(a .u . ) µ t Ra te[1 /s ] 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 da ta/ MC 10 0 2 .0 1 .5 1 .0 0 .5 0 .0 0 50 100 150 200 50 100 ave raged is t .Q to t DOM[m ] 150 200 F igu re C .20 : avgdomd i s tqto tdom 154 „ I che rk l ä r e ,d a s si chd i eD i s s e r t a t ions e lb s t änd igundnu run t e rV e rw endungd e rv on m i rg em äߧ7Ab s .3d e rP r om o t i on so rdnungd e rM a th em a t i s ch -N a tu rw i s s en s ch a f t l i ch en F aku l t ä t ,v e r öff en t l i ch timAm t l i ch en M i t t e i lung sb l a t td e rHumbo ld t -Un iv e r s i t ä tzuB e r l in N r .126/2 0 1 4am1 8 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 4an g e g eb en enH i l f sm i t t e lang e f e r t ig th ab e . “ 155
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